Language Exp. Learning Acquisition Sexto Semestre

Tema 1: Introduction to language acquisition https://evirtual.espe.edu.ec/programas_scorm.cgi?id_curso=22732&id_unidad=257415&id_p...
Cuarto Nivel
1/34
1 de 2 1/11/2022 14:53
Cuarto
Sexto Nivel
1.1. Language Acquisition vs Language learning
When a child is born, he/she begins acquiring his/her first

language, what linguists call L1. Since that time, the child may
continue acquiring an additional language-s which is called L2
and this may happen in a natural way or in a specific
environment that could be in school. The question here is “Are
these languages acquired or learned?
According to linguists, there is a significant distinction between

language acquisition and language learning. Children in their
natural environment for example acquire the language in a
natural way. The only need to communicate makes them start
interacting with their parents, siblings, or peer friends. The only
constant exposure to language and significant communication
makes them acquire the language without any grammar
explanation or rule. The child only needs a natural resource of
communication as an essential requirement. On the other
hand, in an academic setting, grammar rules, explanations, Language Acquisition and Language Learning – Ute's International
exercises become the tools for the person to learn the Lounge. (Ute’s International Lounge, 2017)
language. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=V--eu2d10Cg
2/34
1 de 2 1/11/2022 14:59
Cuarto
Sexto Nivel
In this context, let’s give a formal

definition of language acquisition and Language Acquisition Language Learning
language learning based on diverse
authors.
• Children acquire language through a • It is necessary education in the rules of
“Language Acquisition is based on subconscious process during which they language
the neuro-psychological processes are unaware of grammatical rules. • Learners can fill in the blanks on a
(Maslo, 2007: 41). Language • They readily acquire the language to grammar page or work in other
acquisition is opposed to learning and communicate with friends. instruction techniques.
is a subconscious process similar to • The learner needs a source of natural • It is a conscious process, grammar,
that by which children acquire their communication which comes from the vocabulary and rules are learnt in a
first language (Kramina, 2000: 27).” father, mother, relatives, or caregiver. controlled manner.
… “Language learning is a conscious • It happens naturally with the ones who are • It presupposes teaching happens in
process, is the product of either native speakers. schools, colleges and so on.
formal learning situation or a self- • The focus is on meaningful communication • Activities and methods are designed.
not on grammatical forms • The teacher controls the pace in an
study programme (Kramina, 2000:
• It does not presuppose teaching intentional process.
27).” (Zaščerinska, n.d.)
Here you have a comparative table:

Figure 1, Comparative table of what Language Acquisition and Language Learning is
3/34
1 de 2 1/11/2022 15:04
Cuarto
Sexto Nivel
Adapted from several sources
Figure 2, Language Acquisition Figure 3, Language Learning
Note. The baby acquires language in a natural way. Taken from Students learn the language in a formal environment. Taken from
Scottsdale (Scottsdale, n.d.) Personal source
4/34
1 de 2 1/11/2022 15:15
Cuarto
Sexto Nivel
1.2. What is first language L1? What is second language L2?
The language-s learned first are acquired in a natural way, effortlessly, “and essentially perfectly. It’s the second, third, and fourth
languages (and so on) that give us the trouble” (Morausky, 2020). They are given a variety of names depending on what
circumstances Languages were acquired/learned, thus: “First language, mother tongue, native tongue, native language, L1,
second language, non-native language, foreign language, L2, third language, L3, L4, L5, among others” (Morausky, 2020).
In this chapter, we will refer to First language (L1) and Second language (L2) only.
First language L1
An L1 is your first language, your native language, or your mother tongue. (Morausky, 2020)
According to Bloomfield (1994 cited in Grin, 2019), “first language (native language/mother tongue/arterial language/L1), is a
language that a person has been exposed to from birth or within the critical period.” You are the native speaker of that language
and this is the language you use most easily.
Even though grammar is very complex, “children already know most of the grammar of their native language(s) before they are
five years old” (Adam, 1990 cited in Grin, 2019). It happens because they are in constant communication with parents or people
who take care of the child. Parents do not explain the grammar rules of the language. Grammar is part of the language. It is the
innate ability of human beings that works in his/her favor for them to acquire the language. Verbal and non-verbal communication
is given and children repeat what they hear. For this reason, children need to be involved in people’s conversations and
encouraged to produce communication.
5/34
1 de 2 1/11/2022 15:15
Cuarto
Sexto Nivel
1.2. What is first language L1? What is second language L2?
First languages are often intertwined with the native speaker's personal and socio-cultural identity; thus, he/she interacts
comfortably with family and other members of their cultural or ethnic group.
Second Language L2
An L2 is a second language, a foreign language, a target language, or a foreign tongue (Morausky, 2020).
While some people say that a second language (L2) refers to any language learned after a person’s first language, others
complement this definition by saying that it is the non-native language learned (after the critical period of acquisition) by a person
after their mother tongue. Grin, in his paper (GRIN - The Role of First Language (L1) and Second Language (L2) in the Literacy
Development of Early Grade Learners, n.d.) points that a second language (L2) is any language that a person uses after his/her
first or native language (L1). (Saville-Troike, 2005) on the other hand, mentions the term “second language” which is the additional
language that people use following their first languages. The second language can also refer to the third, fourth, or tenth language
acquired and is commonly called a target language (TL).
If one has learned or is learning a new language, that language is his/her L2. When children grow up in households with parents
of different linguistic backgrounds, they may acquire each of those languages natively. These people are referred to as bilingual
which group of people will be discussed more deeply in a future chapter.
6/34
1 de 2 1/11/2022 15:20
Cuarto
Sexto Nivel
1.3. What is Second language Acquisition (SLA)?
“Second Language Acquisition (SLA) refers both to the study of individuals and groups who are learning a language subsequent
to learning their first one as young children, and to the process of learning that language” (Saville-Troike, 2005).
Language acquisition and learning is “learning and acquisition of a second language once the mother tongue or first language
acquisition is established”. (Hoque, 2017). It is a systematic process of learning other-s languages apart from the first or native
language. For example, a child who speaks Swahili as the mother tongue starts learning English when he/she enters school for
the first time. English is learned by the process of second language acquisition. It is known that a child learns farter than an adult
that wants to learn the same language.
While second language learning refers to the formal learning of a language in an educational institution, second language
acquisition means acquiring the language with little or no formal training or learning (Hoque, 2017). For example, if someone goes
to a foreign country for work or living and needs to speak a different language from his/her native language, that person needs to
acquire that foreign language. It can happen with little formal learning of the language and taking advantage of the daily practice
with native speakers of that place. A clear example of language acquisition happens to Peace Corps volunteers when they have to
go to a country to give technical assistance whose people speak a language different from English. In the initial months, they take
some classes of the local language with a teacher in an informal setting and then practice it through their every-day interaction
with the native people in their foster families, local friends and places where they have to visit, parks, stores, market place and so
on. From this, we can say that a natural setting is necessary for an acquisition process while formal instruction is for the learning
process.
It is concluded that “SLA needs more investigation due to the various realities on how children and adults acquire and learn any
language (Arung, 2016).
7/34
1 de 2 1/11/2022 15:22
Firefox https://evirtual.espe.edu.ec/programas_scorm.cgi?id_curso=22732&id_unidad=257415&id_p...
Stephen Krashen and Tracy Terrell first explored stages of second language acquisition in their 1983 book, The Natural Approach.
According them, students who are acquiring/learning a second language go through a process of five stages:
a) Preproduction
b) Early Production
c) Speech Emergence
d) Intermediate Fluency
e) Advanced Fluency
There are many factors which have an influence on how quickly the student progresses: level of formal education, family background, and
length of time spent in the place.
Figure 4 summarizes the five stages of language acquisition. It also shows some prompts and sample questions to use for each stage of
second language acquisition.
1 de 3 1/11/2022 15:24
Figure 4, Stages of Second Language Acquisition

Note. Stages of Second Language Acquisition. Adapted from Krashen and Terrel (1983). Taken from (Hill, J. & Björk, C. L., 2008)
The Preproduction stage. During this Preproduction stage, students may not produce any speaking of the language, for this reason, it is
also known as “the Silent period” and it lasts from zero to six months. Students can point to a picture when the teacher asks to show
him/her a specific object.
Early Production. This is the next step, students use single words or two-word phrases, yes/no responses, names, and repetitive
language patterns (e.g., Hi, my name is…, Yes, I do., Tom did, etc.).
At the Speech Emergence stage, simple sentences are the characteristic of this level (e.g., “I live in an apartment”). They can answer
“why” and “how” questions with phrases or short sentences. They can also explain things.
2 de 3 1/11/2022 15:24
At the Intermediate Fluency stage, length and complexity of sentences increase at this level. Students can answer “What would happen
if” and “Why do you think” questions: “Why do you think the man denied participating in the attack?
The Advanced Fluency stage is the last stage. Here, students demonstrate a near-native level of fluency. Students can retell the story,
including main plot elements but leaving out unnecessary details.
Everybody acquiring English will pass through these stages. The pproximate time frame for this stage is shown in figure 4. Each student
will spend more or less time depending on their particular way of learning.
If we know the student acquisition level of language and stage-appropriate questions, we can work inside within the “Zone of proximal of
development”. According to Vigotsky, one can work in this zone of the student by pushing their language performance to a higher step of
development. This can be achieved by asking challenging questions, modeling correct grammar or pronunciation, or giving direct
instruction. it is important to once in a while ask questions from the next level as well in order to be sure that it is happening.
Krashen’s hypothesis states that a speaker will move to the next level of acquisition when the experience of the target language (the input)
includes some of the structures that are part of the next stage of acquisition, and the speaker is encouraged to use language that reflects
that more advanced stage. (Hill & Flynn, 2006, p. 16)
This way, students will respond according to both stages, the one they are in currently and the one which comes next.
3 de 3 1/11/2022 15:24
Cuarto
Sexto Nivel
1.5. Linguistic competence and Linguistic performance
Most linguists have made a distinction between linguistic competence which is the knowledge of the structure of a language, and
linguistic performance, what the speaker does with this knowledge. This happened since the publication of Noam Chomsky's
Aspects of the Theory of Syntax in 1965.
Saville-Troike (2005) for example, declares that “Linguistic performance is the ability to produce and comprehend sentences in a
language.”
On the other hand, (Denham, Kristin & Lobeck, Anne, 2011) point out in their book Linguistics for everyone that in Noam
Chomsky’s theory, our linguistic competence is our unconscious knowledge of languages similar in some ways to Saussure's
concept of langue, and linguistic performance is what we actually produce as utterances, similar to Saussure’s parole. Linguistic
competence concerns the tacit knowledge of grammar, while linguistic performance, the realization of this knowledge in actual
performance.
9/34
1 de 2 1/11/2022 15:26
Cuarto
Sexto Nivel
1.5. Linguistic competence and Linguistic performance
Factors that Influence Linguistic Performance
Linguistic performance is determined by a combination of factors. Rudolf P. Botha, in his book “The Conduct of Linguistic Inquiry:
A Systematic Introduction to the Methodology of Generative Grammar” cited in (Nordquist, 2020) states that Linguistic
performance is determined/influenced by a combination of several factors:
(a) the linguistic competence or unconscious linguistic knowledge of the speaker-hearer,

(b) the nature and limitations of the speaker-hearer's speech production and speech perception mechanisms,
(c) the nature and limitations of the speaker-hearer's memory, concentration, attention and other mental capacities,
(d) the social environment and status of the speaker-hearer,
(e) the dialectal environment of the speaker-hearer,
(f) the idiolect and the individual style of speaking of the speaker-hearer,
(g) the speaker-hearer's factual knowledge and view of the world in which he lives,
(h) the speaker-hearer's state of health, his emotional state, and other similar incidental circumstances. (p. 3)
10/34
1 de 2 1/11/2022 15:26
Cuarto
Sexto Nivel
1.6. Theories of second language acquisition
Everyone knows that learning a language can be a challenge, and many students avoid speaking in a more communicative way
because they feel they need to be more precise in grammar, especially in front of peers, family, and friends, which means they
attach more importance to it, to precision than fluency. This prevents them from using the language more naturally.
B. VanPatten and J. Williams (2015. Introduced in Smaili, n.d.) present a review of contemporary theories of language acquisition
in the book called Theories in Second Language Acquisition. An introduction, where the researchers explain their theories from
different perspectives. Main contemporary theories are introduced as follows:
1. Universal Grammar (Linguistically oriented)

2. The Concept-Oriented approach (Functional Approach)
3. Usage-Based Approaches to SLA
4. Skill acquisition theory (Psychologically oriented)
5. Input processing in Adult SLA (Psychologically oriented)
6. The Declarative/Procedural Model (Neurobiologically Motivated Theory)
7. Processability theory (Psychologically oriented)
8. Input, interaction and output (Psychologically oriented)
9. Sociocultural Theory and Second Language Development
10. Complexity Theory
11/34
1 de 2 1/11/2022 15:27
Cuarto
Sexto Nivel
These authors, Bley-Broman en Epstein et al.

(1996) in their academic journal article mentions
three types of theories:
1. Nativist Theories - Input-based Theories

2. Environmental Theories
3. Interactionist Theories
In the following lines, we will study Krashen's

theory of language acquisition where exposes
his five hypotheses. In this way, we will be able
to better understand the challenges that both
teachers and students experience in teaching
and learning a new language accordingly.
Figure 5, Stephen Krashen’s biographical data

Note. Taken from Stephen Krashen’s biographical data. ING 265 Day 4 (jara, 2012)
12/34
1 de 2 1/11/2022 15:28
Cuarto
Sexto Nivel
Krashen is a widely recognized linguist specializing in theories of language acquisition and development. Since 1980, he has
published over 100 books and articles and has been invited to deliver over 300 lectures at universities throughout the United
States and Canada.
Krashen proposes five well-known hypotheses about second language acquisition. This is a brief description of his theory which
has had a large impact in all areas of language research and teaching. Krashen's theory of second language acquisition consists
of five main hypotheses: (Krashen, 1982)
● The Acquisition-Learning distinction

● The Natural Order hypothesis
● The Monitor hypothesis
● The Input hypothesis
● The Affective Filter hypothesis
13/34
1 de 2 1/11/2022 15:28
Cuarto
Sexto Nivel
Figure 6, The 5 hypotheses of Krashen's Theory of Second

Language Acquisition
Note. Taken from Stephen Krashen's theory of Second

Language Acquisition (ThingLink, 2013)
14/34
1 de 2 1/11/2022 15:29
Cuarto
Sexto Nivel
Figure 7, Stephen Dr. Krashen quotes
Note. Quotes Taken from (TOP 25 QUOTES BY STEPHEN

D. KRASHEN, n.d.)
15/34
1 de 2 1/11/2022 15:29
Cuarto
Sexto Nivel
1. The Acquisition-Learning distinction
This is the most widely known and fundamental of the five hypotheses. According to Krashen (1982), “adults have two distinct and
independent ways of developing competence in a second language.' They are the acquired system' and 'the learned system'. The
first one is similar to the way a child learn the language. It is unconscious and needs only a meaningful communicative
environment. It is informal and natural. The people surrounding the learner do not need to teach grammar rules. The second one
(the learned system) refers to a conscious knowledge of the language. It is a formal knowledge of the language.
2. The Natural Order hypothesis
Krashen suggested that the acquisition of grammatical structures follows a natural order and are predictable, and this order
seemed to be independent of the learners’ age L1 background and conditions of exposure. Krashen also points out that (Schütz,
2019) the implication of the natural order hypothesis is not that a language program syllabus should be based on the order found
in the studies.
He confirms it when says that grammatical sequencing should not be followed when the goal is acquisition more than learning.
16/34
1 de 2 1/11/2022 15:30
Cuarto
Sexto Nivel
3. The Monitor hypothesis
This hypothesis declares that (Krashen, 1982) “formal rules or conscious learning play only a limited role in second language
performance”, and these language performers can use rules only when three conditions are met even though they are necessary
but not sufficient. The monitor acts in a planning, editing and correcting function when these conditions are:
(i) Time. In order to think about and use conscious rules effectively, a second language performer needs to have sufficient time.
(ii) Focus on form. To use the Monitor effectively, time is not enough.
(iii) Know the rule. This is a very formidable requirement. Linguistics has taught us that the structure of language is extremely
complex. Students are exposed only to a small part of the total grammar of the language. (Krashen, 1982, p. 16)
Krashen also distinguishes (Schütz, 2019) learners that use the 'monitor' all the time (over-users) and usually are the introverted
people from learners who have not learned or who prefer not to use their conscious knowledge (under-users) and usually are
extroverted people, and those learners that use the 'monitor' appropriately (optimal users). Lack of self-confidence is frequently
related to the over-use of the "monitor".
17/34
1 de 2 1/11/2022 15:31
Cuarto
Sexto Nivel
4. The Input hypothesis
This hypothesis suggests that language acquisition (Not language learning), occurs along with the “natural order” when learners
receive second language messages that they can understand and that are one step beyond the learner’s current stage of
linguistic competence, a concept also known as comprehensible input represented as i + 1, in order to allow learners to continue
to progress with their language development
The input hypothesis goes opposite to our usual pedagogical approach in second and foreign language teaching that says that the
person learns structures first and then he/she practice them in communication. Krashen says that (1982, p. 21) “we acquire by
"going for meaning" first, and as a result, we acquire structure!”
18/34
1 de 2 1/11/2022 15:31
Cuarto
Sexto Nivel
5. The Affective Filter hypothesis
Krashen points out that affective factors such as Motivation, Self-confidence and anxiety are directly related to second language
acquisition and its success. He continues saying that:
Those whose attitudes are not optimal for second language acquisition will not only tend to seek less input, but they will also have
a high or strong Affective Filter--even if they understand the message, the input will not reach the part of the brain responsible for
language acquisition, or the language acquisition device. (Krashen, 1982. p.31)
For more information about Krashen’s theory, go to this web page and examine the original book. Krashen, S. D. (1982).
Principles and practice in second language acquisition (1st ed). Pages: 10 – 32. Copy the link from the complementary
bibliography section.
19/34
1 de 2 1/11/2022 15:31
Cuarto
Sexto Nivel
1.7. Domains of language learning: cognitive, linguistic, and social/affective.
Linguistic, cognitive and social/affective domains provide fundamental knowledge about both individual and collective strengths
and needs in the second language learning, and as teachers, it is helpful to consider these three critical learning aspects.
Linguists emphasize the characteristics of the differences and similarities in the languages that are being learned, and the
linguistic competence (underlying knowledge) and linguistic performance (actual production) of learners at various stages of
acquisition.
Psychologists and psycholinguists emphasize the mental or cognitive processes involved in acquisition, and the representation of
language(s) in the brain.
Sociolinguists emphasize variability in learner linguistic performance, and extend the scope of study to communicative
competence
21/34
1 de 2 1/11/2022 15:32
Sexto Nivel
Cuarto
Self-assessment
1. Who found that damage to the front part of the left hemisphere resulted in language loss?
Saussure
Pierre Broca
Wernicke
Pregunta 1 de 10
24/34
1 de 2 1/11/2022 16:00
Sexto Nivel
Cuarto
Self-assessment
2. It is in charge of the production of language or language outputs.
Opción
Broca’s Area
Opción
Pregunta 2 de 10
25/34
1 de 2 1/11/2022 16:01
Sexto Nivel
Cuarto
Self-assessment
3. For most people, language happens in the ………………. of the brain.
left hemisphere
right hemisphere
front hemisphere
Pregunta 3 de 10
26/34
1 de 2 1/11/2022 16:01
Sexto Nivel
Cuarto
Self-assessment
4. Temporal lobe ……………………………..
interprets sounds and transforms into sentences.

sends information directly to Wernicke’s area.
receives, digests and processes human voice input.
Pregunta 4 de 10
27/34
1 de 2 1/11/2022 16:02
Sexto Nivel
Cuarto
Self-assessment
5. The successful learners’ statement is defined as fluency or functional competence according to some people. It means that
learners should have ……….
the ability to express oneself easily and articulately.

the ability to closely approximate to native grammaticality judgments.
the ability to have a pronunciation like native speakers
Pregunta 5 de 10
28/34
1 de 2 1/11/2022 16:02
Sexto Nivel
Cuarto
Self-assessment
6. Lenneberg claims that SLA as well as first language acquisition are influenced by ………………...
The Critical Period

The learners’ age
Learning strategies
Pregunta 6 de 10
29/34
1 de 2 1/11/2022 16:03
Sexto Nivel
Cuarto
Self-assessment
7. According to the Critical Period, L2 is best learned between age …….… and …………
two - puberty
two – after puberty
two – during puberty
Pregunta 7 de 10
30/34
1 de 2 1/11/2022 16:03
Sexto Nivel
Cuarto
Self-assessment
8. There are sex differences in language acquisition and progress. One of these is…
males seem to be better at memorizing complex forms.

Men outperform women in some tests of verbal fluency.
men’s brains may be more asymmetrically organized than women for speech.
Pregunta 8 de 10
31/34
1 de 2 1/11/2022 16:04
Sexto Nivel
Cuarto
Self-assessment
9. Social constructionist consider gender associated to a matter of ………..
social factors.
phycological factors.
neurological factors.
Pregunta 9 de 10
32/34
1 de 2 1/11/2022 16:04
Sexto Nivel
Cuarto
Self-assessment
10. The intrinsic motivation focuses on ………….
external factors that encourage and facilitate their language achievement.

the learner and the internal factors that encourage and facilitate their language achievement
learner’s opportunities that encourage and facilitate their language achievement
Pregunta 10 de 10
33/34
1 de 2 1/11/2022 16:04
Tema 2: Psychological Foundations of Second Language Acquisition https://evirtual.espe.edu.ec/programas_scorm.cgi?id_curso=22732&id_unidad=257415&id_p...
Cuarto Nivel
1/24
1 de 2 9/11/2022 16:29
Cuarto
Sexto Nivel
2.1 Languages and the brain
Psychologists and psycholinguists highlight the cognitive

processes involved in acquisition, and how language-s are
represented in the brain. Now, watch this video where
Professor Dave explains how the brain processes
language.
Professor Dave Explains (2020). The Brain and Language

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zj0yud4wv74
2/24
1 de 2 9/11/2022 16:37
Cuarto
Sexto Nivel
The discovery of the Broca's area The discovery of the Broca's

in the brain’s region has given area in the brain’s region has
enormous insight into language given enormous insight into
abilities and functions, and is one language abilities and functions,
of two key areas involved in and is one of two key areas
language comprehension and involved in language
production. It is fundamental to comprehension and production.
understand how language works, It is fundamental to understand
language deficits as well as how language works, language
psycholinguistics capabilities. deficits as well as
Neurolinguistics studies the psycholinguistics capabilities.
language in the sense of how it is Figure 2, Carl Wernicke
Neurolinguistics studies the Note. German physician,
represented and administered in Figure 1, Paul Pierre Broca language in the sense of how it anatomist, psychiatrist, and
the brain, therefore, how Humans Nota. Taken from Paul Broca.
is represented and administered neuropathologist. Taken from
acquire and use language. (Zhang 卒中轶事, 2017) People Pill (Eggert, 1977)
in the brain, therefore, how
Humans acquire and use
language.
3/24
1 de 2 9/11/2022 16:38
Cuarto
Sexto Nivel
On the other hand, the German neurologist Carl Wernicke discovered in 1871 another part of the brain. This time, it concerned
understanding language. People who had a lesion at the posterior part of the left temporal lobe was able to speak, nevertheless,
their speech was frequently incoherent or meaningless.
Broca and Wernicke's work was the base for others to study and identify localized areas of the brain, including the theory that
“brain damage in specific areas is responsible for different disorders, diseases, and abnormal behaviors.” (Eggert, 1977b). Broca
and Wernicke led to findings of the localization of brain function, specifically in speech.
The Language Loop
Subsequent research has shown that many more areas of the brain are involved in language activity than was thought earlier:
Lateral Sulcus: It is one of the most protruding structures of the brain.

