SANITARY DRAINAGE SYSTEM/ STORM DRAINAGE SYSTEM 2.

Leaky Pipes

●Leaky pipes can be caused by all sorts of problems, including:

SANITARY DRAINAGE SYSTEM ⦁ Stubborn clogs

means that part of a system's drainage piping that conveys untreated sewage ⦁ Incorrect pipe laying
from a building or structure to a septic tank or other treatment facility, to a service
⦁ Pipe corrosion
lateral at a curb or in a street or alley, or to another disposal terminal holding human or
domestic sewage. The sanitary drainage system consists of a building drain or building ⦁ Pipe joint damage
drain and building sewer.
⦁ Cracked seals or cracked pipes
STORM DRAINAGE SYSTEM
⦁ Excessive water pressure
•It's a network of structures, channels and underground pipes that carry stormwater
(rain water) to ponds, lakes, streams and rivers. The network consists of both public and No matter what’s causing leaky pipes, this common plumbing problem needs to be fixed
private systems. fast! The longer leaky pipes are ignored, the more damage they can cause—both to your
plumbing system and to your home itself!
•It's an integral part of the stormwater management system in the county that is
designed to control the quantity, quality, timing and distribution of storm runoff. All 3. Running Toilets
stormwater in the county eventually flows to the Occoquan and Potomac rivers and the
●Did you know that a running toilet can waste up to 200 gallons per day? That’s a lot of
Chesapeake Bay.
water waste! In most cases, the issues that cause running toilets include:
•It's not part of the wastewater (sanitary sewer) system, which carries water and waste
⦁ Refill tube problems
from drains (sinks, bathtubs, showers, etc.) and toilets to a treatment plant to be treated
and filtered. Stormwater does not flow to a treatment plant. ⦁ Worn out flapper seals or flush valves

SANITARY SYSTEM PROBLEMS ⦁ Improperly sized flapper chains

1. Dripping Faucets ⦁ Corroded toilet handles

●Dripping faucets are annoying, wasteful, and costly. Sometimes, these drips can be 4. Low Water Pressure
caused by a worn-out washer or O ring, which can easily be replaced. In other cases,
corrosion or even improper faucet installation can be the problem causing the drip. ●Weak water pressure can make it challenging to use pretty much any plumbing system
in your home! Often, low water pressure is a symptom of bigger plumbing problems, like:
●If your faucet is dripping:
⦁ Pipe corrosion
⦁ Use a drip calculator to find out how much that drip may be costing you.
⦁ Hidden water leaks in your home
⦁ Let our expert plumbers diagnose the problem if a simple washer or O ring replacement
doesn’t fix your drip! ⦁ Drain or sewer clogs

⦁ Cracked or blocked sewer lines

5. Leaking Hose Bibb ⦁ Corrosion or sediment buildup in systems

●A leaking hose bibb is very common in the spring and summer. After a long, cold winter, ⦁ Loose or broken electrical connections
many hose bibbs that aren’t protected can crack and begin to leak. We advise our
⦁ Improper water heater installation
customers to invest in a frost-proof hose bibb, which can reduce the chances of having
future leaks. ⦁ The wrong size or type of system to support a home’s needs
6. Slow or Clogged Drains

Drainage problems can cause health hazards and even plumbing disasters if they’re not ●The good news with all of these issues is that they can be prevented and/or easily fixed
addressed quickly! In general: before they become a major issue. Be aware of the clues your plumbing might be giving
you to potential problems.
⦁ One slow or clogged drain in a home usually means that a problem is localized to that
area of the home. Commonly, these drain clogs happen because hair, soap, and other
foreign objects have simply built up in a drain over time. Routine drain cleaning can be
the ideal solution for addressing this issue! SEPTIC TANK AND CLASSIFICATION OF SEWERS

⦁ Multiple slow or clogged drains are a red flag that you may be dealing with sewer line
problems. To prevent a sewage backup in your home, be sure to call a plumber from
WHAT IS A SEPTIC TANK?
Bartingale Mechanical whenever you notice multiple slow drains in your home—
especially if the problem starts with the drains in the lowest areas of your home! is an underwater sedimentation tank used for waste water treatment through
the process of biological decomposition and drainage. A septic tank makes use of natural
7. Sump Pump Failure
processes & proven technology to treat wastewater from household plumbing produced
●Sump pump failures can be related to a problem with the unit or an external issue. by bathrooms, kitchen drains, and laundry. Septic tanks are installed underground
Usually, the causes of sump pump failures include: normally 50 metres away from the household. They are usually made up of two
chambers or compartments and one tank that receives wastewater from an inlet pipe.
⦁ Stuck switches

