Lecturer: Sir Gil Ganelo
Owner: Ellyzsha Jamin G. Penialber
9-Mendeleev
School Year: 2022-2023
PAINTS
PAINT
● Paint is any liquid, liquefiable, or mastic
composition that, after application to a substrate
in a thin layer, converts to a solid film. It is most
commonly used to protect, color, or provide
texture to objects.
COMPOSITION OF PAINTS
● Pigments - provide color and hiding; some are
used to impact bulk at relatively low cost.
● Binder - “ binds “ the pigments together and
provides film integrity and adhesion.
● Liquid ( carrier ) - provides desired consistency
and makes it possible to apply the pigment and
binder to the surface being painted.
● Additives - low-level ingredients that provide
specific paint properties such as mildew,
resistance, defoaming good flow and leveling.
PIGMENTS
● Pigments are finely ground particles or powders
that are dispersed in paints.
● Pigments may protect the substrate from UV
light.
● Pigments change the paint appearance ( gloss
level ) and properties: increase hardness and
decrease ductility.
● Pigments may be natural, synthetic, inorganic or
organic.
- organic: these include brighter colors, some of
which are not highly durable in exterior use
( ex: phthalocyanine blue and Hansa yellow )
- inorganic: not as bright as organic colors, most
durable exterior pigments ( ex: red iron oxide,
brown oxide, ochers and umbers )
BINDER
● main ingredient of paint
● Binders are polymers (resins) forming a
continuous film on the substrate surface.
● Binders are responsible for good adhesion of the
coating to the substrate. The binder holds the
pigment particles distributed throughout the
coating. The binder is dispersed in a carrier
(water or organic solvent either in molecular
form (true solutions) or as colloidal dispersions
(emulsions or sols).
LIQUID ( CARRIER )
● The liquid portion of the paint (also referred
to as the carrier or solvent) provides a way to
get the pigment and the binder from the
container onto the surface that is to be
painted.
● Solvent (water or organic solvent) is a medium
where the binder, pigment and additives are
dispersed in molecular form (true solutions)
or as colloidal dispersions (emulsions or sols).
● Solvents (thinners) are also used for
modification of the paint viscosity required for
the application methods: brush, roller, dip,
spray.
ADDITIVES
● Additives are small amounts of substances
modifying the paint properties.
● EXAMPLES OF ADDITIVES
o Driers - accelerate the paints drying
(hardening) by catalyzing the oxidation of the
binder.
o Plasticizers - increase the paints flexibility.
o Fungicides, Biocides and Insecticides -
prevent
o growth and attack of fungi, bacteria and
insects.
o Flow control agents - improve flow
properties.
o Defoamers - prevent formation of air bubbles
entrapped in the coatings.
o Emulsifiers - are wetting agents increasing the
colloidal stability of the paints in liquid state.
o UV stabilizers - provide stability of the paints
under ultra-violet light.
o Anti-skinning agents - prevent formation of a
skin in the can.
o Adhesion promoters - improve the adhesion
of the coating to the substrate.
o Corrosion inhibitors - reduce the corrosion
rate of the substrate.
o Texturizers - impart textures to the coatings.

PAINT MANUFACTURING PROCESS
PART 1
● Accurate Measurement of Ingredients
● Ingredients are typically measured by weight on
scales, and in some cases by volume in calibrated
vats and graduated measuring containers. For
batches larger than about 4000 liters the vats are
loaded onto load cells connected to accurate
electronic scales. The scales allow addition of
ingredients with a measurement accuracy of +/-
5 kg in 20,000 kg. Where greater accuracy of
small additions is required, highly accurate floor
scales are used.
PART 2
● Mill-base Preparation and Pigment Dispersion
● Pigments are powders of typically small size that
tend to stick together to form clumps or
agglomerates. These must be broken down into
separate particles that must then be wetted by
resin and additives to stop them sticking
together again. This is the process of dispersion.
● High speed mixers are used for combining
materials and dispersing most pigments. These
machines rotate stainless steel serrated discs of
up to 60cm diameter, at up to about 1000 rpm.