Broca's Area: It is in charge of the outputs or production of language.
Wernicke's Area: It processes the spoken words or language inputs.
Arcuate Fasciculus: It is a large collection of nerve fibres. They connect Wernicke's area and Broca's area.
4/24
1 de 2 9/11/2022 16:48
Cuarto
Sexto Nivel
The left hemisphere presents this language loop in about

70% of left-handed persons, and (Knecht et al., 2000 cited
in Biduła et al., 2017) nearly 90% of right-handers use
predominantly their left hemispheres during language
production. For the majority of people, language happens in
the left half (or hemisphere) of the brain. Core linguistic
processes are typically housed in the left hemisphere. Such
specialization of the two halves of the brain is known as
lateralization. As the brain matures, there is increased
specialization and less plasticity.
Figure 3, The Language Loop

Note. Taken from Biological, Brain, Language. (says, 2016)
5/24
1 de 2 9/11/2022 16:54
The usual question of why some L2 learners get the language easier or successfully than others is explained under some differences among
learners themselves such as age, sex, motivation, cognitive style, personality, and learning strategies among others. Here we address this
question from a psychological perspective.
2.3.1. Role of age
Some studies define “success” in terms of how close the learner’s pronunciation is to a native speaker’s, others in terms of how closely a learner
approximates native grammaticality judgments, and still others in terms of fluency or functional competence. (Saville-Troike, 2005, p. 82)
Researchers have explored the age factor in learning a second language trying to show evidence that starting young makes any real difference in
being successful in SLA competence. This issue has been subject of large studies for a long time ago and recent publications provide reviews
from different points of view.
Lenneberg (1967 cited in Saville-Troike, 2005) utters that SLA as well as first language acquisition are influenced by the Critical period (It will be
explained later in detail). That is the reason why almost all L2 speakers have a “foreign accent” if they do not begin learning the language before
the cut-off age. Researchers go beyond by saying that younger learners are probably more communicative successful in informal and natural L2
learning contexts, older learners on the other hand are more successful in formal circumstances. How to explain this argument: younger learners
may be less inhibited than older learners because they communicate with close family or caregivers and others who speak the same native
language. They are also more likely to receive simplified language input which might help their learning. Regarding older learners, more real-world
knowledge enables them to perform more complex tasks, even being limited in their linguistic resources.
For further information about age factor, you can explore Ritgerð til BA prófs. Einar Garibaldi Stefánsson in their PDF (Placed in the Additional
Resources) about Second Language Acquisition. The effect of Age and Motivation.
1 de 1 9/11/2022 16:56
It has been discussed the second language acquisition competencies among adults and children since it seems to differ from the way children
acquire their first language. Penfield and Roberts introduced The Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH) in 1959 and in 1967, Lenneberg studied it in
detail. Brown (2007 cited in BA and Einar 2013) refers to this hypothesis (CPH) as
“a biologically determined period of life when language can be acquired more easily and beyond which time language is increasingly difficult to
acquire” (p. 57). According to him, “Critical point for second language acquisition occurs around puberty. After this age, people seem to be
relatively incapable of acquiring a second language” (p. 58). (p. 10)
Supporters of the Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH) contend that people who tries to learn a second language outside this critical period,
(Schouten, 2009) “will inevitably be marked by non-nativelike features.”
Figure 8, Lenneberg's Critical Period Hypothesis

Note. Taken from Phebe's A Level English Language Blog (Unknown, 2016)
1 de 2 9/11/2022 17:00
Figure 9, The Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH)

Note. Taken from Learning new languages, age factor matters? (Aaly, 2018)
For further information about age factor, you can explore Schouten 2009. The Critical Period Hypothesis: Support, Challenge, and
Reconceptualization placed in the Additional Resource section
2 de 2 9/11/2022 17:00
There is no doubt that language acquisition is a complex process that involves several factors. Opinions have been divergent concerning the rate
of language acquisition between male and female learners. Most research claim that SLA is more concerned with cognitive style or learning
strategies, or to opportunities for input and interaction which links mostly to social factors especially in many western cultures where some people
claim that male learners acquire language better and faster than their female counterparts. It seems to be some sex differences in language
acquisition and its processes, but there is a mixed research evidence. For example:
Males Females
Men’s brains may be more Women outperform men in some tests

asymmetrically organized than women of verbal fluency (such as finding words
for speech (Kimura 1992). that begin with a certain letter). (Kimura
1992).
Mental representations in the lexicon
versus the grammar: males appear to Mental representations in the lexicon
be better at computing compositional versus the grammar: females seem to
rules (e.g. Halpern 2000). be better at memorizing complex forms
(e.g. Halpern 2000).
Higher levels of articulatory and motor

ability have been associated in women
with higher levels of estrogen during the
menstrual cycle. Kimura (1992)
Note. Comparative table of gender differences regarding SLA. Adapted from Introduction to Second Language Acquisition. Taken from (Saville-Troike, 2005)
Social constructionist views of SLA consider gender associated with a matter of social factors. This particular range of studies have shifted
consideration of the L2 learner to social location and the L2 learner’s social identity. (Feery, 2008)
1 de 1 9/11/2022 17:03
Another factor that explains why some L2 learners are more successful than others is motivation. It seems to play a very important role in the
learning process. Motivation (Saville-Troike, 2005) “largely determines the level of effort which learners expend at various stages in their L2
development, often a key to the ultimate level of proficiency.” (p. 86)
There are two main types of motivation that have. According to Gardner’s research (2001 cited in Alghamdi, 2014), the motivation for learning a
language has traditionally been viewed as integrative and instrumental. These two concepts have evolved during the 1990s where researchers
expanded experiments and giving different perspectives; thus, naming, intrinsic and extrinsic.
The intrinsic/integrative motivation focuses on the learner and the internal factors that encourage and facilitate their language achievement. So,
Intrinsic motivation is defined as desire to do something because it is worthwhile (Williams and Burden, 1997). Based on the Self-Determination
Theory (SDT), Ryan and Deci (2000:55) define intrinsic motivation as “doing something because it is inherently interesting or enjoyable”. …
Therefore, while certain literature illustrates intrinsic motivation as an individual’s interest in a precise task, others define it as the satisfaction of
being involved in the task overall. (Alghamdi, 2014)
The extrinsic/instrumental motivation on the other hand are external factors that also influence SLA too. Instrumental motivation (Saville-Troike,
2005) “involves perception of purely practical value in learning the L2, such as increasing occupational or business opportunities, enhancing prestige
and power, accessing scientific and technical information, or just passing a course in school.” (p. 86)
While Saville-Troike (2005) asserts that neither of these orientations has an inherent advantage over the other in terms of L2 achievement and that
the relative effect of one or the other is dependent on complex personal and social factors, Alghamdi (2014) determined in his results that that
“stronger feelings of intrinsic motivation were related to positive language learning outcomes, including greater motivational intensity, and greater
self-evaluations of competence.” (p.3)
Teachers’ Motivation and their relationship with students is also relevant as an element because it creates a relaxed atmosphere in the classroom
and thus, it increases learners’ motivation and improves their L2 performance. Then, when teachers have confidence that people value their
teaching, they will work hard so that they will support the good results of their students. In turn, students will be motivated and will perform better in
their language. Thus according to Alghamdi (Alghamdi, 2014) “perceptions of the teacher’s communicative style were connected to intrinsic
motivation.” (p. 4)
In conclusion, motivation has been considered as an important aspect in the study of SLA because researchers have assumed that the more
motivated language learners are, the more they achieve in learning the language.
For more information about motivation in the learning process of a second language learning, read THE ROLE OF MOTIVATION AS A SINGLE
FACTOR IN SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING of AHMED M. AL-GHAMDI.
1 de 1 9/11/2022 17:06
Sexto Nivel
Cuarto
Self-assessment
1. Language production follows regular and predictable patterns. They are produced in Linguistic and Psychological contexts
True
False
Pregunta 1 de 10
14/24
1 de 2 9/11/2022 17:20
Sexto Nivel
Cuarto
Self-assessment
2. ……………..to L2 learners may be in the form of direct correction.
Input
Social feedback
Negative feedback
Pregunta 2 de 10
15/24
1 de 2 9/11/2022 17:20
Sexto Nivel
Cuarto
Self-assessment
3. ………………..is the communication that occurs between people and it helps L2 learners progress in the learning language.
Scaffolding
Input
Interpersonal interaction
Pregunta 3 de 10
16/24
1 de 2 9/11/2022 17:21
Sexto Nivel
Cuarto
Self-assessment
4. All learning is seen as a social process that is based on sociocultural settings. Who claims this?
Chomsky
Vygotsky
Piaget
Pregunta 4 de 10
17/24
1 de 2 9/11/2022 17:21
Sexto Nivel
Cuarto
Self-assessment
5. …………………is the area of what I can do with help of learners and experts.
Scaffolding
The Zone of Proximal Development
Social interaction
Pregunta 5 de 10
18/24
1 de 2 9/11/2022 17:21
Sexto Nivel
Cuarto
Self-assessment
6. According to the Ethnography of Communication and Social Psychology described in the text “Introducing SLA acquisition”
written by Saville-Troike (2005) which macro-social factor is not considered?
Feelings, self-esteem, and self-confidence

Boundaries and identities
Institutional forces and constraints
Pregunta 6 de 10
19/24
1 de 2 9/11/2022 17:22
Sexto Nivel
Cuarto
Self-assessment
7. Political identification and cohesion in SLA could be defined as………
the dominant language applied to colonies that lead a specific territory.

the single and national language that everybody is expected to speak for national unity
the forces and constraints exerted in language-related social control.
Pregunta 7 de 10
20/24
1 de 2 9/11/2022 17:22
Sexto Nivel
Cuarto
Self-assessment
8. Social boundaries and national borders have also an influence on SLA. Its functions is …………………
to acquire the language easily than older learners in a natural setting

get good scores on language tests.
to unify speakers of the same language community and to exclude outsiders from insider communication.
Pregunta 8 de 10
21/24
1 de 2 9/11/2022 17:22
Sexto Nivel
Cuarto
Self-assessment
9. The Accommodation Theory refers to ……………
L1 speakers adjusting the linguistic structures to simplify their language when they are talking to an L2 learner who is
not fluent.
tendency to adjust their people’s behavior while interacting to control the social differences between both speakers.
people adjusting to communicate by minimizing social differences.
Pregunta 9 de 10
22/24
1 de 2 9/11/2022 17:23
Sexto Nivel
Cuarto
Self-assessment
10. When ………………..are very strong and L2 is really important to the individual, older learners can succeed in SLA .
social constraints
social motivations
people’s bonds
Pregunta 10 de 10
23/24
1 de 2 9/11/2022 17:23
Tema 3: Linguistics in the second language performance https://evirtual.espe.edu.ec/programas_scorm.cgi?id_curso=22732&id_unidad=257415&id_p...
Cuarto Nivel
d language pe...
1/24
1 de 2 15/11/2022 21:05
Cuarto
Sexto Nivel
d language pe...
3.1. Learners’ creative construction of language
We begin this learners’ creative construction of

language with Contrastive Analysis (CA), which
precedes SLA in the 1960s as a field of systematic
study. Aspects of CA procedures are still in
continuous research of L1 as in influence on L2.
Then, we will continue with Interference, Avoidance
and Error analysis as strategies for learners
learning a second language. Later, Noam Chomsky
came up with the revolution in linguistics in 1957
with his universal grammar (UG). In modern
linguistics, this is the theory of the genetic
component of the language faculty which postulates
that a certain set of structural rules are innate to
humans, independent of sensory experience.
3.3.1. Contrastive Analysis
Figure 1, Contrastive analysis

Note. Contrastive Analysis hypothesis founded by the pioneer of CA field.
Robert Lado. Theory and Practice of Translation. Taken from (Online
Presentation, n.d.)
2/24
1 de 2 15/11/2022 21:09
Cuarto
Sexto Nivel
d language pe...
Figure 2, Linguistics across cultures

Note. Robert Lado’s formulation of the “Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis” in
his “Linguistics across Cultures” (1957) is considered the greatest contribution
in the field of CA studies. Taken from (Linguistics Across Cultures Applied
Linguistics for Language Teachers - AbeBooks, n.d.)
3/24
1 de 2 15/11/2022 21:10
There are some difficulties that second language learners may face when learning a second language. Researchers believe that the first
language has interference on the second language acquisition, and the role of L1 in the L2 depends on some similarities and differences
between the two languages. Therefore, there are implications for teachers and learners of a second language. (Derakhshan & Karimi, 2015)
When the same structure is fitting in both languages we can say that there is a positive transfer (facilitating), for example the transfer of a
Spanish plural morpheme -s on nouns to English (e.g. languages in Spanish to languages in English). On the other hand, when the L1
structure is used in an inappropriate way in L2, we can say it is s negative transfer (interference) for example, the plural word "people" in
English is a good example of negative interference from Spanish to English. This word is treated as singular for students who tend to say
“People is kind.”
Robert Lado’s (1957 cited in Saville-Troike, 2005) position is that: the easiest L2 structures (and presumably first acquired) are those which
exist in L1 with the same form, meaning, and distribution and are thus available for positive transfer; any structure in L2 which has a form not
occurring in L1 needs to be learned. (P. 35)
For further information about interference, read the article “the Interference of First Language and Second Language Acquisition” by Ali
Derakhshan. See the link in the Additional Resources section.
Lado also gives examples in Spanish and English for some of the types of contrasts he describes. (Saville-Troike, 2005, P. 36)
1 de 3 15/11/2022 21:47
Figure 3, Robert Lado

Note. Robert Lado, brief biographical data. Taken from Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis. (Shona Whyte, 02:57:02 UTC)
2 de 3 15/11/2022 21:47
Figure 4, Types of interference

Note. Examples of types of contrast between English and Spanish which may cause interference. Taken from Introduction to Language Acquisition. (Saville-Troike, 2005)
3 de 3 15/11/2022 21:47
Cuarto
Sexto Nivel
d language pe...
3.1.3. Avoidance
When learning a second language, it is common that learners try to use simpler words in order to avoid the use of difficult words
or structures that could have the same meaning or content. This phenomenon in L2 learning/acquisition is called “Avoidance
behavior” and this is one of the common strategies employed by second language learners. Schachter (1974, cited in
(Maniruzzaman, n.d.) came up with this finding related to avoidance. “Whenever this kind of avoidance takes place, learners
communicate by those linguistic means that make them feel safe from error.” (Laufer & Eliasson, 1993). What is avoided is
typically a target language word or structure that is perceived as difficult by the learners.
It is important to determine what items or structures are avoided since it is of practical value for teachers and educators to identify
the areas that present learning difficulties and therefore, they can design tests or language syllabi to help the learner in the
learning process. “Explaining why avoidance occurs contributes to our understanding of the operating principles that underlie the
process of L2 learning.” (Laufer & Eliasson, 1993)
5/24
1 de 2 15/11/2022 21:53
Cuarto
Sexto Nivel
d language pe...
Classification of categories of avoiding strategies
According to Vázquez (2005), there are several classifications of avoidance, but Tarone, Cohen and Dumas’, (1976, 1983) and
Tarone (1979, 1982) is the most usual and exhaustive and presents six different categories:
1. Avoidance of the topic

2. Semantic avoidance
3. Stopping mid-sentence
4. Paraphrasing
5. Asking for help
6. Changing language (p. 69)
Each of them can affect phonology, morphology, syntax and lexis.
Several studies have provided evidence for avoidance and we can say that this behavior exists in and has some influence on L2
performance. (Maniruzzaman, n.d.)
For more information about this classification, go to the paper Avoidance as a learning strategy written by María Cristina ALONSO
VÁZQUEZ. The link is in the Additional Resources section.
6/24
1 de 2 15/11/2022 22:01
“Error Analysis (EA) is the first approach to the study of SLA which includes an internal focus on learners’ creative ability to construct
language.” (Saville-Troike, 2005). Broughton et al. (2003 cited in Djunas, 2017) believe that errors are unavoidable and necessary in the
learning process. It will always happen and it is not bad. It only shows that learning is going on.
Following, there is a conventional distinction between error and mistake. Error is usually made due to the lack of knowledge of the
language rules and cannot be self-corrected, because the learner does not know or recognize the problem, and mistake is usually
accidental and can be self-corrected and you know it is wrong.
Error analysis substituted Contrastive Analysis which was commonly used between 1950 and 1960 and talks about the learner’s errors. It
is said that the primary source of error is interference produced from the L1, first language, or native language. Saville and Troke (2006)
who were already mentioned in the previous theme talk about two types of transfer, the positive and negative transfer called interference.
Types of Error Based on Error Analysis
Based on Travakoli (2012, cited in Djunas, 2017):
● Based on basic type: Omission, Addition, Overgeneralization or Misinformation and Misordering

● Based on language competency: Overt and Covert
● Based on the level of language: Phonological, Morphological and Syntax
● Error Gravity: Local Error and Global Error
For more detailed information about these types of errors, you can visit Djunas SlideShare’s (2017) Second Language Acquisition about
Error Analysis placed in the Additional bibliography.
Stephen Pit Corder states that errors should be viewed as signs of positive language development rather than deficiencies. He and
colleagues first introduced in the 1960s this Error analysis (EA) concept in SLA. Corder distinguishes in his book related to Error analysis
(1974) five procedures in a typical error analysis research, these steps are:
● Collection of a sample of learner language.

● Identification of errors.
● Description & Classification of errors.
● Explanation of errors
● Evaluation/correction of errors
How about the implication of Error Analysis on Language Teaching?
1 de 2 15/11/2022 22:02
● First, in language teaching, being aware of errors as visible proof that learning is taking place, makes teachers be more tolerant of
some of them.
● Second, Corder (cited in Djunas, 2017) states that the teacher will know how much the learner had learnt from the information
provided by the students’ manifestation of errors and choose the best teaching strategy to fix learner errors.
● Finally, how people learn or acquire a second language attracted SLA theorists Mitchener and Dana R. (2012 cited in Djunas,
2017), who became interested in analyzing the occurrence of errors.
Figure 5, Stephen Pit Corder
Note. Corder is one of the founders of British applied linguistics, an expert in error analysis. Taken from. Knowing Corder in 2 minutes. (Wong Christine, 2018)
2 de 2 15/11/2022 22:02
Cuarto
Sexto Nivel
d language pe...
3.2. Role of grammar in second language acquisition. Linguistic background
3.2.1. Universal Grammar (UG)
Two concepts, in particular, are of central importance in

Language Acquisition:
(1) Linguistic competence is distinguished from linguistic

performance (Elements studied in previous chapters).
(2) “Such knowledge of language goes beyond what could be

learned from the input people receive. This is the logical
problem of language learning, or the poverty-of-the stimulus
argument.” (Saville-Troike, 2005, p. 46)
Chomsky and his followers have claimed since the 1950s that
all children are born with the innate ability to learn any human
language. To get a glimpse of Noam Chomsky's theory, tune
into this short video Noam Chomsky on Language Acquisition. Taken from (BBC Radio 4,
2015) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7Cgpfw4z8cw
8/24
1 de 2 15/11/2022 22:03
Cuarto
Sexto Nivel
d language pe...
According to Chomsky (2002:1 cited in Saville-Troike, 2005), there is “a component of the human mind, physically represented in
the brain and part of the biological endowment of the species”. (p. 47). He claims that our proverbial slates cannot be completely
blank when we are born; we must be hard-wired with structures in our brains, or what he called language acquisition devices
(LADs).
If a language faculty indeed exists, it is a potential solution to the “logical problem” because its existence would mean that children
already have a rich system of linguistic knowledge which they bring to the task of L1 learning. They wouldn’t need to learn this
underlying system, but only build upon it “on the basis of other inner resources activated by a limited and fragmentary linguistic
experience” (Chomsky 2002:8 cited in Saville-Troike, 2005, p. 47).
Children do not need a prompt to learn a language. Parents do not need to coax their children to speak. They only need to speak
around the child and that will help him/her to produce a language on their own. Language comes naturally.
Chomsky argues that in the genetic code of human beings would be the basis of a complex process of principles and parameters
that structure grammar, establishing a relationship of syntax and cognition. The different languages of the various cultures that
have existed in the history of humanity and still exist are derived from a universal grammar typical of all human beings with
biological roots. (Lucero, 2019). Therefore, what all languages have in common is Universal Grammar.
9/24
1 de 2 15/11/2022 22:04
Cuarto
Sexto Nivel
d language pe...
3.2.2. A bit about the Theorist Noam Chomsky
Chomsky is an American philosopher, theorist, Cognitive Scientist, and Linguist. He was born in 1928. He is widely known for his
role in both Linguistics as well as political activism. He has written many books about these disciplines. Chomsky has built a large
international audience with the facts and arguments needed to understand and change our world. According to the New York
Times, Chomsky “may be the most widely read American voice on foreign policy on the planet today.” (Chomsky, 2020).
He was a professor at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology since 1961, Noam

Chomsky has had a revolutionary impact on the field of linguistics. Chomsky describes
the study of cognitive linguistics as “the study of the language faculty of the human
mind”. Following the publication of the book Syntactic Structures in 1957,
transformational grammar dominated the field of linguistics for the next few decades.
His Transformational-Generative Grammar was the first linguistic framework with an
internal focus. This theory of grammar accounts for the constructions of a language by
linguistic transformations and phrase structures. His theories have evolved from there
to the Principles and Parameters model and to the Minimalist Program.
The sentence Colorless green ideas sleep furiously was constructed by Chomsky to show that a
grammatically correct sentence can still be void of meaning. This sentence was later used in one Figure 4, Noam Chomsky
1985 literary competition where the goal was to make it meaningful in 100 words or less! (Saville- Note. Taken from La Lingüística de
Troike, 2005) p.46 Chomsky. La teoría de la gramática
generativa. (Lucero, 2019)
10/24
1 de 2 15/11/2022 22:08
L2 acquisition involves a number of individual and social factors that strongly affect learning outcomes in language classrooms. It is important
to recognize them because they contribute to efficiency and effectiveness in second language development. As a starting point, findings of
SLA suggest several factors which serve as guidelines for L2 learning and teaching, consequently, these factors have been classified
according to several settings in which the learner is involved.
These classifications show that individual differences among other differences are an area that cannot be neglected, Therefore, these factors
could affect second language learning in the classroom including some implications in the area of language teaching and learning in general.
For example, Ellis (1985 cited in Samaraweera, 2019) presents a double classification regarding individual differences:
a. Personal factors: group dynamics, attitudes to the teacher and materials, individual learning techniques
b. General factors: age, intelligence, aptitude, cognitive styles and attitude and motivation
Practical implications in the language classroom environment go further with Dornyei (2005, cited in Samaraweera, 2019) “The psychology of
the language learner”, who argues that the factors listed below should be considered as defining factors in the field of education concerning
individual differences.
a. Personality
b. Language ability/aptitude
c. Motivation
d. Learning Styles
e. Learning Strategies
These individual factors are very discussed and researched and have a special influence on second language learning, and even though
there are arguments and challenges against them, they still stand with their importance in a classroom instruction setting. (Samaraweera,
2019)
For further information about these factors, go to Samaraweera, D. (2019). Second Language Learning: Factors that Affect Second Language
Learning and the Practical Implications posted in the Additional Resources section.
On the other hand, Maly (2014), in his dissertation for the Degree of Doctor of Education in Educational Leadership in which he talks about
Similar and contrasting factors affecting the academic performance of newly arrived and second-generation Filipino and Mexican high school
English learners, points out two main factors that affect Academic Performance of Newly Arrived and Second-Generation English Language
Learners:
1 de 2 15/11/2022 22:08
a. Teacher Quality Equity, Programmatic Equity and Achievement Equity

b. Student-Centered and School Centered Factors
For more information on this subject, go to Maly’s link in the Additional Resources material.
Other authors complement these factors arguing that not only the teacher but the learner has participation in the teaching and learning
process too. Therefore, both are active participants in the classroom. The students must also assume more responsibility for the learning
process. Quist (2000) proposes two essential factors:
a. Attitudes of Language Learning. It plays a key role in language learning. Researchers conducted by Gardner (2001, 2002, cited in
Mosha, 2014) showed a correlation between attitudes and motivation as determinant factors in language learning classrooms. It is also
generally agreed among researchers that positive attitudes facilitate the learning process.
b. Motivation and Language Learning. In teaching, motivation has been regarded as one of the main factors that influence the speed and
success of foreign language learners. (Gardner, 2006, cited in Mosha, 2014).
Apart from motivation and attitudes, researchers show clearly that the home environment has a part to play in students’ poor performance in
schools (Suleiman, 1999; Mapuri, 1999 cited in Mosha, 2014).
The last but not least of our factors affecting teaching and learning in a classroom environment significantly, according to (Einar, 2013),
involves two main factors, age and motivation, and the Learning Environment. These are stated in the paper The effect of age and motivation.
Motivation is what involves the environment as you can see.
a. Age
b. Motivation and the Learning Environment
● Motivation
● The natural setting and instructed setting
● Educational context and cultural context
● Motivation in the learning environment
● Motivation and young learners in the classroom
Therefore, it is very important and imperative that practitioners have a better understanding of these factors in order to provide better learning
experiences to the learners and make the language learning process interesting and effective.
2 de 2 15/11/2022 22:08
Sexto Nivel
Cuarto
Self-assessment
1. Choose the right option. Pit Corder is related to …………
Contrastive Analysis
Universal Grammar
Error anysisis
Pregunta 1 de 10
14/24
1 de 2 16/11/2022 19:05
Sexto Nivel
Cuarto
Self-assessment
2. Choose the right option. The Monitor model was proposed by……….
Robert Lado
Stephen Krashen
Noam Chomsky
Pregunta 2 de 10
15/24
1 de 2 16/11/2022 19:05
Sexto Nivel
Cuarto
Self-assessment
3. “There is “a component of the human mind, physically represented in the brain and part of the biological endowment of the
species”. Who said that?
Noam Chomsky
Selinker
Krashen
Pregunta 3 de 10
16/24
1 de 2 16/11/2022 19:06
Sexto Nivel
Cuarto
Self-assessment
4. Children do not need a prompt to learn a language means that …………..
they do not have the language rules in their heads.

they can speak with the need of teachers.
they can speak freely without any language pushing.
Pregunta 4 de 10
17/24
1 de 2 16/11/2022 19:06
Sexto Nivel
Cuarto
Self-assessment
5. He is widely known for his role in both Linguistics as well as political activism.
Dulay and Burt

Robert Lado
Chomsky
Pregunta 5 de 10
18/24
1 de 2 16/11/2022 19:06
Sexto Nivel
Cuarto
Self-assessment
6. What is the Language Acquisition Device (LAD)?
It is a component of the Constructivist theory of language.