⦁ An overwhelming amount of water, like after heavy rain

HOW DOES A SEPTIC TANK WORKS?
⦁ Clogged discharge pipes
A septic tank will be connected with two pipes (for inlet and outlet).
⦁ Improper sump pump installation
The inlet pipe is used to transport the water waste from the house and collect it
⦁ Aging, with sump pumps around 10 years old being prone to failure in the septic tank. It is kept here long enough so that the solid and liquid waste is
separated from each other.
8. Water Heater Problems
The second pipe is the outlet pipe. It can also call the drain field. This pipe
●Hot water is a necessity in any home. So, when water heaters can’t provide enough or
moves out the pre-processed wastewater from the septic tank and spreads it evenly in
any hot water, homeowners can be dealing with a plumbing crisis! Usually, water heater
the soil and watercourses.
problems are caused by issues like:

⦁ Heating element failures

 When waste water has been collected after a while it will begin to, separate into
3 layers. (as shown in the image above)
The top layer is oils and grease and floats above all the waste. This commonly
referred to as "scum".
The middle layer contains wastewater along with waste particles.
The third and bottom layer consists of particles that are heavier than water and
form a layer of sludge.
Bacteria inside the tank does it's best to break down the solid waste, which then
allows liquids to separate and drain away easily.
What is left at the bottom of the tank is what needs to be periodically removed
as part of general maintenance. This is one of the reasons why a septic tank is only a
basic form of sewage treatment.
CLASSIFICATION OF SEWERS
COMBINED SEWERS
Combined sewers are well….combined! That is, they use a single pipe to carry both
wastewater and storm runoff water to wastewater plants. They aren’t used much
anymore because when it rains a lot the system can’t handle both the surface water and
the wastewater and this causes the sewer to overflow. Because of this, new systems
separate storm sewers from sanitary sewers.
SANITARY SEWERS
Sanitary sewers carry wastewater from homes and businesses to wastewater treatment
plants. They consist of pipes, manholes, and pumping stations and their role is to
maintain water quality because it’s necessary for good public health.
STORM SEWERS

Storm sewers (also called surface sewers) carry rainwater and melting snow (storm
sewers are not designed to carry wastewater) from roofs and roads and channel it into
THE STEP BY STEP PROCESS OF HOW A SEPTIC TANK WORKS
streams, rivers, and other bodies of water.
1.Water from your kitchen, bathroom etc. runs through one main drainage pipe leading
to your septic tank.
MAJOR SYSTEM OF COLLECTING WATER
2.Underground the septic tank starts the process of holding the waste water. It needs to
hold this long enough so the solids settle down to the bottom, while oil and grease There are three main types of rainwater harvesting system: direct pumped, indirect
floats to the top. pumped, and indirect gravity. In certain situations it may be possible to have a purely
gravity system; though such occasions are rare.
3.After this process the liquid wastewater (effluent) will then be able to exit the tank into
the drain field.