The largest machine also has rotating scraper
blades to ensure material doesn’t stick to the
sides of the mill-base vat. Pigments are added
slowly, from containers of 10 kg up to 1000 kg, to
a portion of the liquid paint components with
the mixer running, to form the mill base.
PART 3
● Let-down
● In a separate, larger vat the rest of the
paint(resin, solvent and additives) is combined
and mixed.
● When the let-down and the mill base are
completed, the mill base is added with stirring to
the let-down. At this stage, if required by the -
formulation, any final additions are made and
added in.
PART 4
● Finished Product and In Process Laboratory
Testing
● Product quality is monitored throughout the
manufacturing process by the Product
Verification Laboratory. Critical ingredients are
tested before manufacturing starts. The
mill-base may be tested for dispersion; if
necessary further processing may be required.
The let-down may be tested to ensure it is
sufficiently mixed.
● The completed batch (mill-base plus let-down
and any final additions) is thoroughly tested by
the Product Verification Laboratory. These final
tests evaluate properties such as degree of
dispersion, viscosity (consistency), density,
hiding, tint strength and color, application, dry
time, gloss and dry film appearance.
PART 5
● Canning
● When testing is completed, the batch is passed
for canning. During canning two samples are
taken; a retain sample, which is stored in case it
is needed for future reference, and a Final
Inspection sample. The Final Inspection sample
is tested in the Resene Final Inspection
Laboratory to guarantee conformance to
relevant standards and specifications, such as
APAS, Environmental Choice, etc. After this final
stage of testing is complete, the batch is passed
for use in the warehouse and dispatch to
branches as required.
CRAYONS
CRAYONS
● The earliest form of recorded communication is
graphic art, beginning with drawings scratched
on the walls of caves by prehistoric peoples.
Cave dwellers had limited drawing tools, perhaps
only pieces of carbon left over from a cooking
fire. Today's graphic communicator can, of
course, purchase a variety of far more efficient
tools, including the common crayon.
● Crayons are made from paraffin, a waxy
substance derived from wood, coal, or
petroleum. Paraffin was produced commercially
 by 1867, and crayons appeared around the turn
of the century. The early crayons were black and
sold mainly to factories and plants, where they
were used as waterproof markers. Colored
crayons for artistic purposes were introduced in
Europe around the same time, but like the black
crayons, they contained materials that were
toxic (usually charcoal and wax) and thus were
not appropriate for children. The Binney & Smith
Company, who still make crayons, had a canny
grasp of the American educational market,
having previously marketed dustless chalk for
chalkboards. This company sold its first package
of eight colored crayons, suitable for use in
schools by children, in 1903.
● Crayons are made of paraffin mixed with various
chemical pigments. Paraffin is delivered to the
crayon factory in liquid form; delivery trucks
must maintain enough temperature to keep the
paraffin from hardening (paraffin becomes liquid
at about 135°F [57°C]).
● Because paraffin will not mix with water or
water mixtures, the pigments are in powdered
form, although they may have been made from a
water mix and then dried. Pigments are made by
suppliers following formulas dictated by the
crayon manufacturer. Individual pigments are
made of chemicals mixed in wooden tanks and
forced through filters to remove excess water,
leaving chunks of the individual pigments. The
pigments are then kiln-dried for several days.
After drying, the chunks of pigment are mixed
according to the formula for the desired color,
pulverized into a powder, and blended for color
consistency. The mixes are sent to the crayon
factory.
● Over the past 10 years, additional ingredients
have been added to crayons. One of the most
popular is glitter, small pieces of reflective
material that make the crayon-produced work
shine as it catches and reflects random beams of
light. Perfumes and other scents can also be
added to the mix.
THE MANUFACTURING PROCESS
MIXING THE BATCH
● The paraffin is pumped into supply tanks outside
the crayon factory. Each tank holds about 17,000
gallons (65,875 1) of liquid. When the process
begins, the paraffin is piped into small, heated
tubs with a volume of about 6 gallons (about the
size of a home washing machine). At the same
time, or soon after, a pigment or mixture of
pigments is added to give a batch of crayons a
particular color.