This is an instinctive mental capacity that helps children to acquire and produce language.
This is a hypothetical tool hardwired into the brain that helps children listen to words rapidly.
Pregunta 6 de 10
19/24
1 de 2 16/11/2022 19:07
Sexto Nivel
Cuarto
Self-assessment
7. Group dynamics, attitudes to the teacher and materials, individual learning techniques are part of the ……………
personal factors
social factors
general factors
Pregunta 7 de 10
20/24
1 de 2 16/11/2022 19:07
Sexto Nivel
Cuarto
Self-assessment
8. What is the difference between error and mistake?
Error is usually accidental and you know it is wrong and mistake cannot be self-corrected.
Error and mistake mean the same since both are made because the learner makes them usually accidentally and can
be self-corrected.
Error is usually made due to the lack of knowledge of the language rules and mistake is usually accidental.
Pregunta 8 de 10
21/24
1 de 2 16/11/2022 19:08
Sexto Nivel
Cuarto
Self-assessment
9. Stephen Pit Corder states that errors are part of the learning process, therefore should be viewed as positive not as a
deficiency.
True
False
Pregunta 9 de 10
22/24
1 de 2 16/11/2022 19:08
Sexto Nivel
Cuarto
Self-assessment
10. Robert Lado played an important role in the development of a Generative grammar theory.
True
False
Pregunta 10 de 10
23/24
1 de 2 16/11/2022 19:08
Tema 4: Socio-cultural factors in second language acquisition https://evirtual.espe.edu.ec/programas_scorm.cgi?id_curso=22732&id_unidad=257415&id_p...
Cuarto Nivel
1/24
1 de 2 30/11/2022 22:00
MICRO-SOCIAL FACTORS
Within a microsocial focus, the first topic will be L2 variation, which has received a lot of attention since the 1970s from SLA
researchers concerned with sociolinguistics. In the first section, we will explore the contextual dimensions that are related to
variations of SLA. In the second microsocial topic, we will see how native speakers frequently adjust their language interacting with
L2 learners, and how social and cultural factors could modify their input. In the third topic, we will examine Vygotsky’s Sociocultural
Theory and the Zone of Proximal Development in its relation to scaffolding.
4.1.1. Variation in learner language
One important characteristic of a L2 learner is that it is very variable. As learners achieve higher levels of L2, some changes occur at
every stage. This produces some variability that can be attributed to their social context.
Language production follows regular and predictable patterns. “These are multiple linguistic forms which are systematically or
predictably used by different speakers of a language, or by the same speakers at different times.” (Saville-Troike, 2005, p. 102).
They occur at every linguistic level: vocabulary, phonology, morphology, syntax, discourse. Which variable feature occurs in any
speaker, depends largely on the communicative contexts in which it has been learned and is used. Some relevant contextual
dimensions are:
Linguistic contexts: In this example: Words pronounced with [æs] in General American (GA) but with [ɑ:s] in Received
Pronunciation (RP) called Oxford English or British English: brass, class, glass, grass, pass, grasp, gasp, mask, task, ask, basket.
Exceptions: crass, gas, lass, mass. (British and American English Pronunciation Differences, n.d.). Another example, “She took a
picture” or “She took a photo” (variable vocabulary); I have learned or I have learnt (variable morphology), and That is a large city or
That a large city (variable syntax); and how about if they may respond with Hello or I am glad to meet you (variable discourse).
Psychological contexts: these are factors related to the attention given to language during production. Krashen affirms that
motivation, self-confidence and anxiety are factors that encompass an input-rich environment that makes students engage in the
development of their capacity to acquire language. This idea of Psychological variables plays a serious role in the student’s ability to
learn in the educational setting because the learner may enhance or inhibit SLA according to Krashen.
1 de 1 30/11/2022 22:02
INPUT AND INTERACTION

From a social perspective, interaction is generally seen as essential because it provides learners the quantity and quality of external
linguistic input which focus learner attention on aspects of their L2 which are different from target language rules or goals. Language
input contributes to acquisition only if it remains in the learners’ brain to be processed. That is to say, what is acquired in L2 includes
only that portion of L2 input “which is assimilated and fed into the IL system” (Ellis 1985:159 cited in Saville-Troike, 2005, p. 111).
Then we can say that cognitive processing took place, and the reasons that some learners are more successful than others include
their degree of access to social experiences which allow for negotiation of meaning and corrective feedback. However, reciprocal
interaction as a source and stimulus for learning ignores “autodidacts” who teach themselves from books and recordings. (Saville-
Troike, 2005)
Feedback
Feedback is another type of interaction. Individuals learn from native speakers’ feedback. They make aware students that the way
they are speaking is not acceptable thus, they provide a model for them to correct. Corrective feedback is common in L2 especially if
they want to reach the desired native-like levels of proficiency. When there is direct correction, we can say that this is negative
feedback. Negative feedback to L2 can be given in a direct way and can be used explicit statements correct. For example, they may
say “You cannot say that” or “You must say this”, “That is the wrong word” or even “This is incorrect”. This includes points of
grammar and usage. For the negative feedback the indirect correction can be used too. For example: If the male learner who is trying
to learn Spanish says “Yo estoy embarazado.” (With the connotation of ‘I am embarrassed.’, the native speaker may say: You are
what? (Meaning ‘You’ve got the wrong word. Try again.’). And how to explain that some learners are more successful than others? It
depends on their degree of access to social experiences since this reciprocal interaction provides the learner corrective feedback and
enough stimulus. Regarding “autodidacts”, they teach themselves from different sources.
1 de 1 30/11/2022 22:03
INTERPERSONAL INTERACTION AND THE ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT (ZPD)

Interaction is seen as the genesis of language and it is based on Sociocultural Theory (SC) (Vygotsky 1962, 1978 cited in Saville-
Troike, 2005). Interpersonal interaction is the communication that occurs between people and it helps L2 learners progress in the
learning language through scaffolding (We will talk about that later). The major theme of Vygotsky's theoretical framework is that
social interaction plays a fundamental role in the development of cognition. All learning is seen as a social process that is based on
sociocultural settings. This focuses on factors that are completely in the learner’s head, and it denies that the learner is a largely
autonomous processor (Saville-Troike, 2005). Parents, teachers, peers, and the community play a paramount role in children’s
development. Every child has a different Zone of Proximal Development.
Figure 1, Bits of Lev Vygotsky’s life

Note. Taken from The Socio-Cultural view of Lev Vygotsky. (Weebly, n.d.)
Vygotsky believed that children are social learners. Teachers should make group learning part of their everyday classroom practice
and encourage group discussions. Collaborative learning experiences happen through discussion. Children should be encouraged to
discuss what strategies they use to complete a task. Questioning can be used as a scaffolding technique to support students
1 de 2 30/11/2022 22:03
operating in their zone of proximal development. (Weebly, n.d., pr.1)
Zone of proximal development (ZPD)
Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934) developed the concept of the zone of proximal development. In this area, the learner can achieve potential
linguistic development only with assistance. “According to S-C Theory, mental functions that are beyond an individual’s current level
must be performed in collaboration with other people before they are achieved independently.” (Saville-Troike, 2005, p. 112). This
potential development is possible through the interaction between learners and experts (“experts” include teachers and more
knowledgeable learners) in what Vygotsky calls the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). Let’s look at the diagram below.
Figure 2, Zone of Proximal Development

Note. Taken from Zone of Proximal Development. (Dr. Jackson, 2019)
This diagram shows the difference between what a learner can do without help and what he or she can do with help. For more
understanding, watch the video placed in the Additional Resources section La Teoría Socio-Cultural de Vygotsky: cómo las
relaciones sociales avanzan el aprendizaje that illustrates how the Zone of Proximal Development Works in SLA.
2 de 2 30/11/2022 22:03
Cuarto
Sexto Nivel
4.1. Micro-social factors
Instructional Scaffolding
Scaffolding is the support or verbal guidance which an expert

provides to help a learner perform any specific task within the ZPD
which is tailored to the needs of the student with the intention of
helping the student achieve his/her learning goals. Watch the movie
below for more understanding of scaffolding for student success.
Scaffolding includes strong initial teacher support and is gradually

reduced as the student approaches the desired learning outcome.
In these vertical structures or scaffolds “experts provide learners with

chunks of talk that the learners can then use to express concepts
which are beyond their independent means.” (Saville-Troike, 2005).
Figure 3, Scaffolding in Social cultural Learning Theory
Something very important to mention is that scaffolding is not for a Note. Taken from Scaffolding for student success. (YourAlberta,
learner as a passive recipient, but for a learner as an active 2018)
participant. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uKLDjmPk_RE
5/24
1 de 2 30/11/2022 22:03
Cuarto
Sexto Nivel
4.2. Macro social factors
Now, let’s reflect on the macrosocial factors that at social contexts affect SLA taking into consideration the frameworks of the
Ethnography of Communication and Social Psychology described in the text “Introducing SLA acquisition” written by Saville-Troike
(2005). These approaches help us to explore issues related to identity, status, and values and how they influence L2 outcomes,
and why. The macro social factors we will consider are:
• Global and national status of L1 and L2

• Boundaries and identities
• Institutional forces and constraints
• Social categories
• Circumstances of learning
6/24
1 de 2 30/11/2022 22:04
GLOBAL AND NATIONAL STATUS OF L1 AND L2

The power and status of learners’ native and target languages influence second language acquisition at a global and national level.
They could be openly signed when people in the power insert them in official policies or be present in cultural values and/or practices.
(Saville-Troike, 2005). “Languages have power and status at global and national levels for both symbolic and practical reasons”:
(Saville-Troike, 2005, p. 120).
Political identification and cohesion is a symbolic function of language is. In the USA for example, English is the single and national
language and everybody is expected to speak this language for national unity. This may be considered unpatriotic if its people do not
do it. Immigrants from different linguistic backgrounds are required to learn and speak English if they want the citizenship. The
teaching of English as an L2 immigrant is encouraged and/or mandated. Another very important example falls to countries that
were/are in the process of nation-building. This is the case of Israel for which the official use of Hebrew was symbolically important to
be established.
Second languages have also served political functions in times of conquest and empire-building. For example, when Spaniards came
to South America, one element of conquest was to bring the Spanish language to these lands and practically impose them as a
symbol of conquest.
Another case of symbolic function is opportunities and motivation for learning a particular L2. It depends on the power or status of the
society that it represents. That is the case of learning Chinese because everybody is thinking that due to the growth of its economic
status it is worth learning it. These examples illustrate the reasons which may follow periods of linguistic spread.
1 de 1 30/11/2022 22:04
Cuarto
Sexto Nivel
4.2. Macro social factors
4.2.2. Boundaries and identities Acculturation
Social boundaries and national borders have also an influence on SLA and linguistic boundaries often exist within or across
national borders. Their function is to unify speakers of the same language community and to exclude outsiders from insider
communication, and age, gender, and ethnicity are relevant factors to SLA. The relationship between native and target language
groups and openness and permeability of community boundaries affect SLA as well.
When national borders are created in an artificial way, the dominant language is applied to colonies as a consequence of social
and political tensions. When a person crosses borders, it is necessary to learn the culture of that community and get adapted to
the values and behavioral patterns in order to have full participation. That is acculturation. Motivation is influenced by external
social factors and ethnic minorities. As a consequence, they end having a cultural and linguistic integration into the dominant
society.
On the other hand, when the dominant group members do not want to be identified with the minority community they don’t learn
the minority language.
John Schumann (1978) identifies another group that affects in a negative way the language outcome. It can happen that target
groups try to be socially distant from learners. The dominant group segregates learners who in their turn do not want to lose their
identity.
8/24
1 de 2 30/11/2022 22:04
INSTITUTIONAL FORCES AND CONSTRAINS

Sometimes, SLA is influenced by social institutions with power, influence or authority, and these institutional forces and constraints,
and circumstances of learning often affect the SLA and economic and educational opportunities too. In this macho-social factor, the
forces and constraints are language-related social control, determination of access to knowledge, and other instances of linguistic
privilege or discrimination.
Institutions, having the power, can determine the language that has to be used in determined cases. This is a form of linguistic social
control. For example, in Political meetings or for election or appointment to political office, the use of the national language is often
required. On the other hand, if political officeholders need to get votes, competence in other languages may also be valued. For
example, presidential election campaigns have featured candidates orating in the language of groups with different linguistic
backgrounds, or at least, they use few words or phrases learned by memory in order to formulate the right symbolic message and get
the attention of the population. Another example of social control takes place in the domains of law and social services. They only
work with the dominant language causing discrimination to immigrants in countries where official language communication in minority
languages is not provided.
Social factors have to do with access to education. Nevertheless, “proper” language usage of the language may be an obstacle for
the majority of applicants who try to enter demanding institutions since not every learner accomplishes with their language
requirements. (Saville-Troike, 2005, p. 120). We can see it in some countries where universities and professional schools require
English. Minority language speakers do not have many opportunities to have access to higher education because they do not have
good instruction that warranty quantity and quality in language.
Wealth and social status may determine opportunities to acquire L2 too. For example, parents who are wealthy send their children to
private schools will have a better education than learners from lower social status who may have to go to public schools for in many
cases, they do not provide the best education in the country. On the other hand, scholarly conferences and publications are usually
led in English which indicates clearly the power of the language and English speakers too. For example, it is said that knowledge is
giving mostly in English.
Finally, from a social perspective, acquisition of a dominant L2 may lead to a slow disappearance of the minority language because
this group would provoke alienation for the individual, and as a result, it will cause the disappearance of the language. For example,
in indigenous groups where Spanish is required to communicate because it is officially required in social settings as a dominant
language may cause the disappearance of L1.
1 de 1 30/11/2022 22:04
SOCIAL CATEGORIES ADDITIVE BILINGUALISM

Macrosocial contexts can also produce their effect when learners are placed in Social Categories according to their age, education,
sex, ethnicity, among others giving them favorable or unfavorable circumstances of learning. Hence, it is important to consider this
aspect in this section of the macrosocial context of SLA.
Age for example that was discussed as a biological factor in learning, can be considered a social factor affecting L2 learning too. We
know that young L2 learners can acquire the language easily than older learners in a natural setting. Nevertheless, some aspects of
the social setting may not favor lower age groups. It can happen to young immigrant children who have been submerged in L2
dominant environments because they have received little education before immigrating. At the same time,
these children also have not faced the early negative expectations or pressures for assimilation in and out of school that their peers
often do in a predominantly English-speaking setting, which may have adversely affected the level and quality of their instructional
experience. (Saville-Troike, 2005, p. 125)
On the other hand, when social motivation is very strong and L2 is really important to the individual, older learners can succeed in
SLA to the level of being able to “pass” for a native speaker even though biological factors generally favor a younger age for SLA.
Still more effects of macrosocial contexts can be seen in the gender. Sex was studied as a biological factor in learning and now we
will consider it a social factor too. Neither group has an innate advantage over the other, it is that they are or have been given
different opportunities for SLA depending on the societies where they live. Thus, social interaction has been limited due to differences
in language opportunities.
The ethnic social boundaries and identities can be seen as another category that may have an influence on SLA too since L2
learners are going to be exposed to native speakers and other L2 learners. People in heterogeneous societies may perceive
horizontal distance or the relative power and prestige of one over the other in their relationship. Likewise, there will be more
probability to learn the other’s language if people who have much in common interact with each other. (Saville-Troike, 2005, p. 126).
Religion and cultural background can be seen as other factors too.
1 de 1 30/11/2022 22:05
CIRCUMSTANCES OF LEARNING
The circumstances of learning are the final macrosocial factors of SLA. These are.
Learners’ prior educational experiences. These constitute some of the larger social contexts in which SLA takes place. The first
experiences with which children are born in their families and then in their communities and also the cultural environment that is
surrounding them and what plays an important role is important to add is the cultural values.
Culture-based learning strategies can be seen very clearly in Asian students who are good for methods that implicate memorization.
They get good scores on tests that measure memory for numbers. It means that Chinese students learning English as an L2 may
learn easily through memorization while this approach may not work with students of other cultures that are not used to this learning
strategy.
Another situational circumstance that is fundamental to L2 is if the instruction is informal or formal, naturalistic or instructed. For
example, informal/naturalistic usually happens when learners live in a multilingual society where their members and lifestyle involve
international travel and residence. For example, official employees of the United States must move with their families to other
countries to render their services in NGOs or in diplomatic posts. Then their circle of family and friends becomes a multilingual
society.
Formal/instructed generally can take place in social contexts and where multilingualism is highly valued. For example, in study-
abroad and student-exchange programs with all instruction in the L2, or two-way bilingual programs because students speak different
native languages, they learn each other’s language and learn subject matter through both languages. It can happen in study-abroad
and student-exchange programs.
Macrosocial factors may also influence linguistic variation. It can happen in political settings, social position and role of users
(immigrant, international student, visiting dignitary), societal attitudes and institutional organization within which language learning
and use take place.
Macrosocial contexts can also produce effects when learners acquire different varieties of the “same” target language. For instance,
USA Peace Corps volunteers in Ecuador may hear and speak Spanish standard variants depending on the workplace they are
assigned to go for work since Ecuador is very rich and diverse in many aspects including linguistic variations of the official language
spoke. These aspects include phonological, morphological syntactic, and semantic features as well as vocabulary and other
language variations. Therefore, the nature of language input and group identity can be modified by macrosocial and cultural contexts
1 de 2 30/11/2022 22:05
Let’s mention one more example of linguistic variation. It refers to the Accommodation Theory. When native speakers are talking to
an L2 learner who appears not to be fluent, they modify their grammatical complexity of sentences and pronunciation unconsciously.
It can happen when people from another country with a good linguistic background of the target language go to a foreign country for
tourism or studies. When target language speakers detect such foreign pronunciation or weak language performance, they tend to
simplify their language when in their interaction with the newcomers.
In conclusion, macrosocial factors are not separated from each other. Learning circumstances are connected to the whole social and
cultural background, their history, culture, geopolitical position and economic categorizations within the society in which the children
were born and grown. That makes their experiences in learning a second language successful or not, to what point, and with
determined characteristics.
All of these factors powerfully influence the microsocial contexts of learning, determining who does and does not have opportunities
for L2 input and interaction and of what sort, and what the outcomes of L2 learning are likely to be. These various factors are beyond
the control of the individual, but whether options are available or not, one’s L1 and possible L2(s) can have profound effects on the
course of one’s life. (Saville-Troike, 2005, p. 126).
2 de 2 30/11/2022 22:05
Sexto Nivel
Cuarto
Self-assessment
1. The child only needs a natural resource of communication as essential requirement for…...
Language Learning
Language Acquisition
Any language Learning
Pregunta 1 de 10
14/24
1 de 2 30/11/2022 22:49
Sexto Nivel
Cuarto
Self-assessment
2. Language Acquisition is based on …………..
sociology processes
literary aspects of language
the neuro-psychological processes
Pregunta 2 de 10
15/24
1 de 2 30/11/2022 22:50
Sexto Nivel
Cuarto
Self-assessment
3. In language learning……..
activities and methods are designed.

the teacher does not control de pace in an intentional process
teaching is not presupposed
Pregunta 3 de 10
16/24
1 de 2 30/11/2022 22:50
Sexto Nivel
Cuarto
Self-assessment
4. In L1, ………..
verbal and non-verbal communication is given and children repeat what they hear
students interact with other students in a language class
the child is forced to repeat what parents teach him/her.
Pregunta 4 de 10
17/24
1 de 2 30/11/2022 22:50
Sexto Nivel
Cuarto
Self-assessment
5. First language is……….
only the first language the child has been exposed to from birth or within the critical period.
a language that a person has been exposed to from birth or within the critical period
a second language learned in school.
Pregunta 5 de 10
18/24
1 de 2 30/11/2022 22:50
Sexto Nivel
Cuarto
Self-assessment
6. Second Language Acquisition is ………
the process of learning a second language.

a systematic process of learning other-s language apart of the first or native language.
a formal study of a second language
Pregunta 6 de 10
19/24
1 de 2 30/11/2022 22:50
Sexto Nivel
Cuarto
Self-assessment
7. During the Preproduction stage, …………
students may not produce any speaking of the language.

students should produce their first words.
students use single words
Pregunta 7 de 10
20/24
1 de 2 30/11/2022 22:51
Sexto Nivel
Cuarto
Self-assessment
8. Linguistic performance
is our unconscious knowledge of languages.

is what we actually produce as utterances.
the nature of the speaker production and speech perception mechanisms.
Pregunta 8 de 10
21/24
1 de 2 30/11/2022 22:51
Sexto Nivel
Cuarto
Self-assessment
9. The input hypothesis goes opposite to our usual pedagogical procedures when teaching a language. It means that….
the person learns structures first and then he/she practice them in communication.
the person practices meaning first and then he/she learns the structures.
the person practices structures and meaning at the same time.
Pregunta 9 de 10
22/24
1 de 2 30/11/2022 22:51
Sexto Nivel
Cuarto
Self-assessment
10. …………… is one of the affective factors that are directed related to second language acquisition and its success.
Time
Motivation
Ethnicity
Pregunta 10 de 10
23/24
1 de 2 30/11/2022 22:51
The child only needs a natural resource of communication as essential requirement
for…...
● Language Learning
● Language Acquisition
● Any language Learning
● Any language Learning from America
Language Acquisition is based on …………..
● sociology processes
● literary aspects of language
● the neuro-psychological processes
● psychology processes
In language learning……..
● activities and methods are designed.
● the teacher does not control de pace in an intentional process
● teaching is not presupposed
● teaching is presupposed
In L1, ………..
● verbal and non-verbal communication is given and children repeat what they
hear.
● students interact with other students in a language class
● the child is forced to repeat what parents teach him/her.
● the child is not force to repeat what teachers teach him/her.
First language is……….
● only the first language the child has been exposed to from birth or within the
critical period.
● a language that a person has been exposed to from birth or within the critical
period
● a second language learned in school
● second language learned in the house
Second Language Acquisition is ………
● the process of learning a second language.
● a systematic process of learning other-s language apart of the first or native
language.
● a formal study of a second language
● an informal study of a second language
During the Preproduction stage, …………
● students may not produce any speaking of the language.
● students should produce their first words.
● students use single words
● students may produce many speaking of the languages.
Linguistic performance
● is our unconscious knowledge of languages.
● is what we actually produce as utterances.
● is the nature of the speaker production and speech perception mechanisms.
● is not the nature of the production of the perception of mechanisms.
The input hypothesis goes opposite to our usual pedagogical procedures when
teaching a language. It means that….
● the person learns structures first and then he/she practice them in
communication.
● the person practices meaning first and then he/she learns the structures.
● the person practices structures and meaning at the same time.
● the person do not practice structures and meaning at the same time.
……… is one of the affective factors that are directed related to second language
acquisition and its success.
● Time
● Motivation
● Ethnicity
● Love
The Broca´s area is responsible for the ability to…...
● utter sounds
● write words
● understand
● listen
The Wernicke´s area is responsible for the ability to…...
● utter sounds
● write words
● understand
The Wernicke and Broca´s areas are located on the……
● left hemisphere
● right hemisphere
● frontal eye field
● right and left hemispheres
The large collection of nerve fibers that connect Wernicke's area and Broca's
area is the…
● Lateral sulcus
● Arcuate Fasciculus
● Central sulcus
● frontal sulcus
When the brain matures…

● there is increased specialization and more plasticity
● there isn´t increased specialization and less elasticity
● there is increased specialization and less plasticity
● there isn´t increased specialization and more elasticity
● the process of learning a second language.
● a systematic process of learning other-s language apart of the first or native
language.
● a formal study of a second language
● an informal study of a second language
L2 learners get the language easier or successfully than others that are…
● under some differences such as requirements, wealthy family, level of
education and paradigms among others.
● under some differences such as gender, motivation, level of education and
learning strategies among others.
● under some differences such as genre, reasons, social class and learning
styles among others.
● under some differences such as where they live, color of the skin, social class
and learning styles among others.
The role of the age in learning a second language is considered a success

when …
● the sooner the learners start, the better grammaticality judgments, fluency and
functional competence they develop.
● the sooner the learners start, the merrier.
● the sooner the learner starts, the faster they speak.
● the sooner the learner speak, the faster they start.
Regarding gender. It means that….
● men learn faster than women.
● women learn faster than men.
● men and women learn more according to cognitive style or learning
strategies, or to opportunities for input and interaction
● men and women do not learn more according to cognitive style or learning
strategies, or to opportunities for input and interaction
…………… is considered an important aspect in the study of a SLA.
● Social class
● Motivation
● Intrinsic and extrinsic
● gender
The first language has interference on the second language acquisition, and
the role of…
● L1 and L2 depend on some differences between the two languages.
● L1 and L2 depend on some similarities and differences between the two
languages.
● L1 in the L2 depends on some similarities and differences between the two
languages.
● L2 in the L1 depends on some similarities and differences between the two
languages.
According to R. Lado, the easiest forms to be acquired in L2 are
● the ones existing in L1 too.
● the ones existing in L2 too.
● the ones existing either in L1 or L2
● the ones existing either in L1 or L2 and L3
El análisis contrastivo (CA) es un enfoque para el estudio de SLA que implica
predecir y explicar los problemas del estudiante en función de una
comparación de L1 y L2 para determinar similitudes y diferencias.
● True
● False
● Maybe
● True and false
It is common that learners try to use simpler words in order to evade the use
of difficult words or structures that could have the same meaning or content.
● Avoidance and Error
● Interference
● Error
● Avoidance
When the same structure is fitting in both languages we can say that there
is…
● interference
● a positive transfer.
● an error
● an error and an interference
Instead of saying “He might go to the party.” The learner says “It is possible
that he goes to the party”. It is a creative construction of the language related
to:
● Avoidance
● Interference
● Error analysis
● Avoidance and Interference
Error is usually …
● made due to the deviation in the listeners of the language
● made due to the deviation in the speakers' language
● made due to the lack of knowledge of the language rules.
● made due to the learner’s knowledge of L2.
Mistake occurs when the speakers,
● writes in the target L1 language using their L2 grammar
● is writing in the target L2 language using their L1 grammar
● deviates resulting from ignorance of the rule.
● although familiar with the rule, fail to perform accordingly.
Universal Grammar is …
● the system of principles, conditions, and rules that are elements or properties
of all human languages.
● the system of grammar rules that all languages have.
● the system of symbols used in all languages.
● the syntax used to describe a sentence
Principles and parameters are part of a genetically innate universal grammar
which all humans possess.
● True
● False
● Maube
● Who knows
Theme 5: Theoretical aspects of bilingualism https://evirtual.espe.edu.ec/programas_scorm.cgi?id_curso=22732&id_unidad=257416&id_pkg=10...
Cuarto Nivel
1/28
1 de 2 15/1/2023 19:59
Sexto Nivel
Cuarto
5.1. Defining bilingualism
Can we say that a bilingual person is someone who speaks two languages? This is not enough reason to assert that. Who can
be seen as a bilingual person? This chapter will try to answer these questions. Watch this video which tries to explain who can be
a bilingual person and the varieties of this phenomenon.
Figure N 1, Bilingualism
Note. What is Bilingualism? Taken from (Denis Zubalov, 2020)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aCiu7oPLlI4
2/28
1 de 2 15/1/2023 19:59
Firefox https://evirtual.espe.edu.ec/programas_scorm.cgi?id_curso=22732&id_unidad=257416&id_pkg=10...
There are many definitions regarding bilingualism from different authors. These definitions release varieties of bilingualisms according to the
diversity of linguistic settings and social circumstances this phenomenon happens. We will start with the narrowest ideas and finish with the
broadest ones.
Before going on to give some definitions of bilingualism, it is important to point out that some authors do not restrict the term of bilingualism to
the involvement of just two languages. When three, four or more languages are used by one individual or groups of speakers, which is a state
of multi – or plurilingualism, we say that this is a case of multi – or plurilingualism. However, Beadsmore (1986) and Pavlenko (2005), both
cited in Cardozo (2011) argue that these terminologies (bilingualism, plurilingualism or multilingualism) can be used interchangeably to refer to
the use of two or more languages. The term Bilingualism is often used as a shorthand form for multi-plurilingualism cases.
Let’s start with the kind of narrow definition of Bloomfield (1993) who affirms that a bilingual person is someone whose two languages are so
proficient that one cannot be distinguished from the one of a native speaker. “In the cases where this perfect foreign-language learning is not
accompanied by loss of the native language, it results in bilingualism, native-like control of two languages” (Bloomfield, 1933, p. 55-56), and if
the second language is not well developed, “English has become what we may call their adult language”.
On the other hand, Weinreich (1964, p.83 cited in Cardozo, 2011) claims for bilinguals that there are factors that make a language dominant
over the other such as the usefulness of a language, its role in social advance, and its literacy-cultural values. It can be seen in cases of
immigrants where they start forgetting their mother tongue because they have to use the dominant language in that country.
There is one more consideration regarding bilingual people. According to Harding and Riley (2003 cited in Cardozo, 2011), in countries where
two languages are full officially recognized like in Canada, Belgium and Finland for example, it does not mean that people there are bilingual.
There are other different definitions like the Merriam-Webster’s dictionary which says: bilingual is “having or expressed in two languages”;
“using or able to use two languages especially with equal fluency”; or simply “the constant oral use of two languages” (Definition of
BILINGUAL, n.d.).
Continuing with definitions of bilingualism and moving to a more flexible position, this is the one of Macnamara (1967) who describes a
bilingual person as someone who has a minimum competence in one of the four language skills of the second language: listening, speaking,
reading and writing.
1 de 2 15/1/2023 19:59
Finally, we have a broad definition of bilingualism. For Steiner and Hayes (2009, cited in Cardozo, 2011), it is “the ability to speak, read, write,
or even understand more than one language” (p. 3). It means that if somebody can speak two o more languages, no matter their proficiency in
any of the languages the individual speaks, he/she can be considered bilingual.
As we can see, bilingualism does not have a unique definition. They go ranging from the native-like competence in two languages like in
Bloomfield to a minimal proficiency in the second language like in the case of Macnamara or Steiner and Hayes.
We might stick to Siguán and Mackey definition (cited in Montenegro, 2012) who state that a bilingual person is someone “who, besides
his/her L1, possesses a similar competence in a different language, and is able to use either of them within any circumstance with similar
effectiveness” (p. 265) since nowadays, many people reach this state of bilingualism to some extent. And the question now is “What is your
definition?”
2 de 2 15/1/2023 19:59
Sexto Nivel
Cuarto
5.2. Varieties of bilingualism
Likewise, there are several definitions of bilingualism, there are several types of bilingualism considering that everybody is not
equally bilingual. Thus, some authors classify it according to age, competence, the context of acquisition among others. The
most frequent classification of bilingualism is by individual and social bilingualism. René Appel and Pieter Muysken in their book
“Language Contact and Bilingualism”, highlights two main kinds of bilingualism “individual” and “social bilingualism” and some
of their effects on individuals and communities. We will consider the classification he supports. (Appel & Muysken, 2005)
5.2.1. Individual bilingualism
In general terms, Individual bilingualism involves the ability of a person to acquire and use a second language. Siguán and
Mackey (Montenegro, 2012) consider these basic characteristics for individual bilingualism. You will find them briefly summarized
in the table below.
Table 1, Characteristics of
Type Features individual bilingualism
Note. Taken from