4.This wastewater is discharged through pipes onto porous surfaces. These allow
wastewater to filter though the soil.
5.The soil accepts, treats, and disperses wastewater as it percolates through the soil,
ultimately discharging to groundwater.
6.Finally, the wastewater percolates into the soil, naturally removing harmful coliform
bacteria, viruses and nutrients.
1. Water Butt
●The most basic form of harvesting is the humble garden water butt. Water collects in
the container from drain pipes and/or natural rainfall, and is mainly used for the
watering of garden plants. Users with gardens of a decent size will see a reduction in the
amount of mains water used. Pairing the water tank with a rainwater filter can further
improve the quality of the harvested rainwater.
2. Direct-Pumped (Submersible)
●This is the most common type of more professional rainwater harvesting system,
particularly for domestic properties, and is generally the easiest to install. The pump is
located within the underground tank and harvested water is simply pumped directly to
the WCs or other appliances. If the tank should be in danger of running dry, a small
amount of mains water is fed to it in order to maintain supply. For commercial projects,
such systems tend to be dual pump arrangements (dutystandby).
3. Direct-Pumped (Suction)
●This system differs in that the pump is not inside the tank, but instead is located within
a control unit within the house (e.g. utility room). The unit also deals with the backup
from mains water supply, so there is no need to send mains water down to the tank.
4. Indirect Gravity
●This type of system differs in that the harvested water is first pumped to a high level
tank (header tank), then allowed to supply the outlets by gravity alone. With this
arrangement, the pump only has to work when the header tank needs filling. Also the
mains water is fed directly to the header tank, not into the main harvesting tank.
5. Indirect Pumped
●This arrangement is similar to the above, except that the internal tank can be at any
level in the building, as it does not rely on gravity to supply the outlets. Instead a booster
pump set is used to provide a pressurised supply. This system employs the benefit of not
having to feed mains back-up water to the underground tank, whilst also offering great
flexibility as the booster pumps can be tailored to suit the flow and pressure
requirements of the building.
Gravity Only
●In some situations It may be possible to have a system that functions purely through
gravity, requiring no pump and therefore no energy use. With this arrangement,
rainwater is collected from a part of the roof which has gutters above the filter and
collection tank which are in turn above all the outlets. This arrangement is ONLY ever
possible where the storage tank can be located below the level of the gutters, yet higher
that the outlets that it will supply. Only the power of gravity is needed to feed collected
and filtered water to various parts of the home for use, so it is an ultra-energy efficient
option.
STORM DRAIN LOCATIONS
HOW TO LOCATE STORMWATER PIPES
When a property is going to undergo new construction or there is a need to
evaluate the land for planning purposes, it is important for stormwater pipes to be
located with all of the other underground utility services. Stormwater pipes are usually
made from non-conductive materials like clay, concrete, cement, or PCV, making it
necessary to choose the right pipe locator tool for the job. Typical electromagnetic
methods aren’t going to work. Here’s how you can find and trace the underground pipes.
DIFFERENT WAYS TO LOCATE STORM PIPES
THROUGH THE MANHOLE
The easiest and fastest way to find out where stormwater pipes are located is by
opening nearby manhole lids. These could be either a stormwater or sewer access point.
Once the lid is open, you can physically measure the size of the pipe and the invert level.
These measurements become known as the Quality A location. Measuring additional
location depths and pipe sizes in nearby pits around the site and evaluating them against
the Quality A location potentially provides enough data to determine accurate locations.
If additional information is needed, non-destructive digging may be required.
THROUGH PIPE LOCATOR EQUIPMENT
Non-metallic stormwater pipes can’t be found with an electromagnetic
underground pipe locator. A flexible fiberglass rodder is the most common tool used to
find these underground pipes. The rodder could either have a traceable wire fitted into
the inside, or it could have a traceable sonde fitted onto one end. The sonde transmits a
frequency to be tracked. Those using a sonde must have a radiodetection locator
receiver in order to report the location.
ROOFING ELEMENTS TO COLLECT STORMWATER
STANDING SEAM METAL
If you're installing a new roof for the purpose of collecting rainwater, standing
seam metal may very well be your best choice. A high quality enameled roofing material
that is easy to clean, standing seam metal offers the highest collection efficiency
available. You can fill a 55-gallon barrel with less than single inch of rain falling on a 10' x
10' surface, so don't overlook those outbuildings when you think about opportunities to
collect and store rainwater on your site.
CORRUGATED METAL
Corrugated metal also makes an efficient collection surface, but there is a
precaution:
Most corrugated material is galvanized, which will leach some zinc into the
rainwater. Many people collect from galvanized roofs with no problem, but this is
something to be aware of. Collect a sample of rainwater and use a home test kit or send
it to a lab to make sure zinc levels are below allowable limits. Zinc is an herbicide, so even
if you won't be drinking the water, you'll want zinc levels to meet that standard to avoid
hurting your plants.
ASPHALT SHINGLE / BITUMEN / COMPOSITION SHINGLE
Asphalt is inert, and generally safe for rainwater collection. That said, the
adhesives used for installation are worth a mention. These adhesives do most of their
off-gassing within a year of installation, and virtually all of it within three years, so if you
have a brand new asphalt shingle roof (also known as composition shingle)
CONCRETE TILE OR CLAY TILE ROOFS
Clay and concrete tiles have lower collection efficiency than other roofing
materials, simply because the tiles are porous and absorb so much water. This doesn't
mean you can't harvest off them, though. With 623 gallons of high quality water available
from a single inch of rain falling on 1000-square-foot surface, even an 85% collection
efficiency (estimated for clay tile) will give you a lot of high quality water. Concrete tile
may leave you with alkalinity in your water, but this isn't necessarily a problem. A simple
home test kit will allow you to measure your pH.
SOLAR PANELS
Eco-conscious homeowners may be interested in solar panels as well as
rainwater harvesting. The good news is solar panels make a wonderful collection surface,
Water will roll off them nice and smoothly. While the water may also come into contact
with your native roof surface, the solar panels will shed water cleanly. If adhesives are
used for installation, it may be worth collecting a sample to see if there are toxins in the
water.
SIZING OF WATER SUPPLY PIPE
Fixture - A receptacle other than a trap attached to a plumbing system in which the
water or wastes may be collected or retained for ultimate discharged into the plumbing
system.
Fixture Unit - is an arbitrary quantity in terms of which the load-producing effects or
water requirements on the plumbing system of different kinds of plumbing fixtures are
expressed in the some arbitrarily chosen scale.
*How to convert fixture unit into volume of water
1 fixture unit = 1 ft³ /min = 7.5 gal/min or 8 gal/min
COMPUTE THE NET PRESSURE AT THE WATER METER
Pressure = Average Pressure at the Water Main – Static Pressure
P = lowest possible pressure in the building
Pstatic = pressure loss due to elevation change (9.81 x h)
Where h = is the elevation of the remote fixture
Pave = Service Pressure at the Water Main (Water District)
*In Davao City, Water Main has an average pressure of 30-50 psi.
FORMULA OF NET PRESSURE:
P = Pave - Pstatic
DETERMINE THE PIPE SIZE WITH THE AID OF TABLE 2.1-2.3
1.Choose the table based on the pressure ranger where the net pressure at the water
will fall.
2.Select the length column which is equal to or greater than the required length.
3.Follow down the column to a fixture unit value equal to or greater than the total
number of fixture units required by the installation.
* No building water service pipe shall be less than 19 mm in diameter.
 SIZING OF DRAINAGE, WASTE AND VENT PIPES horizontal position. When vents are increased one (1) pipe size for their entire length,
the maximum length limitations specified in this table do not apply.
IMPORTANCE OF CORRECT SIZING