MIXING AND MOLDING
● The paraffin "wets" the pigments as they are
mixed, and the mixing disperses the pigment
uniformly. When the combination of paraffin and
color is fully blended, the batch is automatically
pumped out of the tubs into molds of the
desired shape. Rotating blades inside the mold
prevent the formation of bubbles and lumps as
the mixture cools. The molds are cooled as water
circulates around them. The color of the crayon,
and thus the type and quantity of pigment used,
can affect the time needed for cooling. Some
colors will be ready for the next step within four
minutes, other colors can take as much as seven
minutes. The molds used for the crayons might
hold as many as 2,400 forms.
● Until recently, the paraffin-pigment mixtures
were poured by hand from the tubs into a
bucket and then into molds. Newer machinery
now automates the process and pumps the
mixture directly into the molds. In some large,
older factories, both processes might be used.
INSPECTION AND QUALITY CONTROL
● After cooling, the crayons are automatically
pushed out of the molds and inspected.
Inspectors examine each crayon for breaks and
chips, as well as signs of bubbles in the cooled
crayon, a condition that occurs if mixing has not
been complete. Rejected crayons are returned to
the tubs for remelting and recasting.
WRAPPING AND BOXING
● Crayons that have passed the quality control
inspection are automatically placed into racks
where they are wrapped with paper labels; most
manufacturers use a double wrapping of paper
to give the crayons added strength. Crayons are
automatically filled into boxes and sent to
wholesalers.
POLYMERS
POLYMER
● Polymer is any of a class of natural or synthetic
substances composed of very large molecules
 called macromolecules, that are multiples of backbone carbon atoms are, however, usually
simpler chemical units called monomers. those of hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, etc. Most
Polymers make up many of the materials in living synthetic polymers are organic. On the other
organisms, including, for example, proteins, hand, generally chain backbone contains no
cellulose, and nucleic acids. Moreover, they carbon atom is called inorganic polymers. Glass
constitute the basis of such minerals as and silicone rubber are examples of it.
diamond, quartz, and feldspar and such
man-made materials as concrete, glass, paper, CLASSIFICATION BASED ON STRUCTURE
plastics, and rubbers.
● Linear Polymers: These polymers consist of long
● Polymers are a special kind of macromolecule.
and straight chains. The examples are high
The word polymer comes from the Greek words
density polythene, PVC, etc. Linear polymers are
“poly,” meaning “many”, and “meres,” meaning
commonly relatively soft, often rubbery
“parts” or “repeating units”. A Polymer consists
substances, and often likely to soften (or melt)
of a large chain of repeating molecules
on heating and to dissolve in certain solvent.
(monomers) that are attached in an end- to- end
● Branched Polymers: These polymers contain
fashion.
linear chains having some branches, e.g., low
● Imagine a string of beads. Each bead is identical
density polythene.
(for example, red sphere)
● Cross-linked Polymers: These are usually formed
- Represents the “mer”
from bi-functional and tri-functional monomers
● The string can contain 100’s of beads
and contain strong covalent bonds between
- Represents the “poly” characteristic
various linear polymer chains, e.g. vulcanized
● The string in between the beads represents the
rubber, urea- formaldehyde resins, etc. Cross
chemical bond between monomers.
linked polymers are hard and do not melt, soften
or dissolve in most cases.
SYNTHETIC AND BIOLOGICAL POLYMERS

● Man-made or synthetic polymers that are CLASSIFICATION BASED ON COMPOSITION

synthesized in the laboratory;
● Homopolymer: A polymer resulting from the
- Synthetic polymers: nylon, poly-ethylene,
polymerization of a single monomer; a polymer
poly-styrene
consisting substantially of a single type of
● Biological polymers that are found in nature.
repeating unit.
- Biological polymers: DNA, proteins,
● Copolymer: When two different types of
carbohydrates
monomers are joined in the same polymer
chain, the polymer is called a copolymer.