Codes Independence Clearly defined codes; automatic language separation (Montenegro, 2012)
Alternation The quick and effortless shift from one code to another
Translation Expressing similar meanings in either code
4/28
1 de 2 15/1/2023 20:00
Sexto Nivel
Cuarto
5.2. Varieties of bilingualism
On the other hand, Weinreich (1952 cited in Montenegro, 2012), considered the relationship between the languages that have
come into contact. He proposed three types of bilingualism:
a. Coordinate bilingualism: developed in early childhood. For example, when two parents with different linguistic backgrounds
speak only his/her mother tongue to the child, the child will build two separate linguistic systems being able to handle each of
them easily.
b. Compound bilingualism: developed in early childhood too. When both parents are bilingual and speak to the child in both
languages indiscriminately. The child will speak both languages without an accent but will never be able to master all the
subtleties of each language.
c. Subordinate or late bilingualism: it is developed after the critical period and could be learned through immersion in a
community that speaks the language to be learned or through formal classroom studies. In both cases, memory is involved.
The individual characteristics of a learner and the environment where the SLA takes place are the factors that modify people’s
performance.
5/28
1 de 2 15/1/2023 20:00
Social bilingualism
From a socio-psychological perspective, in a multiethnic society, where the socio-cultural factors of the child's social and family environment
prevail, the more or less privileged ethnic group is probably determined by how politically and economically dominant this group is, and the
more advantageous is probably the one with major status. It brings out two types of bilingualism. (Lambert 1974; Gardner 2002 cited in Saville-
Troike, 2005):
a. Additive bilingualism, where members of a dominant group learn the language of a subordinate group without threat to their L1
competence or to their ethnic identity.
b. Subtractive bilingualism, where members of a subordinate group learn the dominant language as L2 and are more likely to
experience some loss of ethnic identity and attrition of L1 skills – especially if they are children. (p.127)
This could be the case of speakers of indigenous speakers of languages that may get in contact with communities that live along country
borders.
1 de 3 15/1/2023 20:00
Figure 2, Wallace Lambert
Note. Taken from (Saville-Troike, 2005, p. 127)
From a social perspective, societies or speech communities are also affected by bilingualism. It happens where two languages are spoken, or
where all or some of the members of that group are bilingual.
The most widely accepted forms of social bilingualism are those put forward by Appel and Muysken (1986, p. 10), schematically presented
below:
Figure 3, Forms of Social bilingualism

Note. Schematically represented forms of social bilingualism. Adapted from (Appel & Muysken, 1986)
Situation I: Two different communities are monolingual. A few bilingual individuals get in touch with each other group for necessary intergroup
communication. These small groups together would form one bilingual community. This form of societal bilingualism used to happen in colonial
times, for example, when the Spaniards came to South America and spoke Spanish and the native people spoke their native language.
Situation II: Everybody is bilingual. African countries are a good example of this societal bilingualism.
Situation III. In this form of societal bilingualism, one group is monolingual, and the other is bilingual. Usually, the bilingual group is oppressed
by the dominant monolingual group. Situations like these happen in some Latin American countries where indigenous groups have to learn
Spanish in order to communicate with mestizos who speak Spanish and remain monolingual.
2 de 3 15/1/2023 20:00
Appel & Muysken, (2005) affirm that forms of bilingualism do not exist in a pure form in the world, “different mixtures are much more common.
The linguistic situation of most countries is far more complex, with more than two groups and more than two languages involved.” (p. 15)
Siguan and Mackey cited in I. R. M. Montenegro (2012), identify the historical factors that may intervene to form bilingualism since “it is
practically impossible to determine how historical, cultural, political, and linguistic factors combined to lead to a bilingual situation.” (p.5)
1. Expansion
2. Unification
3. Post-colonial situations
4. Immigration
5. Cosmopolitanism
3 de 3 15/1/2023 20:00
Sexto Nivel
Cuarto
5.3. Types and approaches to bilingualism theories
Researchers have created these theories that describe the cognitive development of bilingualism. The theories of bilingualism
include the balance theory, common underlying proficiency, threshold theory, and the linguistic interdependence hypothesis.
(Wallner, 2016)
5.3.1. The Balance theory (Separate underlying proficiency model (SUP)
This theory is also known as the separate underlying proficiency (SUP) model. It supports the view that bilinguals are inferior to
monolinguals because of the assumption that increasing competency in one language means decreasing competency in the
other language. (Wallner, 2016). It is assumed the notion that the brain has limited space and capacity for the acquisition and
storage of language skills. Cummins visualized this idea by picturing the head of a language learner. (1980a,1981a cited in
Buttar, 1997) Inside the brain, the person has two language “balloons”, one for their native language and one for the second
language. If one language grows, the other has to become smaller, and vice versa thus reflecting changes in proficiency. He
suggested that “a monolingual learner would have one better-filled balloon in his brain than a bilingual learner having two half-
filled balloons.” (p.13). However, the balance theory has been rejected and considered flawed because multiple studies suggest
that when children are immersed in a bilingual program, proficiency in L1 and L2 develop simultaneously and because it is
assumed that the acquisition of two languages is kept separate in the brain, therefore, the two balloons of language are quite
independent of each other.
7/28
1 de 2 15/1/2023 20:00
Sexto Nivel
Cuarto
5.3.2. The Common underlying proficiency (CUP) model
This theory is also known as The Think Tank model of bilingualism. This model supports the idea that (Buttar, 1997. p. 14) “the
Think Tank works in a unitary way of thinking even if the two languages do not merge and remain separate. Feeding the
language tank richly results in a well-developed engine”. Two channels feed successfully cognitive functioning and educational
attainment. Baker (1993a cited in Buttar, 1997) advises that “the child's language needs to be sufficiently well developed in order
to process the cognitive challenges of the classroom.” (p. 15). Besides that, “the common cognitive processes that bilingual
speakers develop their language proficiencies from include literacy, abstract thinking and problem solving” (Baker, 1996 cited in
Wallner, 2016, p. 16).
Figure 4, The Common underlying Proficiency Model

Note. The dual Iceberg Analogy. Taken from Pinterest
https://www.pinterest.com/pin/344877283936174249/
8/28
1 de 2 15/1/2023 20:01
Sexto Nivel
Cuarto
Baker (1996 cited in Wallner, 2016) created an analogy to represent it. Two icebergs that appear over the surface of the water
are connected below the surface of the water. The icebergs symbolize the first and second language but they are linked by the
same operating system. It gives the idea that both languages would not function separately but operated through the same
system. Therefore, it is assumed that the individual can learn additional languages (Baker, 1996 cited in Wallner, 2016). The
picture below shows very clearly the difference between the Separate Underlying Proficiency Model and the Common Underlying
Proficiency Model.
Figure 5, Comparison between SUP and CUP theories

Note. Taken from Teaching for Cross-Language Transfer in Dual Language
Education: Possibilities and Pitfalls (Cummins, 2005)
Nevertheless, neither of these theories have provided an effective

link between cognition and degrees of bilingualism according to
MacNamara (1967) and Diebold (1961), both cited in Buttar
(1997).
9/28
1 de 2 15/1/2023 20:01
The threshold theory

The threshold theory describes the relationship between cognition and proficiency in bilingualism (Bilash, 2009, cited in Wallner, 2016).
Students who have higher bilingual proficiency have greater cognitive advantages. The Threshold theory considers bilingualism a structure of
three levels.
a. The lowest level of bilingualism is known as limited bilingualism.

b. The next most proficient level is known as less balanced bilingualism
c. The balance bilingualism
At the lowest level, the limited bilingual speakers who experience a low level of competence in the first language, as well as a low level of
linguistic proficiency in the second language, will experience cognitive disadvantages. According to Baker (1996 cited in Wallner, 2016), this
child will find it difficult to assimilate the academic aspects of the curriculum which are highly dependent on literacy skills.
The next stage or less balanced bilingualism is characterized by an increased bilingual proficiency result in one language, not in both.
Additionally, there is less probability of negative or positive cognitive effects. It is like being in the middle.
The final level is balanced bilingualism. Balanced bilinguals develop appropriate competence. He/she becomes relatively proficient in both
languages. These students have cognitive advantages to their bilingualism like increased deductive reasoning in math according to Baker
(1996, cited in Wallner, 2016). Children with a high level of linguistic competence are hence assumed that cope well with the more academic
aspects of the curriculum.
1 de 2 15/1/2023 20:01
Figure 6, The Thresholds Theory. Baker 1988

Note. Taken from Research – Bilingual Education.
https://bilingualed.weebly.com/research.html
In this three-story house, the two linguistic ladders on each end represent L1 and L2. The floors represent each cognitive threshold starting
with limited bilingualism, then the less balanced bilingualism and ending with balanced bilingualism (Baker, 1996 cited in Wallner, 2016).
The criticism to this theory is it does not specify precisely the native and level of proficiency required to reach the next level. Additionally, it
does not state the level of language proficiency in order to obtain the positive advantages of bilingualism and avoid the negative effects of
bilingualism.
2 de 2 15/1/2023 20:01
Sexto Nivel
Cuarto
5.3.4. The Linguistic Interdependence Theory of Bilingualism
This theory suggests that “a child's second language competence is partly dependent on the level of competence already
achieved in the first language.” (Buttar, 1997, p. 21). It means that the more developed L1 is, the easier it will be to acquire L2.
Cummins (1984a) proposes the terms Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills/surface fluency (BICS) and Cognitive Academic
Language Proficiency/ conceptual-linguistic knowledge (CALP). Appel and Muysken (1987:105 cited in Buttar, 1997, p. 21)
defined the terms as:
BICS are the phonological, syntactic and lexical skills necessary to function in everyday interpersonal contexts, while CALP is
required in tasks where students have to manipulate or reflect upon surface features of language outside immediate
interpersonal contexts, as in school tasks or in language tests.
A study in a transitional bilingual program in the United States used these distinctions to explain how language minority children
were taught through their first language (BICS) until they became proficient enough in their second language (CALP). With this
surface fluency achievement, they were transferred to mainstream education. (Buttar, 1997). Cummins (1981b, 1983 and 1984a)
proposed two dimensions for the further development of this theory. See figure 7 below.
11/28
1 de 2 15/1/2023 20:01
Sexto Nivel
Cuarto
Nevertheless, Cummins’ theory of the relationship between

language and cognition is criticized because this theory fails
to consider other variables like a cultural, social, political,
community among others because bilingualism should be
considered as an individual and societal phenomenon.
For more information on these and other theories, watch the

video Cognitive theories of Bilingualism by Mark Bartlett
(2016). https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4BXeSXqvOy0
Figure 7, The linguistic interdependence Theory of Bilingualism

Note. Languages. ELL Assessment for Linguistic Differences vs. Learning
Disabilities. Taken from https://www.pinterest.com/pin/291959988325189691/
12/28
1 de 2 15/1/2023 20:01
Sexto Nivel
Cuarto
5.4. Bilingual language behavior and acquisition (mono and bilingual)
Second language processing in the brain has been a matter

of study on adult successive bilinguals (When children are
exposed to additional languages at age three or older) and
how it is affected by factors like age and exposure to that
second language. In this unit, we will study the behavior of
monolingual and bilingual language specifically when they
are acquired and processed and behavioural and neural
functional consequences. Two main topics will be
appreciated: the infants’ exposure to two languages and their
challenge and the study of bilingualism that also examine the
impact of learning a second language on the acquisition and
processing of the first language (in successive bilinguals).
Most of this valuable information was taken from the article
How does the bilingual experience sculpt the brain? by
Albert Costa & Núria Sebastián-Gallés
Figure 8, Theoretical aspects and benefits of bilingualism
Note. The benefits of a bilingual brain - Mia Nacamulli. Taken from (TED-Ed,
2015) https://www.ted.com/talks
/mia_nacamulli_the_benefits_of_a_bilingual_brain?language=en
13/28
1 de 2 15/1/2023 20:02
Language learning challenges faced by infants who are exposed to two languages
The focus here is the language development in bilingual infants (sometimes called ‘bilingual first language acquisition’). Specific learning
adaptations are carried out to bilingual input. When learning a language, the person has to deal with the properties of that language:
phonemes, words, and the complexity of grammar. For example, grammar structure will differ from one language to another and how it works
in infancy with monolingual infants is relatively well described. Nevertheless, it is less known about learning the language of infants who are
raised in a bilingual or multilingual environment. In fact, there are some specific adaptations in this process.
While monolingual infants learn the language in a monolingual context, bilingual infants must learn two linguistic codes, that is two sets of
phonemes, two lexicons and two grammatical systems. Besides that, we have to consider that not all bilingual children are exposed to a good
or adequate linguistic environment that helps them to learn each of the two languages. On the other hand, bilingual infants have to analyze the
information corresponding to these two types of speech since “the learning of two or more language systems runs in parallel with the need to
sort and properly compute the information for each language.” (Costa & Sebastián-Gallés, 2014). Considering these two aspects, the issue es
analyzing their effects on the first language(s) learning.
Language discrimination
Costa & Sebastián-Gallés (2014), affirm that several studies have shown that “at birth humans prenatally exposed to monolingual or bilingual
inputs are able to differentiate two languages, provided they sound very different.” (p. 3). The ability to discriminate two similar languages like
Spanish and Italian appears later at around 4-5 months of age in both monolingual and bilingual infants.
Nevertheless, language discrimination is affected to bilingual children. One study involving bilingual and monolingual 4-5-month-olds (Bosch L,
Sebastián-Gallés 1997) determined that “monolingual infants oriented faster to a familiar language than to an unfamiliar one while bilingual
infants showed the opposite pattern.” (p. 33-69). These ideas of differences in language discrimination are supported by other studies too.
Figure 1 demonstrates this idea of discrimination between monolingual and bilingual children.
Two studies show that not only sounds but also articulatory gestures differ monolinguals from bilingual children “in their capacity to visually
discriminate different languages from watching silent videos of people speaking these languages”. (Weikum et all. 2007. 316(5828):1159 and
van Wassenhove V et all. 2005 102(4):1181-6).
These studies demonstrate that “monolingual and bilingual infants show similar developmental trajectories in terms of language discrimination;
however, the bilingual input seems to tune some of the mechanisms behind this ability.” (Costa & Sebastián-Gallés, 2014. p. 3)
Certainly, the available evidence suggests that bilingualism does not seem to compromise in any significant manner language acquisition.
Nevertheless, some studies show that the bilingual input induces some specific adaptations in the mechanisms underlying such achievements.
(Costa & Sebastián-Gallés, 2014. p 5)
1 de 2 15/1/2023 20:02
Figure 9, Native-language recognition abilities in 4-month-old infants from monolingual and bilingual environments
Note. Two experiments comparing monolingual and bilingual infants’ capacities to discriminate languages. Taken from Costa & Sebastián-Gallés (2014)
For more information on Language discrimination and Figure 9, read the article How does the bilingual experience sculpt the brain? by Costa &
Sebastián-Gallés. You will find the link at the Additional Resources section.
2 de 2 15/1/2023 20:02
How learning a second language affects first language comprehension and production processes
In this section, we will explore how learning and using a second language may modify or interfere with first language processing in adult
populations. This is also called the ‘bilingual effect’.
a. Behavioural consequences of the bilingual effect on first language processing
Studies suggest that bilingualism can have effects on performance in the first language at various levels of linguistic processing: At the
semantic level, at the lexico-syntactic level, and at the phonological level. These studies with successive bilinguals (Children exposed to
additional languages at age three or older) have compared the performance of bilingual adult speakers in their first language with that of
monolingual speakers.
There are three main origins of these effects of bilingualism. First, individuals start using their first language less often than do monolinguals.
Therefore, the first language is affected because of the frequency of second language usage. Second, the continuous interaction of the first
and second language systems may cause ‘transfer’ from the second to the first language. First language slow destruction may be caused
when the linguistic transfer goes along with reduced use of the first language, for example in international adoptions, in which the first
language is often no longer (or very infrequently) used. Last, the need to control and monitor the two languages, especially in speech
production tasks may be detrimental for the first language processing.
Because of these bilingual effects that demand on cognitive processes, one may expect that first language efficiency becomes affected (for
example, by a decrease in speech rate). Once discussed the behavioural consequences of bilingualism for first language processing, we now
will see how bilingualism affects the neural circuitry involved in such processing.
b. Neural consequences of the bilingual effect on first language processing
According to studies, neural activity between monolinguals and bilingual young adults shows potential differences in language processing.
Several studies have shown a greater activity of the brain areas involved in the language in bilinguals than in monolinguals.
The most convincing study carried out by Parker Jones O. et al. where the brain of bilinguals and monolingual controls were compared, the
results revealed that “bilinguals exhibit higher activity in five left-hemisphere language-related brain areas (dorsal precentral gyrus, pars
triangularis, pars opercularis, superior temporal gyrus and planum temporale)”. (Costa & Sebastián-Gallés, 2014. p. 7)
1 de 2 15/1/2023 20:02
Discoveries have shown that there are some more processing benefits too in bilinguals. According to Krizman J. (2012), a larger electrical
brain response in the range of sounds fundamental frequency produces an enhanced subcortical representation of linguistic sounds
suggesting that bilinguals have more efficient and flexible auditory processing. Other discovery shows that “early and late high-proficient
bilinguals, on average, show increased grey matter in areas involved in verbal fluency tasks (left inferior parietal structures), articulatory and
phonological processes (left putamen) and auditory processing.” (Heschl Gyrus. 2012 cited in Costa & Sebastián-Gallés, 2014. p. 8). The
information given above shows evidently that bilingualism has great behavioural and neural effects on language processing.
For more details about “the most convincing study carried out by Parker Jones O. et al”, read the article Where, when and why brain activation
differs for bilinguals and monolinguals during picture naming and reading aloud by Parker Jones O. et al. You will find the information in the
Additional Resource section.
2 de 2 15/1/2023 20:02
Sexto Nivel
Cuarto
1. Bilingualism, plurilingualism or multilingualism can be used interchangeably to refer to the use of two or more languages
True
False
Pregunta 1 de 10
18/28
1 de 2 15/1/2023 20:02
Sexto Nivel
Cuarto
2. When we talk about subordinate bilingualism, we refer to ….
a speaker who have constructed two separate linguistic systems.
an individual who learns two languages in the same environment so that he/she acquires one notion with two verbal
expressions.
the child who learns the language after the critical period.
Pregunta 2 de 10
19/28
1 de 2 15/1/2023 20:02
Sexto Nivel
Cuarto
3. In a multiethnic society, social bilingualism is determined by ………….
how politically and economically dominant the group is.

how powerful the family is.
how advantageous the individual learner is.
Pregunta 3 de 10
20/28
1 de 2 15/1/2023 20:03
Sexto Nivel
Cuarto
4. Who do you attribute the concepts of coordinated, complex and subordinated bilingualism?
Siguán and Mackey

Uriel Weinreich
René Appel and Pieter Muysken
Pregunta 4 de 10
21/28
1 de 2 15/1/2023 20:03
Sexto Nivel
Cuarto
5. Bloomfield defines bilingualism as “native–like control of two languages
True
False
Pregunta 5 de 10
22/28
1 de 2 15/1/2023 20:03
Sexto Nivel
Cuarto
6. The narrowest definition of bilingualism says that it is “the ability to speak, read, write, or even understand more than one
language”
True
False
Pregunta 6 de 10
23/28
1 de 2 15/1/2023 20:03
Sexto Nivel
Cuarto
7. What does the Threshold theory hold?
There is a relationship between cognition and proficiency, the higher bilingual proficiency, the greater cognitive
advantages.
Two channels feed successfully cognitive functioning and educational attainment.
The brain has a limited space and capacity for the acquisition and storage of language skills.
Pregunta 7 de 10
24/28
1 de 2 15/1/2023 20:03
Sexto Nivel
Cuarto
8. The …………….. suggests that “a child’s second language competence is partly dependent on the level of competence
already achieved in the first language
Balance theory
Common underlying proficiency model
Interdependence theory
Pregunta 8 de 10
25/28
1 de 2 15/1/2023 20:03
Sexto Nivel
Cuarto
9. Studies suggest that bilingualism can have effects on performance in the first language at various levels of linguistic
processing:
at the semantic level, at the lexico-syntactic level, and at the phonological level.
at only lexico-syntactic level
at only phonological level
Pregunta 9 de 10
26/28
1 de 2 15/1/2023 20:04
Sexto Nivel
Cuarto
10. A larger electrical brain response in the range of sounds fundamental frequency produces an enhanced subcortical
representation of linguistic sounds suggesting that bilinguals have more efficient and flexible auditory processing.
True
False
Pregunta 10 de 10
27/28
1 de 2 15/1/2023 20:04
Theme 6: Bilingualism on first-language development and cognition https://evirtual.espe.edu.ec/programas_scorm.cgi?id_curso=22732&id_unidad=257416&id_pkg=10...
Cuarto Nivel
1/25
1 de 2 15/1/2023 20:13
Cuarto
Sexto Nivel
Many researchers studied how the brain deals with two or more languages in bilingual children and at the same time, how they
choose whichever language to communicate in their daily life. Thus, four theories appeared to explain that (Cardozo, 2011): The
Unitary System, the Dual System, the Tripartite System and the Subsystem Theory Hypothesis. Nevertheless, there are
arguments that support or are against each of them.
6.1.1. The Unitary System Theory
This theory is supported by the scholars Volterra and Taeschner (1978) and Weitzman [n.d.] cited in (Cardozo, 2011). They say
that a child goes through three stages in the process of being bilingual:
At the first stage, the child has one lexical system which contains words from both languages, and their development is like the
one of a monolingual child. This is the reason why children switch words effortlessly.
At the second stage, the child possesses two different lexical systems and therefore distinguishes two lexicons but they have just
one syntactic system and apply the same syntactic rules to both languages.
2/25
1 de 2 15/1/2023 20:13
Cuarto
Sexto Nivel
At the third stage, the bilingual process of learning is virtually complete. The child has two linguistic codes: it is two lexical
systems and two syntactic systems, but each language is associated with the person using that language. So, initially, the
bilingual child’s brain stores all linguistic information in the same single place.
What supports this idea is the interference of aspects from one language to another. The authors say that interference happens
in the lexical level in the first stage and that there is interference in the syntactic level in the third stage. (Cardozo, 2011, p. 2001)
The single-system hypothesis suggests that the bilingual’s two languages are represented in a unified cognitive system.
Nevertheless, several authors do not agree with Volterra and Taschner’s theory, for which, they give vast arguments against it.
The failure of this theory in trying to explain how the child’s bilingual brain works with linguistic information, makes other theories
came up to try to do it.
3/25
1 de 2 15/1/2023 20:14
Cuarto
Sexto Nivel
6.1.2. The Dual system Theory
This Dual System Theory is embraced by some authors, among them Genesee (1989), Meisel (1989) and Heredia (1996) (cited
by Cardozo, 2011). This theory claims that a bilingual child has two different systems one for each language and is able to
distinguish his/her language system from the beginning and can use them indistinctively according to the situation.
What supports this theory is the fact that the languages known by bilingual people indeed can present grammatical differences,
and the hypothesis that there are separate systems to each language in the brain is totally acceptable. (Cardozo, 2011)
According to this theory, if a person has a brain injury in any of the language systems, he/she can still express in the other
language “since bilinguals have as many systems in their brain as many languages they know, they can have just one language
affected or lost.” (Cardozo, 2011).
Nevertheless, this theory does not explain how bilingual people mix languages in the same sentence, and it is true that they do it.
So, if this theory claims that the bilingual brain stores all languages in separate systems, it fails to explain how bilingual people
mix languages. For this reason, this Dual system theory fails too.
4/25
1 de 2 15/1/2023 20:14
Cuarto
Sexto Nivel
6.1.3. The Tripartite System Theory
The Tripartite System Theory is proposed by Ojemann and Whitaker (1978 cited in Cardozo, 2011). It claims that
in the bilingual brain, there are as many systems as many languages bilingual people know. In these separate systems the brain
stores all linguistic information that is not common to both languages. What is common to them is stored just once in one
common system.
The idea of having separated systems would explain the loss of just one of the languages known by bilinguals if the individual
has a lesion, the mixing done by bilingual people would be explained too because there is a link between the systems; besides
that, the brain stores specific linguistic information that is not common to both languages in individual separate systems.
Still, the Tripartite System Theory fails once again. Tomioka (2002 cited in Cardozo, 2011 p. 205), pointed out that this theory
“cannot explain why an item in a language cannot be accessed while its cognate in another language can be accessed in
bilingual aphasia”. The theory would not explain non-parallel recovery patterns either according to Paradis (2009). This theory
does not explain the question of how the bilingual brain organizes all languages.
5/25
1 de 2 15/1/2023 20:14
Cuarto
Sexto Nivel
The video shows a recent study led by University College London neuroscientist Cathy Price. It reveals how the human brain is
uniquely adapted to manage multiple languages.
Figure 1, Bilingual Brain Switch