In designing for drainage waste and vent pipe, it should always be in accordance
with the revised national plumbing code of the Philippines this means, that we need to FIRE SAFETY DESIGN PRINCIPLES
design or we need to adopt the appropriate diameter for our drainage waste and vent
Introduction
pipe because if your pipe diameter is lesser than what it is required from the national
plumbing code of the Philippines, there could be some consequences like: FIRE - Rapid oxidation process accompanied by the evolution of heat, light, flame and the
emission of sound.
•BACKFLOW
FIRE TRIANGLE - Three elements – fuel, oxygen and heat – are required to start a fire.
•THE FLOW OF WASTE IS NOT SMOOTH
The oxidation process will not be possible without any one of these elements
•IT COULD CAUSE CLOGGING

So we need to make sure that our pipe is appropriately design. However, if you
use diameter more than what it is required then that could be safest but it could
generate a much higher cost. So, you need to ensure, that you need to consider the
quality or the safety and the economical aspect of your project.

Conditions:

1. Excluding trap arm.

2. Except sinks, urinals and dishwashers.

3. Except 6 fixture unit traps or water closets.

4. Only four (4) water closets or 6 fixtures unit traps are allowed on any vertical pipe or
stack, and not exceed three (3) water closets or six (6) fixture unit traps on any horizontal FIRE GROWTH
branch or drain.