CLASSIFICATION BASED ON SOURCE

● Natural Polymers: These polymers are found in CLASSIFICATION BASED ON MODE OF

plants and animals. Examples are proteins,
cellulose, starch, resins and rubber
● Semi-synthetic Polymers: Cellulose derivatives
as cellulose acetate (rayon) and cellulose nitrate,
etc. are the usual examples of this subcategory
● Synthetic Polymers: A variety of synthetic
polymers as plastic (polythene), synthetic fibers
(nylon 6,6) and synthetic rubbers (Buna - S) are
examples of man-made polymers
CLASSIFICATION BASED ON BACKBONE
● Organic and Inorganic Polymers: A polymer
whose backbone chain is essentially made of
carbon atoms is termed as organic polymer. The
atoms attached to the side valence of the
POLYMERIZATION
● Addition Polymers: The addition polymers are
formed by the repeated addition of monomer
molecules possessing double or triple bonds,
e.g., the formation of polythene from ethene
and polypropene from propene. However, the
addition polymers formed by the polymerization
of a single monomeric species are Known as
homopolymer, e.g., polythene. The polymers
made by addition polymerization from two
different monomers are termed as copolymers,
e.g., Buna-S, Buna-N, etc.
● Condensation Polymers: The condensation
polymers are formed by repeated condensation
reaction between two different bi- functional or
 tri-functional monomeric units. In these
polymerization reactions, the elimination of
small molecules such as water, alcohol, hydrogen
chloride, etc. take place. The examples are
terylene (dacron), nylo 6, 6, nylon 6, etc. For e.g.,
nylon 6, 6 is formed by the condensation of
hexamethylene diamine with adipic acid. It is
also possible, with three functional groups (or
two different monomers at least one of which is
tri-functional), to have long linkage sequences in
two (or three) dimensions and such polymers
are distinguished as cross-linked polymers.
CLASSIFICATION BASED ON MOLECULAR FORCE
● The mechanical properties of polymers are
governed by intermolecular forces, e.g., van der
Waals forces and hydrogen bonds, present in the
polymer, these forces also bind the polymer
chains. Under this category, the polymers are
classified into the following groups based on
magnitude of intermolecular forces present in
them, they are:
- elastomers
- fibers
- liquid resins
- plastics (thermoplastic, thermosetting plastic)
● Elastomers: These are rubber – like solids with
elastic properties. In these elastomeric
polymers, the polymer chains are random coiled
structure, they are held together by the weakest
intermolecular forces, so they are highly
amorphous polymers. These weak binding forces
permit the polymer to be stretched. A few
‘crosslinks’ are introduced in between the
chains, which help the polymer to retract to its
original position after the force is released as in
vulcanized rubber. The examples are buna-S,
buna-N, neoprene, etc.
● Fibers: If drawn into long filament like material
whose length is at least 100 times its diameter,
polymers are said to have been converted into
‘fiber’ Polymeric chains are straight chain
polymers, they are held together by the strong
intermolecular forces like hydrogen bonding,
these strong forces also lead to close packing of
chains and thus impart crystalline nature Fibers
are the thread forming solids which possess high
tensile strength and high modulus Examples are
polyamides (nylon 6, 6), polyesters (terylene),
etc.
● Liquid Resins: Polymers used as adhesives,
potting compound sealants, etc. in a liquid form
are described liquid resins, examples are epoxy
adhesives and polysulphide sealants.
● Plastics: A polymer is shaped into hard and
tough utility articles by the application of heat
and pressure; it is used as a ‘plastic’. The
intermolecular force between polymeric chains
is intermediate between elastomers and fibers,
so they are partially crystalline.
- Thermoplastic Polymers: Some polymers
soften on heating and can be converted into
any shape that they can retain on cooling The
process of heating, reshaping and retaining
the same on cooling can be repeated several
times, such polymers, that soften on heating
and stiffen on cooling, are termed
‘thermoplastics’ These are the linear or
slightly branched long chain molecules
capable of repeatedly softening on heating
and hardening on cooling These polymers
possess intermolecular forces of attraction
intermediate between elastomers and fibers.
Polyethylene, PVC, nylon and sealing wax are
examples of thermoplastic polymers.
- Thermosetting Polymers: Some polymers, on
the other hand, undergo some chemical
change on heating and convert themselves
into an infusible mass. They are like the yolk of
egg, which on heating sets into a mass, and,
once set, cannot be reshaped. Such polymers,
that become infusible and insoluble mass on
heating, heating, are called ‘thermosetting”
‘thermosetting” polymers. These polymers are
cross linked or heavily branched molecules,
which on heating undergo extensive cross
linking in molds and again become infusible.