Note. Taken from Science Bulletins: Bilingual Brain 'Switch' Found (American
Museum of Natural History, 2012)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Cw2riItnlEE
6/25
1 de 2 15/1/2023 20:14
Cuarto
Sexto Nivel
6.1.4. The Subsystem Hypothesis
Since previous theories failed in trying to explain the bilingual brain organization, the Subsystem or Subset Theory Hypothesis
(the most accepted among authors) states that “in the bilingual brain there is a larger system which contains each language in
smaller subsystems”, one for each language. The main scholar who defends this theory is Paradis. (1997 cited in Cardozo,
p.206). He claims that “each subsystem contains its own phonology, morphosyntax, semantics and lexicon” (Paradis, 2007, p.
4).
The languages spoken by bilinguals are not part of a common system at any level or at any time of development. For this reason,
the Subsystem Hypothesis provides an adequate explanation for cases when the patient loses the capacity to speak one of the
languages due to an accident for example but he/she maintains the functionality of the other language. This is because the
system of the language is preserved and not the language itself. Paradis (1998 cited in Cardozo) says that
the Subset Hypothesis according to which each language constitutes a subsystem of the larger cognitive system known as
language, in the same way that various registers constitute subsystems of the overall language competence of an individual, or
even that phonology and syntax, for example, constitute separated modules within the language system. Each subsystem can be
selectively impaired by pathology; however, each subsystem is nevertheless part of the overall language system, as
distinguished from other higher cognitive systems. (p. 47)
7/25
1 de 2 15/1/2023 20:14
Cuarto
Sexto Nivel
Paradis (2009 cited in Cardozo) affirms that “the neurofunctional language system” is a large system, of which each language is
a subsystem and it is made up of as many subsystems as there are languages spoken by the individual. Therefore, the larger
system is the sum of its subsystems.
This Subsystem Theory Hypothesis clarifies all failures that are not explained by the three previous theories presented what
makes it more reliable. For this reason, this theory is nowadays the most accepted among authors all over the world.
For more details on these theories, visit this page: Cardozo, R. W. (2011). A review on the theories of bilingual development.
BELT - Brazilian English Language Teaching Journal, 2(2). on the Additional Resources section.
8/25
1 de 2 15/1/2023 20:14
Cuarto
Sexto Nivel
6.2. Bilingualism and cognition
We have seen that bilinguals differ from monolinguals regarding cognitive functioning and learning languages and scientists are
trying to elucidate the advantages that being a bilingual individual may mean.
Researchers agree that bilingual newborns can distinguish between different languages and children can understand and identify
who in the house speaks which language, and choose the correct language to communicate within a specific situation. Many of
us have had the experience of witnessing this particular situation. They are also capable of developing vocabulary and mixing
words (code-switching) in two languages without becoming confused and when he/she hears words in one language, the other
language also becomes activated. These and other facts make us believe that the brains of bilinguals are different from the
brains of monolinguals. Medical News Today reported on a study in 2013 that showed that “bilinguals – even those who are
illiterate – developed symptoms of dementia significantly later than monolingual individuals.” (Yella Hewings-Martin, 2017, pp. 28)
There are still much empirical data that give more information about the representation and organization of two or more
languages in the brain. In the questions below we will give some information about that.
For more details related to Delayed dementia by speaking a second language, visit Marie Ellis’s report. You will find the link in the
9/25
1 de 2 15/1/2023 20:15
How independent are the languages of multilingual speakers?

It is important to consider that the variation between speakers and very complex factors make language systems neither completely separate
nor completely fused. Weireich (1953) gave the first description of the bilingual’s cognitive organization. The Russian word knÎga ('book') was
used in his famous typology of bilingualism. He distinguished between coordinate, compound and subordinate bilingualism.
Figure 2, Uriel Weinreich

Note. Uriel Weinreich. Taken from (uwelingo, 2014)
A coordinate bilingual is a person who acquires the two languages in different contexts There are two distinct representations, one for each
language according to Ervin and Osgood. The words of the two languages belong to two separate or independent systems. According to
Weinreich, equivalent words in the two languages have (slightly) different meanings or refer to different concepts. It happens for example to a
child who learns one language at home and the other at school. This is the case of some technical trainers at the Peace Corps who developed
two languages in different contexts (English and Spanish) and when are asked to translate a certain word in any of the two languages, they
have severe difficulty or fail to do it.
A compound bilingual is believed by many to characterize simultaneous bilingualism in early childhood (before the age of three years). “The
coordinate bilingual functions as two monolinguals, and the compound bilingual merges the two languages at the conceptual level.” (Appel &
Muysken, 2005, p.75).
Weinreich distinguishes another type of bilingualism that is the subordinate type which means that the second language is learned with the
help of the first or dominant language. It means that the words of the weaker language are interpreted through the words of the stronger or
1 de 2 15/1/2023 20:15
dominant language.
Figure 3, The three bilingual storage representations

Note. Three bilingual storage representations. Adapted from Woutersen et al. (1994)
Since it implies that bilinguals do not all organize verbal material in the same way, Ervin and Osgood (1954) suggested that coordinate
bilinguals have two distinct conceptual representations in their verbal label and its translation, one for each language, whereas compound
bilinguals have only one representation and it is supported by a number of empirical studies. (Hamers & Blanc, 2000). Nevertheless, “many
questions about its usefulness remain since the results do not support the distinction unambiguously”. (Appel & Muysken, 2005. p.76)
Because there is an overlap (not a complete overlap) between the compound-coordinate dimension and the age of acquisition, according to
Ervin and Osgood (cited in Hamers & Blanc, 2000), coordinate and compound bilingualism will arise in different acquisition settings.
Compound bilinguals are more often simultaneous bilinguals, it is that the compound system is developed when the two languages are
acquired and used in the same setting, whereas coordinate bilinguals tend to be consecutive bilinguals, it is in separate contexts. On the other
hand, “there is evidence that suggests the relationship may depend on L2 proficiency, changing from compound or subordinate to coordinate
at higher knowledge and skill levels (Kroll and Steward 1994).” (Saville-Troike, 2005, p. 70)
For more about all these issues, I recommend the book Bilinguality and Bilingualism by Hamers, J and Blanc, M. You will find it in the
Additional resource section.
2 de 2 15/1/2023 20:15
How are multiple languages structures organized in relation to one another in the brain? Are both langauges stored in the same areas?
One important issue in this chapter is to review if both or multiple languages information is stored centrally and if this information storage is
linked to separate languages, it is in two separate mental lexicons. The other aspect will consider how they are organized in relation to another
in the brain.
In the seventies, Psycholinguistic studies investigated whether the two languages of bilingual speakers are represented in two memory stores
or one. Whereas some studies supported the two-store position (two separate semantic systems) claiming the low degree of similarity between
the associations given to equivalent stimulus words in two languages, others supported the one-store hypothesis considering the great amount
of cross-language interference, and that lexical items from different languages are closely and automatically connected in semantic memory.
Kolers (1968 cited in Kecskes & Albertazzi, 2007) reported that
his own findings were not consistent with either hypothesis because the results were too similar to support the two-store hypothesis by
not sufficiently alike to support one common store. He concluded that the actual situation of a bilingual person combines aspects of
both hypotheses. (p. 6)
Considering this situation, Paradis (1978) proposed only one set of mental representations but organize them in different ways depending on
what extent L1 and L2 function cognitively when speaking or decoding any of the languages.
Since languages are located in completely different regions of the bilingual brain, the question now is how these languages structures are
organized in the brain with relation to each other.
Paradis (1981 cited in Appel & Muysken, 2005, p. 79) differentiated two views. The first one is the extended system hypothesis which says that
“two languages form one system and the elements of the two languages are supported by the same neural mechanisms.” The second view,
the dual system hypothesis holds that “the two languages are located in the same area but that different neural mechanism supports each
language.” (p. 79). It means that languages are separately represented in the human brain.
Again, Paradis proposed some kind of compromise hypothesis, the sub-set hypothesis which says that the languages are stored in a single
extended system, but the elements of each language were considered as separate subsystems of the larger system or language
neurofunctional system. “Since there is probably one extended system for the neural processing of two languages, the bilingual brain does not
suffer an extra neurological burden compared to the monolingual brain.” (Appel & Muysken, 2005). Nevertheless, we need more empirical
support for these hypotheses.
1 de 2 15/1/2023 20:15
For more data in these aspects related to the Neurofunctional components of the Bilingual Cognitive System, you can review the book
Cognitive aspects of Bilingualism by Kecskes & Albertazzi. The link is in the Additional Resources section.
2 de 2 15/1/2023 20:15
Do two or more languages show the same sort of loss or disruption after brain damage? When there is recovery, which language recovers
first?
Individuals who have had some type of brain injury or disease present a challenging situation for Psychologists and other therapists because
they might present unpredictable disorders on language skills impacting one or both languages and interfering with higher cognitive functions
such as insight and awareness. (Marrero et al., 2002).
There are many clinical assumptions about which language will show the least impairment or recover the best. Brain damage has the same or
similar patterns of loss and recovery for most multilingual speakers. According to one early hypothesis (Saville-Troike, 2005), when an
individual has brain damage, the last learned language would be the first to be lost, the next language would be the language that was next to
the last learned and so forth.
On the other hand, Marrero et al., (2002), in their article “Bilingualism, brain injury, and recovery: implications for understanding the bilingual
and for therapy”, affirm that a review of the literature finds that “the outcome of brain injury may be influenced by factors such as the cerebral
representation of a secondary language, method of language acquisition, age of acquisition, premorbid language proficiency, and style of
learning in an individual.” (p. 1)
Research shows that not only languages can be affected by brain damage, but also different abilities in the same language like syntax versus
vocabulary, production versus comprehension, or oral versus written modality, according to some claims, it is probably because different
elements of language are located in separate parts of the brain. (Saville-Troike, M. 2005).
The question now is to know what is the first or last language to be recovered. Whereas some researchers say that L1 is the last to remain and
recovery, Obler and Gjerlow (1999 cited in Saville-Troike, M. 2005) claim that in initial recovery it is the language that was most used in the
years prior to the incident. It can be L1 or L2.
On the other hand, a research analysis carried out by Christopher Almonte from the Speech-Language Pathology program (defusco, 2020),
concluded that after the traumatic brain injury, the recovery pattern of language skills in a bilingual person depends on some factors, “Recovery
can occur in different ways depending on the site of the lesion, the severity of the impact, the age of the patient and the success of the
treatment methods”. Almonte also cited a study conducted in 1997 by Michel Paradis that identified six different patterns of recovery for
bilingual learners: parallel, selective, differential, antagonistic, successive, and blended (mix) recovery.
Parallel recovery takes place when both languages are impaired and recover simultaneously. Selective recovery occurs when both languages
are capable of being recovered but only one actually does. Differential recovery happens when one language returns to normal. Antagonistic
recovery takes place when one language starts to recover but then regresses once the second language begins recovering. Successive
recovery occurs when a language starts to recover only after the other language is fully restored. And in a blended (mix) pattern, recovery
follows no one pattern. (ddefusco, 2020, pp. 12)
Considering that the “receptive skills” have to do with the ability to understand words, sentences that involves reading and listening, and the
“expressive language skills”, the act of producing words, phrases, sentences and paragraphs which involve speaking and writing,
children with a receptive language disorder struggle to process speech while engaged in conversation and may rely too much on reading facial
expressions. Those with an expressive language disorder may rely on simplified messaging strategies that prevent them from translating more
complex thoughts into language. (ddefusco, 2020, pp. 4)
1 de 2 15/1/2023 20:15
An important aspect to consider in Almonte’s analysis was that it could be more probable that bilingual English-Spanish speakers had a
spontaneous language recovery compared to monolingual speakers
2 de 2 15/1/2023 20:15
Sexto Nivel
Cuarto
Self-assessment
1. ………… gave the first description of the bilingual’s cognitive organization.
Ervin and Osgood (1954)

Appel and Muysken (2005)
Weireich (1953)
Pregunta 1 de 10
15/25
1 de 2 15/1/2023 20:29
Sexto Nivel
Cuarto
Self-assessment
2. Ervin and Osgood (1954) suggested that ………..
languages are stored in a single extended system but the elements of each language were considered as separate
subsystems.
coordinate bilinguals have two distinct conceptual representations in its verbal label and will arise in different
acquisition settings.
two languages form one system and the elements of the two languages are supported by the same neural
mechanisms.
Pregunta 2 de 10
16/25
1 de 2 15/1/2023 20:29
Sexto Nivel
Cuarto
Self-assessment
3. The subsystem hypothesis states that …………..
in the bilingual brain there is a larger system which contains each language in smaller subsystems.
in the bilingual brain there are as many systems as many languages bilingual people know.
interference is produced because that lexical items from different languages are closely connected in a semantic
memory
Pregunta 3 de 10
17/25
1 de 2 15/1/2023 20:29
Sexto Nivel
Cuarto
Self-assessment
4. The single-system hypothesis suggests that the bilingual’s two languages….
serve a single function with a facilitative effect on cognition

are represented in a unified cognitive system
progress toward greater fluency in a unitary manner
Pregunta 4 de 10
18/25
1 de 2 15/1/2023 20:29
Sexto Nivel
Cuarto
Self-assessment
5. The dual-system hypothesis suggests that the bilingual’s two languages …………..
lead to the development of a single system of though
are acquired by children from the beginning stages of language acquisition and form two independent language
systems.
lead to the development of one big language system with subsystems.
Pregunta 5 de 10
19/25
1 de 2 15/1/2023 20:30
Sexto Nivel
Cuarto
Self-assessment
6. Which theory is more accurately explained regarding the functioning of the brain in bilingual children?
The Dual system theory

The Tripartite system theory
The Subsystem theory
Pregunta 6 de 10
20/25
1 de 2 15/1/2023 20:30
Sexto Nivel
Cuarto
Self-assessment
7. In the Unitary System theory………….
the bilingual brain organizes all languages.

the interference happens in the lexical level in the first stage and in the syntactic level in the third stage.
the languages spoken by bilinguals are not part of a common system at any level.
Pregunta 7 de 10
21/25
1 de 2 15/1/2023 20:30
Sexto Nivel
Cuarto
Self-assessment
8. Data suggests that the onset of dementia symptoms are in bilinguals delayed significantly. Is this an advantage of
disadvantage?
It is an advantage
It is a disadvantage
Pregunta 8 de 10
22/25
1 de 2 15/1/2023 20:30
Sexto Nivel
Cuarto
Self-assessment
9. …………………… refers to the delay of cognitive damage.
Neurological benefits
Metalinguistic awareness
Executive functioning
Pregunta 9 de 10
23/25
1 de 2 15/1/2023 20:30
Sexto Nivel
Cuarto
Self-assessment
10. What is Divergent thinking?
It is the kind of information and order of information in your expression.

It is the knowledge to which words and other lexical representations provide access.
It is a thought process or method used to generate creative ideas by exploring many possible solutions.
Pregunta 10 de 10
24/25
1 de 2 15/1/2023 20:31
Theme 7: Bilingualism. Literacy and biliteracy issues https://evirtual.espe.edu.ec/programas_scorm.cgi?id_curso=22732&id_unidad=257416&id_pkg=10...
Cuarto Nivel
1/27
1 de 2 22/1/2023 17:39
Cuarto
Sexto Nivel
7.1. Literacy and bi-literacy
The first thing we need to distinguish is bilingualism as someone who is

proficient at communicating well in two languages in terms of oracy
skills, that is, speaking and listening. Ng, E. (1983) says that those with
lower oral proficiency in a second language are regarded as second
language speakers, not bilinguals.
On the other hand, a biliterate refers as someone who is proficient at

communicating in two languages in terms of literacy skills, that is,
reading and writing, as these skills involve communicating in written
language. Therefore, “biliteracy is an advanced state of bilingualism in
which a biliterate is not only is able to speak two languages well but is
also able to read and write well in them. The definition of biliterate as
being proficient at both reading and writing in two languages is also
supported by other researchers” ( e.g., Cummins, 1981; Hickey, 2001;
Hornberger, 1990, Niyekawa, 1983, cited in Ng, 2015, p. 96). It can be Figure 1, Difference between bilingualism and biliteracy
Note. The Difference Between Biliteracy & Bilingualism | Stephen
said that a biliterate-bilingual is someone who is proficient at speaking, Fowler
listening, reading, and writing two languages. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=scherzeGDyg&t=70s
https://youtu.be/scherzeGDyg
2/27
1 de 2 22/1/2023 17:39
Cuarto
Sexto Nivel
In the last two decades, many academic programs are promoting biliteracy and bilingualism for native-English speakers in the
USA. They are focusing on pursuing biliteracy, including the recent creation of a Seal of Biliteracy (The Seal of Biliteracy is an
award given by a school, district, or state in recognition of students who have studied and attained proficiency in two or more
languages by high school graduation.) award that students can earn upon high school graduation. In order to get this distinction,
students need to demonstrate mastery of listening, speaking, reading, and writing skills in both languages on high-stakes
assessments. A five-year program of rigorous practice and studies is required for this purpose.
There are vast studies of biliteracy effects that have examined cross-linguistic transfer in terms of reading and writing but to a
much lesser degree. Ng, E. ( 2015b) in her paper “Bilingualism, biliteracy and cognitive effects” makes a review of abundant
studies that certify how biliteracy affect cognitively reading and writing skills over monolingual individuals.
3/27
1 de 2 22/1/2023 17:39
Effects of reading in two languages

Numerous studies have examined different types of reading transfer and have reported advantages for both biliterates and bilinguals over
monolinguals on some aspects of reading: (Ng, 2015a)
a. specific skills including phonological awareness and processing between alphabetic languages (e.g., English and French or
Spanish) and visual ability and processing in non-alphabetic languages (e.g., Chinese).
b. positive transfer of phonological or morphological processing in non-alphabetic languages such as Chinese, and positive transfer
of visual processing in alphabetic languages such as English.
c. writing system transfer and orthographical processing in reading between alphabetic languages or languages with different writing
systems (e.g., English and Chinese). (p. 105)
Three main studies examined the cognitive benefits of biliteracy on the reading of Russian-Hebrew biliterate-bilinguals (These biliterate-
bilinguals are those who read, write, speak and listen to both Russian and Hebrew.). Russian-Hebrew mono-literate bilinguals and Hebrew
monolinguals. Note that both Russian and Hebrew are phonetic languages with the non-roman script.
a. Schwartz, Leikin and Share (2005),

b. Schwartz, Leikin, Share and Kozminsky (2008)
c. Schwartz, Leikin and Share (2010)
Amongst these and other many studies on potentially transferrable skills, Ng. (2015b) states that there was a consistent finding for those with a
focus on cross-language phonological and orthographic relationships. They have reported a clear advantage on cognitive effects related to
phonological awareness and processing ability found in biliterate bilinguals with two alphabetic languages such as English and Spanish over
monolinguals (Bialystok, Luk & Kwan, 2005; Bialystok, Majumder & Martin, 2003; Schwartz, Leikin & Share, 2005, 2010; Schwartz, Leikin,
Share & Kozminsky, 2008) and in some studies, biliterate-bilinguals with two phonetic languages with a non-roman script such as Russian and
Hebrew (e.g., Schwartz, Leikin & Share, 2010). Overall, it may be said that (Ng, 2015b)
biliterate-bilinguals who read in two alphabetic languages (e.g., English and Spanish) or two phonetic languages (e.g., Hebrew and Russian)
often demonstrate better ability in manipulating different sounds and better ability in recognizing the relationships between sounds and the
written script than those who read in two languages with different orthographies (i.e., writing systems). One example of languages with
different writing systems is English, an alphabetic language, and Chinese, an ideographic or logographic language. (p. 113).
1 de 1 22/1/2023 17:39
Cuarto
Sexto Nivel
7.1.2. Effects of writing in two languages
Considering that Cross-linguistic transfer in biliteracy is understood as a transfer of literacy skills such as reading or writing
strategies, between the languages of a biliterate reader or writer, effects of biliteracy have also examined cross-linguistic transfer
in terms of writing but to a much lesser degree than reading (e.g., Bournot-Trites & Seror, 2003; Gort, 2006 cited in Ng, 2015b).
Positive writing transfer was also found in the writing of biliterates and some second language writers. Students were able to
employ the majority of their writing-related behaviours, general writing strategies and knowledge about language cross-
linguistically when they were writing in both languages. Their dual-language knowledge in writing may be an advantage for that
positive transfer.
At this point, studies related to the effects of biliteracy have reported a wide range of advantages in reading and writing for the
biliterate-bilinguals, for example, high levels of metalinguistic awareness for people who write in two languages, and this
awareness may contribute to writing ability. (Bournot-Trites & Seror, 2003; Francis, 1999, 2004a, 2004b; Lasagabaster, 2001,
cited in)
For more information and detailed studies, read this article from which, this information was taken, Bilingualism, biliteracy and
cognitive effects: A review paper by Elaine Ng from the Chinese University of Hong Kong. The link has been placed in the
5/27
1 de 2 22/1/2023 17:40
BILITERACY AND INMERSION