5. Based on two (2) percent or 20.9 mm/m slope. For one (1) percent or 10.4 mm/m
slope, multiply horizontal fixture units by a factor of 0.8

Note:

The diameter of an individual vent shall not be less than 32 mm nor less in size
than one-half (1/2) the diameter of the drain to which it is connected. Fixture unit load
values for drainage and vent piping shall be computed from Tables 7-2 and 7-3 not to
exceed one third (1/3) of the total permitted length of any vent may he installed in a
BEHAVIOR OF FIRE AND SMOKE This implies:

Fire Behavior refers to the manner in which fuel ignites, flame develops and fire spreads. a. Keeping separate heat sources and materials which might ignite readily through
proper planning and zoning
Smoke Behavior refers to the hot smoke and air that arises when fire occurs within a
building, and is replaced by cool air at low level (also known as convection). The smoke b. Need to specify materials to reduce the risk of fire starting
on reaching the ceiling spreads out laterally to form a layer below the ceiling. This layer
c. Reducing fire load
will continue to spread unless contained by the walls.
Fire Zoning (e.g. Hospitals)

1. Life Risk Areas – areas in which all occupants are ambulant and able to move unaided
away from a fire. (e.g. Outpatient department; Service Zone)
FIRE SPREAD
2. High Fire Risk Areas – areas which, due to their function, are more usually susceptible
Internal Fire Spread due to: External Fire Spread due to: to an outbreak of fire, or to a rapid spread of fire or smoke. (e.g. Kitchen or Boiler Room)

3. High Fire Load Areas – areas which, because of their construction or contents,
contains large amounts of combustible materials, thereby constituting a fire load in
excess of that normally found. (e.g. Gas Storage, Linen Closets)

4. High Life Risk Areas – areas in which persons may reside and are not able to move
unaided away from fire. (e.g. Intensive Care Unit, Operating Department)

CHOICE OF MATERIALS & KNOWLEDGE ON MATERIAL PERFORMANCE

AIMS IN FIRE SAFETY DESIGN Concrete

•To prevent fire  high fire resistance;

 disintegrates at 400-500°C;
•To safeguard the lives of occupants and firefighters  holes in concrete will expose steel structural members
•To reduce damage on the building, its contents, and on surrounding buildings Steel

 does not burn; may buckle in fire;

BASIC PRINCIPLES FOR DESIGN  my buckle fire
 high conductivity spreads heat
1.FIRE AVOIDANCE  loses half its strength in 550°C
Reducing the possibility of accidental ignition of construction materials, as well Timber
as fittings and fixtures.
 combustible
  little loss of strength as charcoal formed insulates wood core *Fire alarm systems must be accessible in all zones especially in fire-prone areas.
 spread flames
3. FIRE GROWTH RESTRICTION
Masonry
Aimed at ensuring that the growing fire is extinguished immediately and at
 high fire resistance providing adequate time for firemen to arrive, control the fire and evacuate the
 cracks At 575°C occupants.
 are subject to high temperatures during manufacture
Manual Means of Restricting Fire Growth
Calcium Silicate
Actively extinguishing or slowing down the development of a fire before the full
 excellent thermal shock resistance involvement of the room is done by the room’s local occupants by means of:
 up to 1000°c
 Fire extinguisher
 suitable for cladding structural members
 Water Supply
Glass  Fire blanket
 Bucket of Sand
 standard float, toughened and laminated glass panes do not provide any free
resistance. RATING OF FIRE EXTINGUISHERS
 monolithic free-rated glass is available.

Knowledge on fire load

Fire Load

The amount of material which is able to burn and release heat and smoke.

*Building contents make up the majority of the fire load, since most fires start from the
ignition of these contents.

*In a compartment, limiting fuel will help reduce the dangers of heat and smoke.

2. FIRE DETECTION

Visual Fire Detection

To visually expose FIRE RISK and FIRE LOAD areas to building occupants.

Mechanical Fire Detection

Makes use of manual and automatic (electric/electronic) methods of informing

the occupants in charge that a fire has occurred in a given location.

*Heat and smoke alarm systems inside Fire Risk and Fire Load areas.
TYPES OF FIRE EXTINGUISHERS 3. Others

 plugging all holes; extending CHB walls up to the slab;

 providing a 1-meter ledge to prevent fire from creeping up exterior walls into
the floor above through windows

Concepts of Fire Compartmentation

Containing fire-prone areas by means of fire-resistive enclosures.