These cannot be reused. Some common
examples are bakelite, urea-formaldelyde
resins, etc.
FIBERS AND FABRICS
FIBERS
● Fibers are long strands of molecules interwoven
to form a linear, stringlike structure. They may be
natural or made by humans (synthetic) and are
essential to clothing, industry, and our very
bodies.
● Cotton - most common plant fiber, comes from
seedpod of cotton plant
● Linen - another common plant fiber, comes from
stalk of flax plant
● Wool - comes from fleece of sheep
● Silk - made by silkworm, fibers come from
cocoon silkworm spins
● Ramie - comes from stems of china grass
FIBER CHARACTERISTICS
● Cotton - soft, comfortable, absorbent,
wrinkle-resistant
● Linen - durable,comfortable and absorbent,
wrinkles and shrinks
● Wool - warm, resist wrinkles, water-repellent,
shrinks with heat and moisture ( dry clean )
● Silk - lightweight , flexible, strong, natural luster,
dry clean, damaged by chlorine bleach
● Ramie - strong and absorbs moisture, natural
luster, washable, combined with other fibers
CHARACTERISTICS OF MANUFACTURED FIBERS
● Acetate - silk like look, soft, drapes easily,
wrinkles and fades, dry clean
● Acrylic - lsoft, lightweight, yet warm, resists
wrinkles and blends well with other fibers, dry
clean or wash
● Polyester - resists wrinkles, retains pleats, blends
well with others, wash and dries quickly but
holds oily stains
● Spandex - high degree of stretch and recovery,
washable but weakened by chlorine bleach
CHARACTERISTICS OF FIBERS
● Most expensive - vicuna
● Least expensive - polyester
● Most durable - linen
● Most sold - cotton
● Most comfortable - cotton
● Most fragile - silk
● Most wrinkle-free - polyester
● Most absorbent - cotton
● King of all fabrics - cotton
● Queen of all fabrics - silk
● Strongest fabric - polyethylene ( synthetic fabric )
● Heaviest - corduroy
● Hottest - wool
● Most shiny - satin
MANUFACTURING PROCESS
● Cleaning - fibers are cleaned of dirt.
● Carding and Combing - entangled mass of fibers
are passed through a carding machine so that
the fibers are cleaned from all impurities and a
continuous web/silver of fiber is produced. The
fibers are arranged in a parallel manner.
Combing is done for worsted fibers in which
short fibers are removed in the case of woolen
fibers.
● Spinning - the roving is then spun into yarn.
● Texturing - the yarn is twisted and heat set and
then cooled and untwisted to get the elastic
stretchy yarn that is needed for knitting.
● Sizing - done to improve the size of the yarns and
to minimize breakages by using polyvinyl alcohol,
poly acrylic acid, carboxymethyl cellulose or
starch
● Winding - the yarn is then wound onto suitable
packages ready to be made into fabric.
● Beaming - if weaving is used to make the fabric,
the warp yarns are assembled onto a beam. This
is called warping.
● Weaving/knitting - the yarn is made into fabric
either by weaving or knitting
PAPER & PAPER MAKING
PAPER
● Paper - is a thin material produced by pressing
together moist fibers of cellulose pulp derived
from wood, rags or grasses, and drying them into
flexible sheets. It is a versatile material with
many uses, including writing, printing,
packaging, cleaning, and a number of industrial
and construction processes.
● What is the chemical composition of paper ? -
cellulose (C6H10O5)n
● What are the compounds found in paper? -
(Al2O3SiO22H2O) / hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)
● Bleach - the other important ingredient, is used
to create higher quality paper. Without the
bleach, paper would turn yellows and browns
because of the traces of lignin.
● Abaca is a versatile plant with several uses.
Because its fibers are particularly resistant to
saltwater, abaca has been commonly used for
fishing nets.

PROPERTIES OF PAPER

● Fibers
● Basis weight
● Caliper ( Thickness )
● Grain direction
● Formation
● Surface sizing
● Opacity
● Brightness
● Whiteness
● Absorption
● Smoothness
● Paper Strength
● Stretch
● Moisture