It is a complex matter because languages and literacies are in constant evolution because they take place in a wide range of social contexts in
which variation is the norm. In the first part of the chapter, we are going to make a general review of an article written by Hopewell & Escamilla,
(2014) in which they examine aspects related to biliteracy development in immersion contexts. In a second part, we will refer to the “Two-way
immersion” (TWI) program specifically.
All studies agree that learners who attend immersion programs “do as well or better than their comparable peers in terms of English language
and literacy development “ (Fortune, 2012; Genesee & Lindholm-Leary, 2013; Lindholm-Leary & Genesee, cited in Hopewell & Escamilla,
2014, p. 182). Students develop their biliteracy from two sources, home and community, and school because they are able to absorb the
languages and literacies from these places, and therefore, become biliterate in more than one language simultaneously from an early age. So,
it is not true that students would be confused by simultaneous exposure to read and write in two languages. There is evidence that indicates
that this is not the case. (Hopewell & Escamilla, 2014).
We know that formal bilingual education results in positive long-term academic achievement, however, there is not vast research regarding
school-based biliterate writing. We know very little about how to design and give instruction to maximize students’ potential to become biliterate
for example. Most of the studies have focused on reading, oral language and metalinguistic awareness. When we examine students’ writing
side-by-side (Teachers/tutors and learners engage in writing simultaneously and compose writing pieces.), it enables us to observe inter-
literacy (Patterns of transfer) strategies and other types of cross-language transfers (Soltero-González et al., 2012 cited in Hopewell &
Escamilla, 2014).
We need a well-developed theory for simultaneous biliteracy development which helps instructors to design instructional pedagogies that help
to know if students are doing well in their efforts to become biliterates. It is important to consider socio-cultural variables opportunities to learn,
motivation, such as home language(s), time in the country, communities of residence, socioeconomic status, race, ethnicity, language status
and political issues, among other factors. Instructors need their own pedagogies, curriculum, material, and assessment procedures in order to
get the desired goals of biliteracy argue Hopewell and Escamilla.
Nevertheless, there are some potential practices that theoretically sound good if students want to accelerate biliterate learning. “Two-way
immersion” (TWI) programs for example have a solid research base, but we need to know if it takes into consideration the related socio-
cultural aspects mentioned above. According to Slavin & Cheung (2005) cited in (Hopewell & Escamilla, 2014), another good practice is the
implementation of “paired literacy”. They determined that most of them resulted in positive effects favoring paired literacy for students who
were in a bilingual context according to their results of ten experimental studies. Pair literacy is an approach to biliteracy instruction that
1 de 2 22/1/2023 17:40
exploits students' strengths in both their languages and in which students learn to read, write, speak, listen, view, process, create and analyze
in two languages simultaneously beginning in kindergarten or first grade. (Hopewell & Escamilla, 2014). It emphasizes the importance of cross-
language connections and high-quality literacy instruction in both languages.
The last thing we need to know is if this paired literacy is effective in different circumstances: if the students’ dominant language is of prestige,
or if they need to preserve or resurrect an indigenous or heritage language. It is necessary a fully realized pedagogy of biliteracy that will work
effectively and provide the desired goals in varied educational contexts and offer instructional implications that should guide classroom
practice. In sum, Hopewell & Escamilla, (2014) finish their review by saying that in order to develop better pedagogical practices to accelerate
biliteracy through greater quality of instruction is needed.
Let’s move on to a different appreciation of the Two-Way Immersion. First, it is important to give a wider definition of this model. Two-Way
(bilingual) Immersion is a distinctive form of dual language education in which English speakers and native speakers of another language are
integrated for all or most of the day in order to serve in the role of language model and language learner at different times and promote high
academic achievement, first and second-language development, and cross-cultural understanding for all students.
Stephen Fowler, who has a master’s degree in Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL) gives a lot of credit to this
program. He explains that in a two-way dual-language immersion the goal is to promote bilingualism, biliteracy, and biculturalism. He also says
that this dual-language immersion is a more inclusive approach that honors a student’s home language and culture. (Walker, 2018). “One-way
immersion instruction often leads to subtractive bilingualism, where a student loses some or all of their home language at the expense of
learning the new language,” clarifies Fowler (cited in Walker, 2018).
Likewise, Thomas & Collier (2003) talks about the multiple benefits of Dual Language programs as well, and in 2004 they claim it as the most
effective instruction model for teaching ELs literacy skills because with dual-language instruction, students are taught literacy and content in
two languages, the home language and a second language.
For additional information on Paired biliterate instruction, watch the short video Translanguaging Pedagogy and Paired Literacy Instruction for
Bilinguals by Okapi Educational Publishing. You will find the link at the Additional Resources section.
2 de 2 22/1/2023 17:40
Cuarto
Sexto Nivel
7.3. Development of language components
Mueller (2010) states that children need enough exposure to languages in order to develop their languages at a good pace.
There is a relation between the “pace” of development of language components and the “exposure” to them. Likewise, bilingual
children’s exposure will vary by “context” and by “frequency”. How frequently are children exposed to each of the languages?
And where? At home? At school? With friends?... These differences in frequency and contexts of exposure will affect the pace at
which both languages are going to develop. Now, this exposure will affect children’s vocabulary and morpho-syntactic
development in the language (The focus here is on the spoken language). The effects of this exposure will be seen in the
comparison between bilingual children to monolingual children, and bilingual children who were exposed to different patterns of
both languages in question.
7/27
1 de 2 22/1/2023 17:40
Vocabulary development
As it was said before, the children’s frequency of exposure to the two languages quite affect the range of vocabulary items that children will
know because it will depend on which words they are hearing at any given age in each of those languages, and it happens in monolingual
children too.
There are plenty of studies that account for this statement. For example, Cobo-Lewis et al. (2002a cited in Mueller, 2010) report that
monolingual English children had an overall 14.9 point advantage on standard scores on the PPVT (The Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test,
(PPVT-R) measures an individual's receptive (hearing) vocabulary for Standard American English) over the bilinguals. However, Bilinguals in
English Immersion schools had a 4.3-point advantage over bilinguals in Two-way language instruction schools, which means that immersion
schools had greater exposure to English. In the same way, children that were exposed to both English and Spanish languages in their homes
had a 10.3-point advantage over bilinguals from homes in which only Spanish was spoken. Remarkable evidence was revealed in the Low
SES (socio-economic status) group than in the High SES group. The differences in performance correspond to differences in exposure.
These and other studies launched results that appear to be related to the relative levels of input the different groups of children were receiving.
In the Spanish case for example, children heard more Spanish at home than children in English-and-Spanish homes, even children from only
Spanish homes from Low SES (socio-economic status) families were likely to hear more Spanish than their High SES counterparts, and it was
(according to self-report) because their parents had low proficiency in English.
As to how to help students improve their amount of vocabulary, it is important to teach them how to acquire word meanings independently,
whenever they hear new words or find them in reading in order to increase significantly the lexical language component. The National Reading
Panel described five main methods of teaching vocabulary (Green Ph.D., 2004):
● explicit instruction, such as providing definitions;

● implicit instruction (exposure as students read widely);
● multimedia methods, such as graphic representations and hypertext;
● capacity methods in which practice is emphasized to make reading automatic; and
● association methods in which learners draw connections between known and unknown words (2000).
Computer programs designed to teach vocabulary are also good assistants to direct vocabulary instruction. Krashen encourages students to
read as widely as possible in a variety of rich contexts and get the most quantity of words thus increase vocabulary significantly. It is necessary
for an active engagement of the learner in acquiring and using vocabulary. A very useful practice cited by McKeown and Beck is to have
students find outside of class (in books, newspapers, radio, television, and adult conversation) the words that had been taught in their lessons
and reward them for bringing in examples of how the words were used.
The important message from these studies is that the amount of input a child receives in a language can affect the pacing of vocabulary
development as a logical consequence of his/her level of exposure to it.
1 de 1 22/1/2023 17:40
Morpho-syntactic development
One of the frequent areas studied within bilingual research is “Morphosyntactic development” and its most wide theories discussed in this field
are:
a. Interdependent Development Hypothesis (IDH). It indicates that the morphosyntactic development of one language may
influence the morphosyntactic development of the other language.
b. Separate Development Hypothesis (SDH). It states that once the grammatical systems in both languages are separated, there
would be no sign(s) of cross-linguistic influence in bilingual speakers.
As we have seen previously, the development of vocabulary in monolingual as well in bilingual children depends mostly on the input and
language exposure, and fewer studies claim that language exposure influences grammatical development too. There are many studies that
have reported that bilingual children delay behind monolingual peers in the acquisition of L2 morphosyntax. Kaipa (2020) claims that this delay
probably happened because of the cross-linguistic transfer, language exposure, and grammatical complexity. For this reason, Kaipa, in her
studies (2020) found that the grammatical development of the participants (between the age group of 4 and 6 years) was dependent on
language input. Kaipa (2020), argues that “there are not many studies that made a direct comparison of the morphosyntactic abilities of
monolingual and bilingual participants between the age group of 4 and 6 years”. (p. 253), for this reason, this age group was chosen in her
studies.
In her studies, Kaipa aimed three objectives:
a. to compare the English morphosyntactic development of English monolingual and Spanish-English bilingual children between the
ages of 4 and 6 years.
b. to examine the effect of age on morphosyntactic development among the participants.
c. to determine if there was a correlation between the morphosyntactic development of bilingual children and their second language
exposure. (Kaipa, 2020, p. 253).
The results revealed that (Kaipa, 2020, p. 252)
a. the monolingual participants performed better than their bilingual peers in their use of English morphosyntactic markers,
b. 5-year-old participants performed better than 4-year-old participants suggesting an age effect, and
c. a positive correlation between second language exposure and scores on TEGI (Test of early grammatical impairment)
The conclusion to her study was that grammar development was based on L2 learners’ input and exposure to the language. Similar patterns
appear to be largely in evidence in the realm of morpho-syntactic development. If studies have found that language exposure and input play a
significant role in the development of vocabulary in monolingual and bilingual children, one more time, studies have proven that the input
received in any language, gives an advantage in the development of the morphosyntactic structure.
Studies that tested children from three home language backgrounds (only Welsh, Welsh-and-English, only English) and from two school types
(only Welsh-medium or Welsh-and-English medium), “consistently show that the greater the level of exposure to Welsh, the more likely the
child is to learn the structure in question earlier.” (Mueller, 2010, p. 728).
1 de 2 22/1/2023 17:40
The ultimate take-home message for the educator or practitioner is that one cannot expect bilinguals to develop grammatical abilities in either
of their languages in exactly the same fashion or at exactly the same rate as their monolingual peers. Learning to construct two different
linguistic systems is just different from learning to construct a single system. (Mueller, 2010, p.729)
2 de 2 22/1/2023 17:40
Cuarto
Sexto Nivel
7.4. Is bilingualism beneficial or detrimental?
It is said that the more words we know, the more things we know
about the world, and the language shapes the ways in which we
see the world. If the individual grows up speaking two or more
languages, his/her world of meanings will be much wider than
someone who speaks only one. Studies in linguistics and
psychology have recognized the great impact of bilingualism in
speakers of two or more languages. Bilingualism can bring not only
substantial cognitive benefits but also advantages in educative
aspects as well as personal development. Nevertheless, there are
some studies that argue that bilingualism brings some negative
effects.
Both the positive and the negative views on the consequences of

bilingualism have been supported by research, though most recent
studies have given evidence on the positive effects. Here's an Figure 2, Benefits of a bilingual brain
Note. The benefits of a bilingual brain. Taken from (Participate
overview of both sides. Learning, 2020)
https://youtu.be/-yOI6-rqT8k
10/27
1 de 2 22/1/2023 17:41
Cognitive advantages
Research has shown that the brains of bilingual individuals develop better cognitive functions. Here's a selection of some of the most important
benefits brought by bilingualism. Grote and al. (2014), in this dissertation The cognitive Advantages of Bilingualism entitlements six cognitive
benefits of bilingualism. They are as follows:
Divergent thinking is a thought process or method used to generate creative ideas by exploring many possible solutions. It was proved by
Cummins and Gulutsan (1974 cited in Grote, 2014, p. 5) who examined divergent thinking among bilingual and monolingual children (Ages
10-13). The results of their study showed that a French bilingual group performed as well or better than an English-only group.
Another advantage is Problem-solving, Analogical Reasoning, Classification Skills refer to both verbal and non-verbal tasks. Researchers
found bilinguals did significantly better on both verbal and non-verbal measures, especially on tasks that required mental or symbolic flexibility
and concept formation (Peal and Lambert, 1962, cited in Grote, 2014).
Metalinguistic awareness (MA) is the next advantage. It says that “who are proficient in two languages demonstrate greater metalinguistic
awareness, that is, the ability to think about and reflect on language, than their monolingual counterparts” (Bialystok, Majumder & Martin, 2003;
Campbell & Sais, 1995; Galambos & Hakuta, 1988 cited in Ng, 2015b, p. 111). It analyzes language, particularly language forms, in terms of
how they work and integrate into the wider language system. This ability is demonstrated at various levels: Phonological, word awareness, and
syntactic awareness. Likewise, bilinguals who are constantly maintaining his/her languages were also found to have greater metacognitive
awareness in general than bilingual m asters (Adesope et al ., 2010; Ransdell, Barbier & Niit, 2006; Vorstman, De Swart, Ceginskas & Van
Den Bergh, 2009 cited in Ng, 2015b). Nevertheless, monolingual advantage is given to specific aspects of vocabulary use, such as receptive
vocabulary and rapid generation of words.
Neurological Benefits. One very important and visible advantage is that bilingualism seems to affect the brain’s structure as well. There is a
correlation between higher proficiency in a second language as well as the earlier acquisition of that language that results in a higher density
of the grey matter in the left inferior parietal cortex that contains most of your brain’s neurons and synapses. Moreover, the brain performs
more activity in certain regions when engaging in a second language. For example, in bilingual people, blood flow (a marker for neuronal
activity) is greater in the brain stem in response to sound.
1 de 3 22/1/2023 17:41
Figure 3, Grey-matter volume in bilinguals vs. monolinguals

Note. How a second language can boost the brain. Taken from https://www.pinterest.com/pin/448882287857361297/
Studies suggest that the bilingual advantage also extends to neurological processing. It refers to the delay of cognitive damage. Data suggests
that the onset of dementia symptoms are in bilinguals delayed significantly (Stern, 2002) and also, Alzheimer’s disease has an improved
cognitive function as compared to monolingual Alzheimer’s patients. (Stern Y., Gurland, B., Tatemichi, TK., Tang, MX, Wilder, D., Mayeux, R.,
1994.
Spatial Tasks and Memory. The cognitive advantage and increased awareness have been found across several domains of memory tasks and
spatial tasks. These findings propose a possible link between imagery and bilingualism that suggests that bilinguals encode information
differently from monolinguals.
Executive Functioning (EF) Mechanism. Bilinguals have an advantage in executive functions. A common assumption among researchers is
that bilingualism affects some components of executive function that are necessary for the cognitive control of behaviour because it facilitates
the actions required to plan and achieve goals. According to Bialystok (2011), they involve inhibition (i.e., control impulsive or automatic
responses, and create responses by using attention and reasoning; shifting (the capacity to switch between tasks), and monitoring (the ability
to update the information in the working memory. (Antón et al., 2018). As it can be seen, language control makes use of EF mechanisms as a
consequence of a higher language control demand as compared to single language use.
Lastly, both, the threshold hypothesis and the developmental interdependence hypothesis (See Chapter 5, section 5.3.4) also account for the
successful second-Language acquisition by children. It is important to consider that children should be very well instructed in their first
2 de 3 22/1/2023 17:41
language. Therefore, “high levels of proficiency in the two languages faster certain aspects of cognitive development.” (Appel & Muysken,
2005, p. 112)
At this point, studies on the effects of bilingualism have reported a wide range of findings in terms of bilingual, and biliterate advantages in
different aspects of language use, like language awareness and the advantage of broader receptive vocabulary for the monolinguals.
3 de 3 22/1/2023 17:41
Benefits on personality development

It is said that a person being related to two different languages is often expected to experience a conflict of values, identities and world views
or even emotional changes. Moreover, methodological studies have shown that bilingualism may have detrimental effects on personality
development, but only when social conditions are not favourable. (Appel & Muysken, 2005). It is the opposite, when language and culture are
included in the curriculum, as in bilingual-bicultural programmes, children, often show fewer social or emotional problems. (Appel & Muysken,
2005). According to the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis (2005),
the language an individual speaks determines his worldview. Sapir and Whorf considered language to be the guide and the programme
for the mental activities of the individual, and the interpretation of the surrounding world to be channelled via linguistic categories. If the
world view of the members of a linguistic community constitutes their non-material culture, then this implies a strong relation between
Language and culture. (p. 15)
Being able to manage multiple languages is an advantage when students enter the workplace as professionals because nowadays, companies
or organizations need communicators who can speak English or multiple languages to meet their needs especially for international operations.
Bilingual adults have several advantages over monolingual adults, including higher average salaries and greater career opportunities. Learning
a foreign language helps to travel to other countries because they will be able to speak to local people, make business, exchange information
and develop understanding to their and other cultures.
1 de 1 22/1/2023 17:41
Cuarto
Sexto Nivel
7.4. Is bilingualism beneficial or detrimental?
7.4.3. Linguistic and educational benefits
Research shows that bilingual people have an easier time with key brain functions. For example, every time he/she speaks or
listens, their control mechanisms are activated, so this constant practice strengthens the control mechanisms and changes the
associated brain regions.
Additionally, when children learn another language, the cultural aspect is implicit there because they learn about the culture that
is associated with the people that speak that language. Therefore, individuals who are bilingual experience increased intercultural
competence than those that are not bilingual. Moreover, when children grow up in bilingual environments, they develop a keen
awareness of how language works, therefore, when they learn more than one language, it is common to see that learning
another one becomes easier, and it accounts for children and adults.
Furthermore, students who pursue higher education are typically required to take a foreign language at the collegiate level, so
those who speak two or more languages find easier advance in their studies and also feel comfortable with multiple communities
of students on their campuses. Finally, students in dual language programs consistently outperform monolingual peers on state-
mandated tests, regardless of demographic.
13/27
1 de 2 22/1/2023 17:42
Are there any disadvantages to bilingualism?

The idea that bilingualism has a detrimental effect on linguistic skills before 1960s was formulated as the balance hypothesis (Macnamara,
1966). The hypothesis claims that
human beings have a certain potential, or perhaps neural and physiological capacity, for language learning. If an individual learns more
than one language, knowing one language restnets the possibilities for learning other languages. More proficiency in any language
implies fewer skills in the other ones. (Appel & Muysken, 2005, p. 104).
According to Peel and Lambert, the negative effects given to bilingualism depended by the weak methodology applied to them. In their study,
they tried to control the variables regarding socio-economic status, sex, degree of bilingualism, age, and the actual tests used. They included
only true bilinguals and monolingual school children from Montreal and proved that the bilinguals were proficient in both languages (Appel &
Muysken, 2005). Nevertheless, these studies were criticized because they might have introduced a bias in favour of the bilingual sample
because they admitted only people with scores above a certain level on the English vocabulary test.
The article provided by Torri Myler (2021), summarizes some of these negative benefits of being bilingual. Other studies, were analyzed more
specific aspects of the cognitive functioning of bilinguals. One study, for example, concluded that the constant activity of two languages in the
brain, it involves an additional processing cost, therefore, the verbal skills of a bilingual person become weaker than those of a monolingual
speaker. Another study showed the diminishing of the vocabulary of any semantic category in comparison to a person who speaks only one
language.
In conclusion, it is important to immerse the child in a dual-language program that provides a powerful opportunity to strengthen children’s
highest cognitive brain potentials through careful literacy development in two languages and authentic exposure to rich language
experiences. And even if there are costs to be paid for being fluent in two languages, think of the positive ones which seem to be numerous.
For more details and empirical research related to the advantages and disadvantages of bilingualism, you can read the book Language
Contact and Bilingualism by René Appel and Pieter Muysken from pages 101 to 115. You will find the link in the Additional Resources section.
1 de 1 22/1/2023 17:42
Sexto Nivel
Cuarto
Self-assessment
1. One of these questions is not considered in a bilingual education.
Do only children with the majority language speaking is considered?

Are both languages taught as subjects, and is the aim of the bilingual programme literacy in both languages?
Do Are both languages used during the whole curriculum or only in certain stages?
Pregunta 1 de 10
17/27
1 de 2 22/1/2023 17:58
Sexto Nivel
Cuarto
Self-assessment
2. Which of these kinds of bilingual education does not belong to the strong forms?
Dual language schools (e.g. international schools, such the United Nations School in New York City)
Maintenance bilingual education
Transitional bilingual education
Pregunta 2 de 10
18/27
1 de 2 22/1/2023 17:59
Sexto Nivel
Cuarto
Self-assessment
3. he Segregationist Education occurs mainly………..
when the minority language students are taught throughout the program in the majority language.
when minority language children are taken out from classes in order to provide them compensatory lessons in the
majority language.
where minority language speakers and majority language speakers are completely divided.
Pregunta 3 de 10
19/27
1 de 2 22/1/2023 17:59
Sexto Nivel
Cuarto
Self-assessment
4. The aim of this model is to produce efficient bilinguals. Which model?
Two-way bilingual immersion

Bilingual Education in Majority Languages
Maintenance or Heritage Language bilingual education
Pregunta 4 de 10
20/27
1 de 2 22/1/2023 17:59
Sexto Nivel
Cuarto
Self-assessment
5. Which of these statements does not correspond to the term Learning disability?
conditions such as perceptual disabilities, brain injury, minimal brain dysfunction, dyslexia, and developmental aphasia.
Learning problems as a result of visual, hearing or motor disabilities
A disorder in one or more of the basic psychological processes involved in understanding or in using language
Pregunta 5 de 10
21/27
1 de 2 22/1/2023 18:00
Sexto Nivel
Cuarto
Self-assessment
6. According to Rodríguez and others, both languages should be used in instruction.
True
False
Pregunta 6 de 10
22/27
1 de 2 22/1/2023 18:00
Sexto Nivel
Cuarto
Self-assessment
7. One of the reasons normed tests of vocabulary are essential for assessing bilingual children is because……..
children with specific language difficulties can be noticed.

you can find out social issues that distract languages development.
cognitive disorders can be detected and cured.
Pregunta 7 de 10
23/27
1 de 2 22/1/2023 18:01
Sexto Nivel
Cuarto
Self-assessment
8. These are the principles that should guide the design of appropriate assessment instruments according to Mclaughlin et al.
vocabulary development, linguistic background, social aspects

linguistic background, cultural aspects and parents’ involvement
cultural aspects, morphology and syntax and social background
Pregunta 8 de 10
24/27
1 de 2 22/1/2023 18:01
Sexto Nivel
Cuarto
Self-assessment
9. Regarding the instructional practice and ongoing assessment, they are important because ….….
students have the opportunity to perform the best in their studies.

teachers can have a complete assessment of the children’s performance.
teachers can change the way of teaching accordingly.
Pregunta 9 de 10
25/27
1 de 2 22/1/2023 18:01
Sexto Nivel
Cuarto
Self-assessment
10. Children with special needs should be done considering:
the use of narrative reporting and observations of language development

intellectual performance, functional behavioral, and learning disabilities identification
Pregunta 10 de 10
26/27
1 de 2 22/1/2023 18:01
Theme 8: The bilingual brain and education https://evirtual.espe.edu.ec/programas_scorm.cgi?id_curso=22732&id_unidad=257416&id_pkg=10...
Cuarto Nivel
1/22
1 de 2 22/1/2023 18:05
Types of bilingual education

There can be various types of bilingual education. They are categorized depending on certain factors. Appel & Muysken (2005) mention some
questions to consider in this kind of instruction:
1. Are both languages used during the whole curriculum or only in certain stages?
2. Do both languages function as media of communication in the classroom?
3. Is there a one-to-one relation between the subject (Like arithmetic or geography) and language, or are both languages used
alternately as media of instruction for all subjects except when the languages themselves are subjects?
4. Are both languages taught as subjects, and is the aim of the bilingual programme literacy in both languages?
5. Do only minority children participate in the bilingual programme, or majority Language speaking children as weIl? (p. 64)
Mackey (1970; in Baker, 2007, cited in Močinić, 2010) gave one of the first detailed classifications of bilingual education. He described 90
different models of bilingual schools. He considered four variables:
1. the pupil's mother tongue

2. the language of the school curriculum
3. the languages of the school's community
4. the social condition of those languages in that region and in the world
Appel & Muysken (2005), distinguish two general models of bilingual education considering (I), (2) and (4) above. He also claims that a
“system in which a minority language has a certain role alongside the majority language is generally called bilingual education. Using the
following criteria, a number of different types of bilingual education can be distinguished.” (p. 64)
In both models, the amounts of time considered for the two languages may differ. You can appreciate them in Figure 1 in the scheme below.
1 de 2 22/1/2023 18:05
Figure 1, Models of bilingual education

Note. Models of bilingual education. Taken from (Appel & Muysken, 2005, p.65)
Model I is called the transitional or the assimilationist model. In early grades, the minority language is mainly used in school because it will be
easier for the child to adjust to educational demands, and also to bridge the gap between the home and the school.
Model II is the pluralistic or maintenance model. The minority language is as important as the majority language. The minority language
occupies a more important position in the curriculum than the majority language. Therefore, it is not only used as an initial medium of
instruction but also in later classes.
Appel & Muysken, (2005) refer to one more bilingual model, a special bilingual education model for speakers of the dominant or the most
prestigious language, the immersion model. We will analyze it in the next classification of bilingual models.
Following these models, there is another type of bilingual education that will be widely discussed in this chapter. The division that follows is
very interesting and useful. Baker (2007, cited in Močinić, 2010) gathers various types of bilingual education in ten different categories, which
are divided in three major groups. The linguistic goals of each type of bilingual education are considering in this classification.
2 de 2 22/1/2023 18:05
Cuarto
Sexto Nivel
8.1. Types of bilingual education
8.1.1. Monolingual forms of education for bilinguals
1. Mainstreaming/Submersion Education. It is about the integration of minority language students into the major schools, who
are taught throughout the program in the majority language, disregarding their mother tongue. Structured immersion programmes
with a similar system, which include only minority language children are common in the United States. Colonial powers and
discriminating immigrants are into this kind of programmes.
2. Mainstreaming with Pull-out Classes. Minority language children are taken out from conventional classes in order to
provide them compensatory lessons in the majority language. This programme can be more suited to the minority students
because they can interact more during school hours and work freely after their lessons. Nevertheless, some authors see this
practice as negative because children may fall behind on curriculum content or could be stereotyped and labeled by their majority
peers.
3. Segregationist Education. Both, majority and minority language speakers receive instruction completely separated. The
minority children are denied access to majority schools and receive lessons in their own language. There is minority students’
segregation.
3/22
1 de 2 22/1/2023 18:06
Cuarto
Sexto Nivel
8.1. Types of bilingual education
8.1.2. Weak forms of bilingual education
1. Transitional Bilingual Education. This program consists of teaching minority children in their language until they are deemed
competent enough in the majority language to cope with it in general education. Increasing the classroom use of the majority
language and decreasing the use of the mother tongue is the aim of the program. In this transitional bilingual education, the
teachers working in such classes need to be bilingual because they need to assist those students in need to cope with the
existing language barriers.
2. Mainstream Education with Foreign Language Teaching. Foreign language lessons constitute a subject in the curriculum.
The chosen foreign language is usually one of the world’s mainstreams. It could be English, Spanish, German, French, Italian,
etc. It can be the most useful or spoken and used around the world. The problem with this programme is that “it rarely produces
functional bilinguals, able to communicate in a second language with a native speaker.” (Močinić, 2010, p. 178).
3. Separatist Education. In this kind of education, the minority group is intentionally trying to distance its members from the
majority language society because it is trying to maintain independence thus protect its native language, culture, political aspects
and religion, or others as well. In fact, the objectives of these schools are monolingual and monocultural. A good example is the
American Indians, who try to turn away from the strong influence of American culture in order to protect their native language,
culture, and values and prefer to conduct their own education in their native language. Nevertheless, “young people are liable to
become native speakers of English regardless because the mainstream language can hardly be avoided.” (McCarty, 2012, pp. 9)
4/22
1 de 2 22/1/2023 18:06
Strong forms of bilingual education