Objectives

 To limit fire and smoke spread

 To allow longer escape time
 To reduce the maximum potential size of the fire

Compartment sizes
Mechanical Means of Restricting Fire Growth
The more combustible the contents of a building, the smaller the compartment
Detecting, controlling and suppressing unwanted fires or reducing heat, flame, should be.
smoke, control fire growth, and provide additional time to safely exit a building by means
of fire sprinklers system. Joints must be filled with non-combustible materials to prevent the spread of
smoke or flame.
Sprinkler Specifications:
5. FIRE CONTROL
 categories: General Use, Institutional, Residential, Attics, Special Hazards,
Storage Cover those devices and systems which aid firefighters in actively extinguishing
 3 heads: upright, pendent and sidewall the fire and bringing it to an end earlier than a free-burning fire.
 rated to 175 psi
*Access road for fire trucks
 spaced from 3.6 to 6.0 meters apart
*Ensure that all areas inside and outside the building are covered by reach of the firehose
4. FIRE CONTAINMENT
Site Access for Fire Controls
Assumes that measures to control a growing fire may not be successful, hence
its maximum size needs to be restricted both to reduce the risk and allow effective  Fire apparatus should have unobstructed access to buildings
firefighting.  Bollards and fences used for traffic control must allow for sufficient open road
width for fire truck
This implies:
 Prevent time-consuming, hazardous back-ups at dead-ends by using T-tums and
1. Fire cladding of structural components to ensure stability of structural frames. cul-de-sacs
 Place hydrants at max. 3 meters from curb. Siamese connection to standpipes
2. The use of fire-rated walls and slabs to contain fire rooms, sub-compartments and must be visible and within 60m from hydrant
compartments so as to segregate areas where fire may occur.
  Hydrant must be unobstructed; Fire hose connection should be at least 0.3m
above grade
 Utility poles, kiosks, sculpture, fountains, plant boxes can impede fire rescue
operations
Fire Trucks | Aerial Apparatus Specifications
Concept of the Firefighting Shaft
•Provide access to a building, especially in high rise buildings, for fire brigades.
•Is fully-equipped with firefighting equipment, service elevator, stair and lobby.
•Provides a sufficiently secure operating base and a rest area in between firefighting
operations.
6. SMOKE CONTROL
Measures which can assist to some extent occupants in the fire zone but are
particularly needed for others in adjacent areas or compartments.
Techniques of Smoke Control
a. Smoke Containment/Barrier – technique of restricting the movement of smoke by the
provision of fire resisting elements.
b. Smoke Dispersal – technique of clearing smoke locally by provision of cross-ventilation
or mechanical venting.
c. Pressurization – technique whereby air is blown into spaces which are designed to be
kept clear of smoke
Uses barriers including walls, floors and doors, to contain pressurized air generated by
means to keep smoke away from protected areas such as escape staircases and corridors.
7. ESCAPE PROVISIONS
Cover a range of passive or active systems which permit the occupants to move
or be moved to a place of safety within or to the outside of a building.
CORRIDOR SYSTEM
• direct, not tortuous
• simple lay-out
• no barriers, cul-de-sacs, bottlenecks
• door open out, not in easily detectible, not hidden from view
FIRE ESCAPE
• fire escape stairs designed to be used daily for familiarity of escape route
• well-maintained (not used as storage of junk)
• easily detectible, not hidden from view
Protected Escape Routes
Are designed in such a way that they lead to a place of safety, and once inside
the occupants are safe from the immediate danger from fire and smoke.
To provide safety, the routes must be properly protected from the effects of fire
and smoke for an acceptable time period, usually a minimum of 60 minutes.
This can be achieved by:
 Compartmentation
 fire resistance of escape route structure
 use of smoke control systems to keep smoke out of escape routes
Alternative Means of Escape
 Doors should be as far as possible from each other; preferably on opposite walls
 Both doors should not open into the same compartment
FIRE CONTROL METHODS
What is fire?
Is a rapid, self sustaining oxidation process accompanied by the evolution of
heat and light of varying intensities.
Fire occurs whenever combustible fuel in the presence of oxygen at an
extremely high temperature becomes gas. Flames are the visual indicator of the heated
gas. Fire can also occur from lower-temperature sources. Over time, combustible
materials such as smoldering embers can reach their ignition temperature.
Chemistry of Fire: The Fire Triangle
The fire triangle is a simple way of understanding the elements of fire. The sides
of the triangle represent the interdependent ingredients needed for fire: heat, fuel and
oxygen.
ELEMENTS OF FIRE
FUEL is any kind of combustible material. It’s characterized by its moisture content, size,
shape, quantity and the arrangement in which it is spread over the landscape. The
moisture content determines how easily it will burn.
Air contains about 21 percent oxygen, and most fires require at least 16 percent OXYGEN
content to burn. Oxygen supports the chemical processes that occur during fire. When
fuel burns, it reacts with oxygen from the surrounding air, releasing heat and generating
combustion products (gases, smoke, embers, etc.). This process is known as oxidation.
A HEAT source is responsible for the initial ignition of fire, and is also needed to maintain
the fire and enable it to spread. Heat allows fire to spread by drying out and preheating
nearby fuel and warming surrounding air.
FIRE CONTROL
Fire control is the practice of reducing the heat output of a fire, reducing the
area over which the fire exists, or suppressing or extinguishing the fire by depriving it of
fuel, oxygen, or heat.
EFFECTIVE FIRE EXTINCTION
To extinguish a fire it is largely a matter of depriving the fire of one or more of
these factors, so methods of extinguishing fire can be classified in terms of removing
these factors.
All fires can be extinguished by cooling, smothering, starving or by interrupting
the combustion process to extinguish the fire.
COOLING
Limiting temperature by increasing the rate at which heat is lost from the
burning material
One of the most common methods of extinguishing a fire is by cooling with
water. This process depends on cooling the fuel to a point where it does not produce
sufficient vapour to burn, with the reduction in temperature dependent on the
application of an adequate flow of water to establish a negative heat balance.
To extinguish a fire by cooling, the rate at which heat energy is lost from the
burning material must be increased by removing some of the heat energy. This reduces
the temperature of the burning mass, reducing the heat release rate. Eventually, the rate
at which heat is lost from the fire may be greater than the rate of heat production and
the fire will die away.
When water is applied, it undergoes changes as it absorbs heat from the fire:
•Its temperature will rise
•It may evaporate (boil)
•It may react chemically with the burning material
To achieve maximum effect, the quantity of heat energy absorbed should be as great as
possible. The properties of a good cooling agent are therefore:
•High specific heat capacity (thermal capacity)
•High latent heat of vaporisation
•High heat of decomposition In some cases, a fire can be extinguished simply by removing the fuel source.
This may be accomplished in a number of ways, such as stopping the flow of liquid or
Water is a good cooling agent because of its high thermal capacity and latent
gaseous fuel, removing solid fuel in the path of the fire or allowing the fire to burn until
heat of vaporisation. This, combined with the fact it is available in large quantities, makes
all of the fuel is consumed.
it by far the most widely useful fire extinguishing agent.
Fires can be starved of fuel by removing potential fuel from the vicinity of the
The role of decomposition is insignificant in the case of water but very
fire, for example:
relevant with certain substances, such as carbon dioxide, that absorb heat in
this way. •Back burning forestry fires

SMOTHERING •Draining fuel from burning oil tanks

Limiting oxygen by preventing air from reaching the seat of the fire to allow the •Removing cargo from a ship's hold
combustion process to reduce the oxygen content in the confined atmosphere until it
•Creating firebreaks in peat, heathland and forest fires
extinguishes itself
•Removing vehicles in the proximity of the fire
If the oxygen supply to the burning material can be sufficiently reduced, burning
will cease. The general procedure is to prevent fresh air from reaching the seat of the •Creating firebreaks in thatch roofs
fire, allowing the combustion to reduce the oxygen content in the confined atmosphere
until it extinguishes itself, for example by: •Removing tyres not affected by the fire from a tyre dump

•Snuffing out candles INTERRUPTING THE COMBUSTION PROCESS

•Smothering a pan with a fire blanket Dry powder, Bromochlorodifluoromethane (BCF) and other halon extinguishers
work by releasing atoms that interrupt the chemical chain reaction. They also create an
•Wrapping a person in a fire blanket inert gas barrier.
•Applying a blanket of foam over the burning surface, thus separating the fuel from the
air

Smothering can also be achieved by removing the oxygen in the atmosphere,

thus extinguishing the fire, for example, by:

•Introducing carbon dioxide (CO2) to the immediate vicinity of the fire

•Introducing an inert gas to the immediate vicinity of the fire, such as through systems
installed to protect computer server rooms

STARVING

Limiting fuel by removing potential fuel from the vicinity of the fire, removing
the fire from the mass of combustible materials or by dividing the burning material into
smaller fires that can be extinguished more easily