These are the types of true bilingual education.
1. Two-way or Dual Language Bilingual Education. It is similar to immersion and occurs when an approximately equal number of minority
and majority language students are in the same classroom. About half of the curriculum is taught in the native language of the minority and half
in the native language of the majority language students (McCarty, 2012), or “the two languages are to be used in a balanced way in the
classroom (alternate use of two languages weekly, daily, in subjects, etc.), so that neither becomes dominant.” (Močinić, 2010, p. 178). This
shows that both languages are equally valued, and students can learn from each other. The aim of all dual language bilingual schools is to
produce relatively balanced bilinguals, which means competent in both languages, biliterate and multicultural children. This scheme starts from
kindergarten and all educators as well as psychologists, directors, and the rest of the staff should be bilingual. If a bilingual teacher is absent,
two teachers one for each language can work. “The central idea of this type of education is language separation, which means there should
not be mixing of the two languages.” (Močinić, 2010, p. 179).
2. Maintenance or Heritage Language Bilingual Education. It is sometimes called maintenance bilingual education or developmental
maintenance bilingual education in the US. This kind of education can be found all over the world. The purpose is to preserve the ethnic
identity, culture and language of minority group members. For this reason, children are taught in their native or heritage language. Sometimes
the majority language is used too and is included in percentages for a number of subjects selected by the school board or defined by the
school policy. Students can use the language of the majority for the rest of the time outside the school. This way, children can cope with the
majority of society without losing their roots. Countries that follow this model are Korean (Cary, 2001 cited in McCarty, 2012) and Chinese
schools in Japan. Therefore, students become bilingual or multilingual since they include English in their lessons too.
3. Immersion Bilingual Education. In 1960, a few English-speaking, middle-class parents asked the district administrators to set up an
experimental kindergarten class, for their children would become bilingual and bicultural. Since then (Baker, 2007 cited in Močinić, 2010), this
bilingual education was taken in the rest of Canada and in parts of Europe and other parts of the world. In this kind of education, the regular
curriculum is taught in the target language. It is also called Content-Based Foreign Language Teaching that according to Genesee, in higher
education, it could be called “immersion-like”. (McCarty, 2012). The aim of this model is to produce efficient bilinguals. It is divided into various
types of immersion because they differ according to the age at which the child starts the experience: Early immersion when it starts in pre-
school; Middle immersion when it starts midway through elementary school, at about nine years old, and Late immersion when it starts around
the beginning of junior high school, after ten years old. According to many studies, in immersion programs, students did not lose any native-
level ability in L1, contrary to that, they gained academic (Bostwick, 2001, cited in McCarty, 2012) and cognitive benefits from these effective
bilingual education programs.
1 de 2 22/1/2023 18:06
Bilingualism and special needs

Professionals who work with bilingual children must consider each child's context before determining his or her needs in today's multicultural
society. “ELLs (English Language learners) with special needs have multifaceted characteristics such as linguistic and cultural differences as
well as disabilities.” (Park & Thomas, 2012, p. 52) (In this case, the word multifaceted relates to someone with many features to consider.).
According to Smith (2001), the term learning disability refers to
"a disorder in one or more of the basic psychological processes involved in understanding or in using language, spoken or written, that
may manifest itself in an imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, read, write, spell, or do mathematical calculations, including conditions
[such] as perceptual disabilities, brain injury, minimal brain dysfunction, dyslexia, and developmental aphasia. The term does not include
learning problems that are primarily the result of visual, hearing, motor disabilities, mental retardation, emotional disturbance, or
environmental, cultural, or economic disadvantages" (p. 128 cited in Artiles & Ortiz, 2002, p. 3)
ELLs with disabilities can be misunderstood as struggling learners due to their cultural and linguistic differences as well as difficulties with
second language acquisition because these differences and difficulties commonly lead to underachievement in the classroom. Because of this
underachievement, ELLs are often overrepresented in the learning disabilities (LD) category and teachers refer ELLs to special education
(Artiles & Ortiz, 2002, cited in Park & Thomas, 2012, p. 52-53). “Special education is a coordinated and rationally conceived system of services
that helps children identified as disabled.” (Artiles & Ortiz, 2002, p. 192)
Due to the great variation in definitions and criteria used to identify students for special education support, sometimes, the number of students
is likely to be underestimated or overestimated. Artiles, Rueda, et al. (2000) analyzed the 1998-1999 special education placement data for
English language learners in southern California and found that English language learners in secondary grades and those with limited
language proficiency in the first and second language were the most overrepresented in programs for students with mental retardation,
learning disabilities, and language and speech impairments. (p. 9)
Note that these districts in California distinguished between the English language learners with limited proficiency in their first language and
those with limited proficiency in both their first and second language. Besides that, it is not clear if the overrepresentation resulted from the
inappropriate testing procedures that cannot identify if struggling students are due to disabilities according to Artiles & Ortiz (2002).
This data and recent studies (Hosp, n.d.) have shown that many English learners are inappropriately identified as students with disabilities,
while other true disabled students are overlooked and therefore not given the necessary education. “If students qualify for special education, all
teachers, not only special educators, must have the skills to implement programs that simultaneously address students' language- and
1 de 2 22/1/2023 18:06
disability-related needs.” (Artiles & Ortiz, 2002, p.19). Moreover, they state that special educators who are working with English language
learners, need to consider some aspects related to students with disabilities:
● All children, including English language learners with disabilities, can learn.
● Early intervention strategies can prevent academic failure.
● The native languages and cultures of students are strengths on which to build.
● Students who are not succeeding in school need a challenging, not a remedial, curriculum.
● English language learners with disabilities should be educated in inclusive environments. (p. 201-202)
Considering the previous information, we can say that it is not easy for teachers to offer an adequate education for ELLs with disabilities.
Preparation and ongoing professional development are required if we want changes and conceptions regarded children with disabilities.
There are serious issues that need to be considered and improved in order to support ELLs with special needs in special education. Zhang
and Bennett (2003 cited in Rodriguez, 2009) argued that differences such as “language and cultural differences of the family, a lack of
understanding of linguistic and cultural diversity by professional, and lack of support from the systems are key influences” (pp. 4) on bilingual
learners’ participations. Hence, it is helpful for teachers who have ELLs in their classrooms to be aware of the types of issues they and
programs should pay attention to provide appropriate educational services.
1. General understanding of the influence of linguistic and cultural differences in students’ achievement.
2. Teachers and professionals’ instruction for children from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds as well as disability-
related needs.
3. Certified special education teachers.
4. Reliable and valid assessment measures of academic performance for students with special needs.
Nowadays, there are universities where it is said educators pay close attention to the specific needs of students, and programs (Like the Co-
Teaching Dual Language Program and others) that seek to support educators' understanding of the complexities of identifying and supporting
ELs with disabilities. Nevertheless, there is severe criticism regarding some of them because they do not accomplish the objectives of special
education for children with special needs. For details, visit the link provided in the Additional Resources Section. (Mathewson, 2020)
2 de 2 22/1/2023 18:06
Cuarto
Sexto Nivel
8.2. Bilingualism and special needs
According to Rodríguez (2016), the language to be used with

bilingual learners with disabilities is “both” because they are
capable of understanding and comprehending in two languages.
In fact, Thomason, Gorman, Summers (2007 cited in Rodríguez,
2016), concluded that Spanish literacy does not make any
interference with English learning and “no studies reviewed
indicated that native language instruction hindered literacy
development” (p. 5). Moreover, it is important to nurture social
learning in favor of intellectual, cultural and social growth
because they need to adapt to a new culture and a new
language when they attend school.
Figure 2, Special Needs Children can be bilingual

Note. Can Special Needs Children be Bilingual? Take from
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vOhWg0YeIMs
7/22
1 de 2 22/1/2023 18:07
Evaluation of language skills and components

Important aspects related to language acquisition and assessment procedures of bilingual children should be considered by educators who are
involved in programs with special education and child’s first and second language. Factors like previous education, poverty, structural
differences, immigration among others, need to be considered for an integrated assessment.
According to Grech & Dodd (2007), it is necessary to assess the proficiency of all the languages that the child is exposed to (including the
home language/s) because this reflects the child’s ability to socialize and thus access education. Another main aspect regarding the
assessment of bilingual children is that language mixing is a natural part of the process of language learning. Research (e.g., Zentella, 1997,
Pert & Letts, 2006 cited in Grech & Dodd, 2007) shows that code-switching does not have a negative effect on bilingual language acquisition
and this is considered by clinicians when assessing bilingual children’s communication skills.
Alternatively, Mueller (2010) focuses on normed tests of vocabulary because vocabulary tests provide a good first indication of a child’s
abilities in the language being learned. In the book Handbook of psychology in education chapter 20, in her article Bilingual Children:
Language and Assessment Issues for Educators, she analyses the purposes for which professionals use standardised tests of children’s
vocabulary levels. Their uses can be grouped into three categories:
(a) Information on the child’s knowledge of the language tested. There are at least two reasons why professionals use vocabulary tests.
1. The vocabulary level can show achievement in other areas of the language like morphological and grammatical development since
vocabulary has shown to correlate highly with these two areas of language development (Bates & Goodman, 1997, 1999 and others, cited in
Mueller, 2012), therefore vocabulary tests are a good measure that suggests a child’s overall abilities.
2. With a reliable normed vocabulary test, children with specific language difficulties can be noticed with just a certain minimum level of
knowledge of words (SLI) (Conti-Ramsden & Jones, 1997; Jones & Conti-Ramsden, 1997 cited in Mueller, 2012)
(b) A normed vocabulary test is a good measure to get information on the child’s knowledge of the language in general because it can give
information on whether this child is having difficulty with language overall. For this reason, it is desirable to follow up with the child not only in
one but also in the other languages he/she has been exposed before drawing inferences about overall abilities and thus “gain an accurate and
meaningful picture of the child’s linguistic abilities.” (Mueller, 2010, p. 734). So, “the best test for whether a bilingual child is having difficulties
with language per se is that he/she should have difficulties in both languages” (see, e.g. Håkansson et al., 2003, cited in Mueller, p. 732).
1 de 3 22/1/2023 18:07
(c) The use of standardised tests can go beyond the child’s abilities in language to gaining some assessment of the child’s cognitive abilities.
Vocabulary knowledge is closely tied with the child’s conceptual knowledge. Therefore, “vocabulary measures are often used to gain a
‘window’ into that conceptual knowledge (or are often included within measures of ‘cognitive’ knowledge, as in McCarthy (1972) and Reynell
(1987) cited in Mueller, p. 732) and are often used as, interpreted as, or included in intelligence tests.
On the other hand, Mclaughlin et al. (1995), talks about the principles that should guide the design of appropriate assessment
instruments. He suggests the following three aspects:
1. Children’s cultural aspects must be considered in addition to social and cognitive aspects of development (Bredekamp, 1987) because they
affect how children learn and relate to other people (Derman-Sparks, and ABC Task Force, 1989 cited in Mclaughlin et al., 1995). In addition to
the culturally appropriate assessment, it is essential to avoid interpretations that are culturally biased because can be harmful to the individual
being assessed.
2. Another important aspect to consider is the linguistic background in any authentic assessment of oral language proficiency since
bilingualism includes a broad range of speaking, reading, writing and comprehending abilities in each language. “Assessment must be
accompanied by a strong professional development component that focuses on the use of narrative reporting, observations of language
development, and sampling the child's language abilities.” (Mclaughlin et al., 1995, p. 12)
3. A third aspect to be considered is the involvement of parents and family members, the students themselves, teachers, and staff since they
can provide a detailed description of the context of the child’s learning. Therefore, the child’s entire context in which the child’s developed is
required if we want a reliable language assessment.
Another aspect to consider here is the instructional practice and ongoing assessment because both components interact with each other.
Instead of having children developing the one-shot tests, it is necessary that the teacher observes the child constantly what they can and
cannot do at different times and in different contexts so that the instructor can adjust his/her way of teaching accordingly. This is an appropriate
kind of instruction in early childhood education programs.
A final issue to discuss is how to assess ELLs with Special needs. This kind of assessment should be done without bias and this should
include intellectual performance assessments, functional behavioral assessments, and assessments to identify learning disabilities
(McLoughlin & Lewis, 2008 cited in Park & Thomas, 2012). For this to be accomplished, valuable information can be obtained by using
2 de 3 22/1/2023 18:07
different methods such as classroom observation, interviews with students and their parents, and task portfolios (Ysseldyke & Algozine, 2006
cited in Park & Thomas, 2012).
Park & Thomas (2012) suggest some tips for assessing ELLs with special needs:
● Cultural and linguistic differences should be considered in the assessment process.

● Assessment directions should be translated into the student’s native language to make sure that students fully understand the
directions and contents of the assessment.
● Tests designed to be free of cultural bias should be developed as a measure so that no one culture has an advantage over another
because there should not be any influence neither by cultural climate nor educational level.
3 de 3 22/1/2023 18:07
Cuarto
Sexto Nivel
8.3. Evaluation of language skills and components
The short video below will give you a general idea of

bilingualism and the importance and benefits of being bilingual.
Figure 3, Importance and benefits of bilingualism in education

Note. Bilingualism in education - Education Talks. Taken from
(School Education Gateway, 2016)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eYiQKw8v24M
9/22
1 de 2 22/1/2023 18:07
Sexto Nivel
Cuarto
Self-assessment
1. A Bilingual person is someone who ………………
is proficient at communicating well in two languages in terms of oracy skills.

read and writes proficiently.
has reading and writing proficiently skills and lower oral and listening
Pregunta 1 de 10
12/22
1 de 2 22/1/2023 18:17
Sexto Nivel
Cuarto
Self-assessment
2. Both Russian and Hebrew are phonetic languages……………………...
with roman script.

with similar writing systems
with non-roman script.
Pregunta 2 de 10
13/22
1 de 2 22/1/2023 18:18
Sexto Nivel
Cuarto
Self-assessment
3. The main similarity between Two-way immersion and Paired literacy is that……..
native speakers of both languages are instructed together in both languages

learners are taught in academic content giving emphasis on L2.
programs can be implemented either as a one-way or a two-way program.
Pregunta 3 de 10
14/22
1 de 2 22/1/2023 18:18
Sexto Nivel
Cuarto
Self-assessment
4. …………..encourages students to read as widely as possible in a variety of rich contexts and get the most quantity of words
thus increase vocabulary significantly
Lenneberg
Green Ph.D.
Krashen
Pregunta 4 de 10
15/22
1 de 2 22/1/2023 18:18
Sexto Nivel
Cuarto
Self-assessment
5. Vocabulary and morphosyntactic development depend mostly on learners’ input and exposure to the language
True
False
Pregunta 5 de 10
16/22
1 de 2 22/1/2023 18:18
Sexto Nivel
Cuarto
Self-assessment
6. ………. analyzes language, particularly language forms, in terms of how they work and integrate into the wider language
system at various levels.
Executive Functioning
The threshold hypothesis
Pregunta 6 de 10
17/22
1 de 2 22/1/2023 18:18
Sexto Nivel
Cuarto
Self-assessment
7. Neurological benefits include ……………………..
monitoring that is the ability to update the information in the working memory.
a higher density of the grey matter in the left inferior parietal cortex that contains most of your brain’s neurons and
synapses.
inhibition that controls impulsive or automatic responses, and create responses by using attention and reasoning.
Pregunta 7 de 10
18/22
1 de 2 22/1/2023 18:18
Sexto Nivel
Cuarto
Self-assessment
8. Methodological studies have shown that bilingualism may have detrimental effects on personality development.
True
False
Pregunta 8 de 10
19/22
1 de 2 22/1/2023 18:19
Sexto Nivel
Cuarto
Self-assessment
9. Bilingual learners find easier advance in their studies and also feel comfortable with multiple communities of students on
their campuses.
True
False
Pregunta 9 de 10
20/22
1 de 2 22/1/2023 18:19
Sexto Nivel
Cuarto
Self-assessment
10. The Balance hypothesis says that knowing one language restnets the possibilities for learning other languages, and
proficiency in any language implies fewer skills in the other ones.
True
False
Pregunta 10 de 10
21/22
1 de 2 22/1/2023 18:19
4. Bilingual Education in Majority Languages. This is a strong type of education and comprises two majority languages in a school (English,
German, French…). It serves temporary residents or children whose native language is an international language such as English. "Such
schools are in societies where much of the population is already bilingual or multilingual (e.g. Singapore, Luxembourg) or where there are
significant numbers of natives or expatriates wanting to become bilingual (e.g. learning through English and Japanese in Japan)" (Baker, 2006,
p. 250 cited in McCarty, 2012, pp. 17). These International Schools are spread all over the world and teachers come from various parts of the
world too. There, students receive instruction in English and another majority language. Another example of this type is the European Schools
Movement where students come from different European nations and are taught in two or more different languages, their native language and
other EC languages. Their aim is to produce true European citizens.
2 de 2 22/1/2023 18:27
Theme 5
What is bilingualism?
hello and welcome back to my channel my name is Dennis and here is my sister Bob who
will be helping us with really tough questions so what do you know about bilingualism who
can be seen as a bilingual in this video I will explain what bilingualism is based on different
examples from my own life let's go
so what is bilingualism you may say
Danis ah it's easy-peasy a bilingual person is someone who can speak two languages and
you'll be right but this is not enough so try to answer the following questions can a person be
seen as a bilingual if he or she used to speak two languages at birth but later on stop using
one of the languages and chooses only one language for example I was born in Georgia and
I went to a Georgian kindergarten where I started speaking the Georgian language at home
we spoke Russian so at the age of fivemy family and I moved out of Georgia I stopped using
the Georgian language and since then I have never used the Georgian language so can I be
seen as abilingual in two languages here second can a person be seen as a bilingual if he or
she hasn't used one of the languages for a long time for example atthe age of eleven I
moved to Cyprus where I spent 20 years of my life and since then I only speak the Greek
language when I go back to Cyprus so andI've noticed that my proficiency in the Greek
language has been decreasing year by year because I don't use the language frequently and
in this respect can it be seen as a bilingual person in the Russian ends the Greek language
thirdcan a person be seen as a bilingual if he or she has developed a considerable skill in
comprehending one language but he or she doesn't speak itfor example I'm sure that many
of you have gone through a stage when he learnta foreign language say English and you
could understand a lot of things but you couldn't speak it I'd be you were shy tomake a
mistake or you were afraid to speak in public for example you watch a film in English andyou
understand a lotof things but you don't speak it so can you be seen as a bilingual and finally
the fourth question can a person be seen as a ballot girl if he or she can speak one language
as a mother tongue but cannot read or write in this language for example this is the case of
my dad who is a Turkish speaking poncey Greek who grew up in Tahlequah so basically they
used Turkish as their everyday language in practically every sphere but none of them could
read or write in this language he is Russian at school and Turkish at home he could read and
write in Russian but he couldn't read or write in Turkish but used it as his mother tongue so
can he be seen as a bilingual person so you can say these questions make the definition of
bilingual has brother problematic precisely because it leaves unclear the relationship
between different languages and levels of proficiency and at this point you may be tempted
to think that bilinguals are those who have native-like fluency in both languages so we can
call them balanced bilinguals basically those are those people who have near equal abilities
in two languages but in most cases these people with perfect fluency in two languages they
don't exist okay I'm joking balance balance actually do exist but they're not many if you know
such people please write them in the comments below
[Music] so first it's the time spent withthe parents and who spends most of the time when the
child when it's an infant right it's mum second is the country where the child grows up and
the language in whichhe or she receives education and third is the language that this person
uses with his or her best friends these old make up the dominant language and the
weaklanguage so most balanced bilinguals use their languages to different proportions
because they do not have an equal command of their two languages so one language will
always be more fluent than the other or it's better to say that one language will be more
preferred in certain situations when I entered the University of Cyprus where I studied the
English language and literature the entire program was taught exclusively in the
Englishlanguage similar with my MA studies and my PhD studies and now that I teach
linguistics myself at my universe here in Russia guess what my preferred language is so
Iwas recently asked give election linguistics to some school students here in Russia and
despite the fact that Ithoroughly prepared the lecture in the Russian language I found it really
really hard to deliver a lecture to the students because English words would pop up out of
my mouth and it's interesting because 90% of the time I use exclusively Russian at home so
different spheres of our everyday life are closely linked to specific languages and it's also
similar with different skills for example writing skills when I moved to Russia I couldn't really
type in the Russian language first of all it was quite hard to find the the letters on the
keyboard because it's totally different to the English one and when my students send me
emails in Russian I have to answer the emails in English because it will take me ages to my
write an email in Russian language so my students now got used to receiving emails in the
Russian language from me and some of them actually turned to English as well which is
quite good because my lectures are delimits in in English though some of my students could
think that I am just showing off and use English when I write my emails this is not true this is
just a necessity so to sum up many Pauline goals fail to achieve native-like proficiency in
either language some achieve it in one language but not in the other all we can argue that
Bolling goals have the preferred language for separate topics to discuss in other words each
language is reserved for different spheres of communication second the situation's under
which people become bilinguals may the RAI for example some people grow in a household
in which two languages are spoken from birth and we call this bilingual first language
acquisition where there is no first or second language but we call this language a and
language alpha and these bilinguals are called simultaneous bilinguals or compound
bilinguals others move to a new country as it was in my case where they acquire the local
language in this socio-cultural environment of the host country and this situation is called
coordinate bilingualism that is two languages are learnt in separate environments for
example one language at home and the other language at school still others learn a second
language at school and we call this second language acquisition or sequential bilingualism
and finally in communities with rich linguistic diversity contact between speakers of different
languages may also lead to the phenomenon of bilingualism and this is the case of Canada
or Switzerland so what do we get at the end of the day so what is bilingualism these days
many scores tend to think of bilingual ability as a continuum so bilinguals will find themselves
at different points on this continuum in other words we can talk about different degrees of
bilingualism that can vary over time and are dependent on a number of different factors and
circumstances under which languages have been acquired as you can see it's quite difficult
to capture the exact notion of bilingualism precisely because many different abilities are
involved active like speaking and writing and passive like listening and reading add to this
also drama syntax and phonology and I've got a question for you here yes can we consider
someone a bilingual person if he or she speaks one of the languages of these a very heavy
accent but before you answer this question and I would like you to watch first the video a link
to which I have left in the comments below so can we argue that this person's fluency in
English is not high right in the comments below okay that's all for now thanks for watching
see you next time
The benefits of a bilingual brain
¿Hablas español? Parlez-vous français? 你会说中文吗？ If you answered, "sí," "oui," or "会"
and you're watching this in English, chances are you belong to the world's bilingual and
multilingual majority. And besides having an easier time traveling or watching movies without
subtitles, knowing two or more languages means that your brain may actually look and work
differently than those of your monolingual friends. So what does it really mean to know a
language? Language ability is typically measured in two active parts, speaking and writing,
and two passive parts, listening and reading. While a balanced bilingual has near equal
abilities across the board in two languages, most bilinguals around the world know and use
their languages in varying proportions. And depending on their situation and how they
acquired each language, they can be classified into three general types. For example, let's
take Gabriella, whose family immigrates to the US from Peru when she's two-years old. As a
compound bilingual, Gabriella develops two linguistic codes simultaneously, with a single set
of concepts, learning both English and Spanish as she begins to process the world around
her. Her teenage brother, on the other hand, might be a coordinate bilingual, working with
two sets of concepts, learning English in school, while continuing to speak Spanish at home
and with friends. Finally, Gabriella's parents are likely to be subordinate bilinguals who learn
a secondary language by filtering it through their primary language. Because all types of
bilingual people can become fully proficient in a language regardless of accent or
pronunciation, the difference may not be apparent to a casual observer. But recent advances
in brain imaging technology have given neurolinguists a glimpse into how specific aspects of
language learning affect the bilingual brain. It's well known that the brain's left hemisphere is
more dominant and analytical in logical processes, while the right hemisphere is more active
in emotional and social ones, though this is a matter of degree, not an absolute split. The
fact that language involves both types of functions while lateralization develops gradually
with age, has lead to the critical period hypothesis. According to this theory, children learn
languages more easily because the plasticity of their developing brains lets them use both
hemispheres in language acquisition, while in most adults, language is lateralized to one
hemisphere, usually the left. If this is true, learning a language in childhood may give you a
more holistic grasp of its social and emotional contexts. Conversely, recent research showed
that people who learned a second language in adulthood exhibit less emotional bias and a
more rational approach when confronting problems in the second language than in their
native one. But regardless of when you acquire additional languages, being multilingual
gives your brain some remarkable advantages. Some of these are even visible, such as
higher density of the grey matter that contains most of your brain's neurons and synapses,
and more activity in certain regions when engaging a second language. The heightened
workout a bilingual brain receives throughout its life can also help delay the onset of
diseases, like Alzheimer's and dementia by as much as five years. The idea of major
cognitive benefits to bilingualism may seem intuitive now, but it would have surprised earlier
experts. Before the 1960s, bilingualism was considered a handicap that slowed a child's
development by forcing them to spend too much energy distinguishing between languages,
a view based largely on flawed studies. And while a more recent study did show that
reaction times and errors increase for some bilingual students in cross-language tests, it also
showed that the effort and attention needed to switch between languages triggered more
activity in, and potentially strengthened, the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. This is the part of
the brain that plays a large role in executive function, problem solving, switching between
tasks, and focusing while filtering out irrelevant information. So, while bilingualism may not
necessarily make you smarter, it does make your brain more healthy, complex and actively
engaged, and even if you didn't have the good fortune of learning a second language as a
child, it's never too late to do yourself a favor and make the linguistic leap from, "Hello," to,
"Hola," "Bonjour" or "你好’s" because when it comes to our brains a little exercise can go a
long way.
Theme 6
Science bulletins: bilingual brain “switch” found
A recent study reveals how the human brain is uniquely adapted to manage multiple
languages.
Language is processed in various regions of the left cerebral hemisphere.
Previous studies showed that bilingual people activate the same general brain areas no
matter what language they use.
but a new experimental method showed increased activity in a specific region -the left
caudate- when speakers shifted from one language to the other
the new brain scans clarified why bilinguals with damaged left caudates involuntary switch
languages when speaking
The study solves a mystery of how humans can speak more then one lñanguage, a unique
ability of our complex brain.
Theme 7
the difference between biliteracy and bilingualism
hey I'm Steve Fowler filled the enablement manager for imaginal earnings Spanish language
and literacy development program imagine espanol I'm super excited today to talk to you
about the difference between bilingualism and bi literacy bilingualism involves two specific
language domains listening and speaking or the ability to speak and be understood in two or
more languages by literacy involves not only listening and speaking but also the ability to
read and write proficiently in two or more languages so what's the value to students for those
who graduate proficient in two or more languages they may earn the syllabi literacy which
opens doors of opportunity did you know imagine espanol combined with imagined language
and literacy provides students with the keys to becoming by literate global citizens your
homework is to visit imagine learning calm to learn more about how our programs support to
a language education
the benefits of a bilingual brain

understanding more than one language makes it easier to navigate the world and interact
with other people but it's the cognitive effects of language acquisition what it does to the
brain that's truly extraordinary learning how to think and communicate in another language
gives our brains a powerful cognitive workout bilingual brains are more developed in areas
that organize and process speech the motor cortex which controls the lips and mouth the
vernicas area where the brain organizes language for active speech the broca's area where
language sounds are processed and the auditory cortex where auditory stimuli is received
research shows that bilingual students enjoy better academic outcomes in the classroom
they demonstrate increased reading comprehension better long-term memory and find it
easier to apply logic in 2004 psychologists ellen bialystock and michelle martin rhee
conducted an experiment they invited two groups of young people one monolingual one
bilingual to divide a collection of objects by shape and color and found that those who could
speak a second language had greater success than those who couldn't bialystoc's research
also showed that the brains of bilingual adults are more resistant to alzheimer's and other
forms of dementia the dual language learners of today are more likely to be the global
citizens of tomorrow studies have compared the attitudes of bilingual and monolingual
elementary students towards spanish-speaking people and found that the former viewed
them more positively by reading dual language texts students are exposed to other cultures
and are more likely to value inclusivity and embrace diversity while dual language learners
demonstrate increased levels of empathy because they're able to see things from multiple
perspectives dual language immersion programs produce young people who are
academically capable culturally inclusive and better equipped to thrive in all walks of life
Theme 8
Can special needs children be bilingual? children with special needs often have difficulty
communicating and learning language how would you answer the question is it possible for a
child with special needs to learn more than one language I would answer by saying if the
child has the capacity to learn one language then yes absolutely the child has the capacity
to learn two languages I think it's a very common misperception that when a child does have
a communication disorder that it would be better to reduce them to one language and
actually there's no scientific investigations that have supported that idea and I realize it may
sound very counterintuitive if someone is struggling to learn onelanguage it's easily thought
that they would have a lot of difficulty learning too but in fact the research that has been
conducted and I do realize it's not an extensive research base but what has been conducted
has shown that children do in fact seem to learn two languages as well as as monolinguals
learn one a very notable study conducted by Kay raining berg and colleagues even children
with Down syndrome they
compared children with Down syndrome to other monolinguals with Down syndrome as
well as to age-matched monolinguals and age-matched bilinguals so comparing them
to three other groups the bilinguals with Down syndrome the bilingualism didn't seem to
impede their English language growth which is really quite impressive so again I've looked
I've looked thoroughly because it's such a common thought that we hear over and over we
think it must be coming from somewhere well it's interesting when I was working as a
speech-language pathologist Down syndrome children a lot of parents were told not to
communicate with their child in their native language and some of these children or five
years old they had learned maybe 20 or 30 words in the five years of their life and now they
were being told we don't want you using those words you're going to be in school
and you're going to be in an English only program let's just focus on getting
you a vocabulary in English and it was troubling to me as a clinician because I had known
you know those 10 20 30 40 50 words expressively I had an underlying receptive vocabulary
that was probably a lot higher and my my professional instincts told me at the time and from
what I had known that we had to capitalize on those words that they did have in Spanish and
also try to augment their English vocabulary to if they were in an English programmer in a
bilingual program but it really was difficult for the parents because they they felt like their
language wasn't valued or they couldn't communicate with their child in their native language
or that they were actually doing something that would never negatively impact the child's
education so I understand that this is an issue that is close to me and and it is good to to
communicate and talk about what the research really has to say about it exactly and even
children with autism I've seen in my clinical practice even children with autism can can learn
two languages so again it does seem very counterintuitive and so I think a lot of these
recommendations made by professionals are they're well intended of course they're well
intended we want the children to make progress we want them to achieve their highest
potential and and some professionals make that recommendation thinking it will indeed help
the child but again we need to be operating from evidence-based practices and the evidence
doesn't indicate that that's the case and in fact we need to think about what happens when
we take away a language like what you were saying you were giving the example of how
building on a child's first language is important and the research actually shows that building
on a first language can actually help the second language there's lots of research a very very
thorough rich research-based indicating then that's the case that the stronger a child's skills
are in the first language that that actually benefits so what happens if we take that away we
take away their support system well that can actually have a negative effect and in a doesn't
to me it seems that it it just doesn't go with what we're trained to do we're trained to build
language enhance language really maximize our client's communicative potential so taking
away a language conflicts with that and again because there's no evidence to back that
recommendation up I strongly encourage parents to try not to feed into those
recommendations and I certainly would love to see professionals moving away from that
recommendation and again really embracing what the research does and has told us what
do you recommend to parents that are considering teaching their children two languages
well actually I don't have a recommendation for everyone it's certainly an individual family
decision and if it's important to the family then I would recommend by all means to to to go
for it and if they're able to provide lots of rich language experiences for their children in both
languages there are many ways to do it children can learn language in the home obviously
they can learn language through educational programs they can learn language through
community programs but it does take just as it takes a rich language environment to raise a
monolingual child it takes a rich language environment to raise likes as a successful bilingual
child so again lots of rich language usage in the home lots of vocabulary rich conversations
with your children hopefully you could find an SLP who would help you do that and make
recommendations so I think you can be perfectly comfortable with your decision to raise your
child with two languages make that clear to the the speech language clinician that it is very
important for you and your family and then hopefully that person could give you additional
strategies and recommendations for for how to do that well dr. Groman thank you for coming
out to talk to us about issues in bilingual speech-language pathology we really appreciate
your time my pleasure you're welcome
Bilingualism in education
What is bilingualism?
In my professional work, the definition that we use in England is that every child exposed to
2 languages is bilingual. So this can be exposure in family, in community to a language
which is different to English. What are the main benefits of bilingualism for children's
development? What we know today about building cognitive reserves in terms of staying
healthy for longer, having a good quality life, we know that learning another language is on
the top of the list of activities that you can do to enhance your cognitive potential and to
enhance your cognitive functioning throughout your lifetime. So if you start with preschool
children, at an early age the evidence shows that there is a better focus, so children who use
2 languages are able to focus better on tasks and kind of ignore irrelevant disruptions.
Especially in subjects like math where you need to use more of your abstract thinking
because using 2 languages develops abstract thinking and metalinguistic skills as well which
are then useful for learning further languages. There is latest evidence showing that adults
who use 2 languages can put off dementia by 3 to 5 years so you can look at every stage of
our life, there are benefits. What would be your advice for parents and teachers of bilingual
pupils? Parents focus on speaking the language of the house country because they want the
children to succeed in their life. If parents are more aware that basically children will perform
better across the curriculum, they will be better at acquisition of any other language if their
first language is strong and supported. Then all these arguments are pointing towards it
because we are not doing children any service by not working on enhancing the linguistic
capital that they already have. Parents need to hear it from teachers as well, that their first
language is important. They need to be given advice to read in their first language, to do
some writing. There are all these different steps that teachers can engage with and take to
communicate these messages to children, that their languages are important, their
languages are part of teaching and learning and also part of thinking about the future, their
employability and converting that, the linguistic capital that they have into something that is
going to be economic capital in the future. What kind of strategy would you suggest to
support bilingualism? I think we need to develop an approach that supports developing
conditions which are language hierarchy-free, so we need to find an approach to languages
that says: all these benefits apply to all languages equally and this is where I see the
potential of my approach which I call ‘Healthy Linguistic Diet’ because the cognitive benefits
that we have evidence for, they apply to all different combination of languages. What would
be the main change that you would like to see in 10 years' time? We shouldn't only think
about things that we do and that we say as teachers, we also need to think about those
things that we don't say and don't do because not having displays in other languages, not
ever mentioning first languages in our communication with children, with parents, that also
communicates big messages, that says: these languages are not part of teaching and
learning they are not part of our environment, they are not important. I would like to see
teachers developing reflective practice where they frequently ask themselves… does my
curriculum, does my teaching reflect the linguistic and cultural capital of my learners.
13/12/22, 21:48 Sistema Virtual de Educación [Evaluaciones]
Contenidos > Unidad > Evaluación
MID TERM EXAM
CHOOSE THE BEST ALTERNATIVE

Puntaje total: 20.00
Puntaje de aprobación: 14.00
Incorrectas restan: No
Abierta: desde 13/12/2022 20:40 hasta 13/12/2022 22:40
Realización
Fecha: 13-dic-2022 20:49:40

Tiempo realización: 00:56:05 Aprobada - 19.33
Cantidad de veces realizada: 1
Cantidad de respuestas correctas: 29 / 30
In L1, ………..
verbal and non-verbal communication is given and children repeat what they hear.
students interact with other students in a language class.
First language is……….
only the first language the child has been exposed to from birth or within the critical
period.
a language that a person has been exposed to from birth or within the critical
period
a second language learned in school.
https://evirtual.espe.edu.ec/evaluaciones.cgi?id=7942254&id_curso=22732&wAccion=verevaluacion 1/8
a systematic process of learning other-s language apart of the first or native

language.
It is in charge of the production of language or language outputs.
Opción
Broca's Area
Opción
The intrinsic motivation focuses on ………….
external factors that encourage and facilitate their language achievement.
the learner and the internal factors that encourage and facilitate their language
achievement
Choose the right option. Pit Corder is related to …………
Universal Grammar
Error anysisis
Children do not need a prompt to learn a language means that …………..
they do not have the language rules in their heads.
they can speak with the need of teachers.
they can speak freely without any language pushing.
He is widely known for his role in both Linguistics as well as political activism.
Dulay and Burt
Robert Lado
Chomsky
What is the Language Acquisition Device (LAD)?
This is an instinctive mental capacity that helps children to acquire and produce
language.
This is a hypothetical tool hardwired into the brain that helps children listen to
words rapidly.
Group dynamics, attitudes to the teacher and materials, individual learning techniques
are part of the ……………
personal factors
social factors
general factors
Robert Lado played an important role in the development of a Generative grammar

theory.
True
False
is the communication that occurs between people and it helps L2 learners progress in
the learning language.
Scaffolding
Input
According to the text “Introducing SLA acquisition” written by Saville-Troike (2005)

which macro-social factor is not considered?
When ………………..are very strong and L2 is really important to the individual, older
learners can succeed in SLA .
social constraints
social motivations
people’s bonds
When the brain matures…
there is increased specialization and more plasticity
there isn´t increased specialization and less elasticity
there is increased specialization and less plasticity
When we talk about Language Acquisition …..
children acquire the language in a natural way, in their natural environment.
children need the help of a tutor in order to learn the language.
children need grammar rules in order to understand the language.
The implication of the …………………….. says that grammatical sequencing should not be
followed when the goal is acquisition more than learning.
Natural order hypothesis
Monitor Hypothesis
Acquisition hypothesis
Instead of saying “He might go to the party.” The learner says “It is possible that he goes
to the party”. It is a creative construction of the language related to:
Avoidance
Interference
Error analysis
although familiar with the rule, fail to perform accordingly.
deviates resulting from ignorance of the rule.
is writing in the target L2 language using their L1 grammar
Universal Grammar is …
the system of principles, conditions, and rules that are elements or properties of all
human languages.
the system of grammar rules that all languages have.
the system of symbols used in all languages.
Principles and parameters are part of a genetically innate universal grammar which all
humans possess.
True
False
provides learners the quantity and quality of external linguistic input.
Motivation
Reading
Interaction
Feedback interaction means that ….
teachers make learners aware that the way they are speaking is acceptable and
provide them a grade.
native speakers make learners aware that the way they are speaking is not
acceptable and provide them a model.
native speakers make learners understand that the way they are speaking is
acceptable and do not provide them a model.
Choose the correct statement.
Language learning and language acquisition are processes in the left area of the
brain.
Language learning and language acquisition are processes in the right area of the
brain.
Language learning and language acquisition are processes in two different areas of
the brain.
Choose the right option to complete the statement. Krashen’s Affective Filter Hypothesis
states that we learn better when…
we are motivated to learn and have a good self-stem.
we experience high levels of anxiety.
we practice speaking when we are alone to lower anxiety.
Choose the INCORRECT ANSWER. According to Noam Chomsky:
All languages share the same grammatical principles and parameters.
All languages share certain grammatical principles and can vary in their
parameters.
All languages are different in their grammatical principles and parameters.
Choose the correct answer. The Zone of Proximal Development…
takes place only with assistance of a person who has a higher knowledge.
is a result of an innate capacity to learn a second language.
is developed with group learning with other students who have the same
knowledge level.
Choose the correct answer. Global and national status of L1 and L2 is a…
Micro-social factor.
Macro-social factor.
Indirect factor.
Choose the correct answer. Institutional Forces and Constrains are a…
Macro-social factor.
Indirect factor.
Anterior
Segundo Parcial
SECOND TERM EXAM
Choose the best answer

Realización
Fecha: 15-feb-2023 21:31:17

In countries where two languages are full officially recognized like in Canada,
Belgium and Finland for example, it means that people there are bilingual:
False
True
What does individual bilingualism involve?
the ability of a person to acquire and use a second language
the ability of a child to listen and speak a second language
the ability of a person to learn a second and third language
When a child develops two unique language systems and be able to handle each of
them effortlessly if two parents from diverse linguistic origins solely communicate to
him or her in his or her mother tongue, is considered…
Coordinate bilingualism
Compound bilingualism
Subordinate or late bilingualism
When bilingual parents converse with their children in both languages without
distinction. The youngster will be able to speak both languages fluently, but they will
never be able to fully understand all of their nuances, is considered
It is formed after the critical time and can be learned through formal classroom
studies or immersion in a community that speaks the target language. Both
situations involve memory.
The Tripartite System Theory
In the bilingual brain there are as many systems as many languages bilingual
people know.
In the bilingual brain there is a larger system which contains each language in
smaller sub-systems.
This theory does not explain how bilingual people mix languages in the same
sentence, and it is true that they do it.
Bilingual newborns can distinguish between different languages…
Children can understand and identify who in the house speaks which language.
It is difficult for bilinguals to choose the correct language to communicate

within a specific situation.
Bilinguals are capable of developing vocabulary and mixing words (code-

switching) in two languages but get confused.
Coordinated bilingual is a person who…
acquires the two languages in different contexts.
learns both languages from native speakers at home, one from your mother and
the other from your father, for instance.
is proficient in one of the two languages.
According to one early hypothesis (Saville-Troike, 2005), when an individual has brain
damage, …
the last learned language would be the first to be lost.
the first learned language would be the first to be lost.
the last learned language would be the last to be lost.
A research analysis carried out by Christopher Almonte from the Speech-Language

Pathology program, concluded that after the traumatic brain injury, the recovery
pattern of language skills in a bilingual person depends on …
the site of the lesion, the severity of the impact.
the age of the patient and the success of the treatment methods.
Both factors mentioned in this question
Bilingualism is considered the one that…
Is skillful at talking very good in two languages.
Is proficient at speaking very good in three languages.
Is skillful at listening, speaking and reading very good in two languages.
Two-Way (bilingual) Immersion is…
a typical form of monolingual language education in which English speakers

and native speakers of another language are not integrated for all or most of the
day in order to serve in the role of language.
a dual language education in which English speakers and native speakers of

another language are integrated for all or most of the day to serve as language
model and language learner at different times helps promote high academic
achievement.
A typical way of unique learning two languages in the same way.
The best method for teaching vocabulary is…
To provide definitions, exposure, graphic representations, reading and

connections.
To provide videos, drawing representations, speaking and connections.
To provide definitions, imagine the meaning, reading and writing.
Benefits of bilingual people are:
business, lower salaries, fewer career opportunities, trips and more friends.
business, higher salaries, fewer career opportunities, trips and high salaries.
business, greater career opportunities, trips and high salaries.
The Two-way or Dual Language Bilingual Education says that…
equal number of minority and majority language students are in the same
classroom and the two languages are used equally so that neither becomes
dominant.
children are taught in their native or heritage language. Sometimes the majority
language is used too.
the regular curriculum is taught in the target language.
According to Rodriguez, the language to be used with bilingual learners with

disabilities is Both.
True
False
The vocabulary level can show achievement in other areas of the language like
morphological and grammatical development.
True
False
Vocabulary has shown to correlate highly with these two areas of language
development such as the morphological and grammatical development.
True
False
Language production follows regular and predictable patterns. They are produced in
Linguistic and Psychological contexts
True
False
According to the Ethnography of Communication and Social Psychology described in

the text “Introducing SLA acquisition” written by Saville-Troike (2005) which macro-
social factor is not considered?
Social boundaries and national borders have also an influence on SLA. Its functions
is …………………
to unify speakers of the same language community and to exclude outsiders

from insider communication.
social constraints
social motivations
people’s bonds
The …………….. suggests that “a child's second language competence is partly

dependent on the level of competence already achieved in the first language
Balance theory
A larger electrical brain response in the range of sounds fundamental frequency

produces an enhanced subcortical representation of linguistic sounds suggesting
that bilinguals have more efficient and flexible auditory processing.
True
False
. analyzes language, particularly language forms, in terms of how they work and
integrate into the wider language system at various levels.
Neurological benefits include ……………………..
monitoring that is the ability to update the information in the working memory.
a higher density of the grey matter in the left inferior parietal cortex that
contains most of your brain’s neurons and synapses.
inhibition that controls impulsive or automatic responses, and create responses

by using attention and reasoning.
Methodological studies have shown that bilingualism may have detrimental effects
on personality development.
True
False
Which of these kinds of bilingual education does not belong to the strong forms?
Dual language schools (e.g. international schools, such the United Nations
School in New York City)
Maintenance bilingual education
Transitional bilingual education
The Segregationist Education occurs mainly………..
when the minority language students are taught throughout the program in the
majority language.
when minority language children are taken out from classes in order to provide
them compensatory lessons in the majority language.
where minority language speakers and majority language speakers are

completely divided.
Which of these statements does not correspond to the term Learning disability?
conditions such as perceptual disabilities, brain injury, minimal brain

dysfunction, dyslexia, and developmental aphasia.
Learning problems as a result of visual, hearing or motor disabilities
A disorder in one or more of the basic psychological processes involved in

understanding or in using language
One of the reasons normed tests of vocabulary are essential for assessing bilingual
children is because……..
These are the principles that should guide the design of appropriate assessment
instruments according to Mclaughlin et al.
vocabulary development, linguistic background, social aspects
linguistic background, cultural aspects and parents’ involvement
cultural aspects, morphology and syntax and social background
In early grades, the minority language is mainly used in school because it will be
easier for the child to adjust to educational demands, and also to bridge the gap
between the home and the school. This happens in...
the assimilationist model
the pluralistic model
the maintenance model
The minority language is as important as the majority language. This happens in...
the transitional model
One of the negative aspects of the Mainstreaming with Pull-out Classes is...
Colonial powers and discriminating immigrants are into this kind of

programmes.
children may fall behind on curriculum content or could be stereotyped and

labeled by their majority peers.
The minority children are denied access to majority schools.
The minority children are denied access to majority schools and receive lessons in
their own language. This is on of the characteristics of the ...
Mainstreaming/Submersion Education.
Mainstreaming with Pull-out Classes.
Segregationist Education.
In which form of bilingual education the teachers working in such classes need to be
bilingual.
Transitional Bilingual Education.
Mainstream Education with Foreign Language Teaching.
Separatist Education
In which form of bilingual educational program they protect its native language?
Transitional Bilingual Education.
Separatist Education
In which strong bilingual education the two languages are to be used in a balanced
way in the classroom.
Maintenance or Heritage Language Bilingual Education.
Two-way or Dual Language Bilingual Education.
Immersion Bilingual Education
According to the video “The benefits of a bilingual brain”, Who is a Coordinate

bilingual? Choose the correct statement:
A person who works with two separate concepts, speaks one language at
school while continuing to speak the other language at home and with friends.
A person who acquires a new language in a new social cultural environment.
A person who learns another language at home with friends and parents.
Anterior
Segundo Parcial
QUIZ UNIT 8

Realización
Fecha: 07-feb-2023 21:37:04

The immersion model is...
the psychological context
a special bilingual education model for speakers of the dominant or the most
prestigious language.
a special monolingual education model.
One of the characteristics of the Mainstreaming/Submersion Education is...
Students interact more during school hours and work freely after their lessons.
Students are taught throughout the program in the majority language,

disregarding their mother tongue.
The minority children are denied access to majority schools and receive lessons
in their own language.
https://evirtual.espe.edu.ec/evaluaciones.cgi?wAccion=verevaluacion&wid_evaluacion=7943844&id_curso=22732 1/5

programmes.

When do we have Segregationist Education?
When children may fall behind on curriculum content or could be stereotyped

and labeled by their majority peers
When the minority children are denied access to majority schools.
When both, majority and minority language speakers receive instruction

completely separated
What is the kind of education that can be found all over the world?
where are the significant numbers of natives or expatriates wanting to become

bilingual ?
Which strong bilingual education shows that both languages are equally valued, and
students can learn from each other
One form of submersion Education says that …
minority language students are inserted into the major schools and give
instruction in the majority language, disregarding their mother tongue.
minority language children are taken out from conventional classes in order to
provide them compensatory lessons in the majority language.
majority and minority language speakers receive instruction completely

separated.
This is one weak form of bilingual education.
Mainstream Education with Foreign Language Teaching
Two-way or Dual Language Bilingual Education
Maintenance or Heritage Language Bilingual Education
According to Rodriguez, the language to be used with bilingual learners with

disabilities is Both.
True
False
One of these aspects among others must be considered in addition to social and
cognitive development as standardized vocabulary tests:
Linguistic background
Gender
Social status
To assess ELLs with Special needs, it should be done without bias and this should
include intellectual performance assessments, functional behavioral assessments
and ………….
assessments to identify learning disabilities.
morphological and grammatical assessments.
Cultural aspects related to family background.

In order to assess special needs, valuable information can be obtained by using

different methods such as:
classroom observation, interviews with students and their parents
task portfolios, Cultural and linguistic differences
All the answers are correct.
The main objective of Immersion Bilingual Education is...
is to produce efficient bilinguals.
to produce true European citizens.
to produce relatively balanced bilinguals, which means competent in both

languages, biliterate and multicultural children
Choose the INCORRECT statement regarding bilingual education.
According to Appel & Muysken, there are two types of bilingual education
models.
Baker gathers various Bilingual education types divided in 10 categories.
Every individual school can create their own bilingual education model.
Choose the INCORRECT statement. In bilingual education:
A child with special needs has the capacity to learn more than one language.
A child with special needs does not have the capacity to learn more than one
language.
It is beneficial for a child with special needs to learn a second language.
Choose the INCORRECT statement. What are the benefits of bilingualism for
children’s development?
They focus better on tasks.
They develop better abstract thinking skills.

They are not able to use both sides of the brain.
Choose the INCORRECT statement. Parents or teachers of bilingual children should…
encourage children to reinforce the mother tongue spoken at home.
tell children that learning two languages is an economic capital for the future.
help their children to learn a second language only after they are fully littered in
the first language.
Choose the INCORRECT statement. A good strategy to support bilingualism is:
Hierarchy-free developing conditions to learn both languages.
Good social and academic exposure to the both languages.
Economic investment in good international schools.
Choose the INCORRECT statement. Which is not a type of bilingual education?
Two way or dual language bilingual education.
Insertion bilingual education.
Minority languages monolingual education.
Anterior Siguiente
SECOND TERM EXAM

Realización
Fecha: 15-feb-2023 21:10:20

In countries where two languages are full officially recognized like in Canada,
Belgium and Finland for example, it means that people there are bilingual:
False
True
When a child develops two unique language systems and be able to handle each of
them effortlessly if two parents from diverse linguistic origins solely communicate to
him or her in his or her mother tongue, is considered…
It is formed after the critical time and can be learned through formal classroom
studies or immersion in a community that speaks the target language. Both
situations involve memory.
The Dual system Theory
The two languages are represented somehow in separate systems in the mind.
Separate phonemic systems for L1 & L2.
This hypothesis suggests that the bilingual’s two languages are represented in a
unified cognitive system.
The idea of having separated systems would explain the loss of just one of the
languages known by bilinguals if the individual has a lesion.
Bilingual newborns can distinguish between different languages…
Children can understand and identify who in the house speaks which language.
It is difficult for bilinguals to choose the correct language to communicate

within a specific situation.
Bilinguals are capable of developing vocabulary and mixing words (code-

switching) in two languages but get confused.
Coordinated bilingual is a person who…
acquires the two languages in different contexts.
learns both languages from native speakers at home, one from your mother and
the other from your father, for instance.
is proficient in one of the two languages.
Subordinate bilingual means that …
the second language is learned with the help of the first or dominant language.
characterize simultaneous bilingualism in early childhood (before the age of

three years).
the mental representation of knowledge about the two languages is thought to

be relatively independent.
One of the bilingual advantages means that…
the delay in cognitive damage and onset of dementia symptoms in bilinguals isn
´t significant.
the advance in cognitive damage and onset of dementia symptoms in bilinguals

is significant.
the delay in cognitive damage and onset of dementia symptoms in bilinguals is

significant.
If you say that there are International Schools spread all over the world and teachers
come from various parts of the world too and students receive instruction in English
and another majority language, you say that this is:
Heritage Language
This is one weak form of bilingual education.
Mainstream Education with Foreign Language Teaching
Two-way or Dual Language Bilingual Education
Maintenance or Heritage Language Bilingual Education
Vocabulary has shown to correlate highly with these two areas of language
development such as the morphological and grammatical development.
True
False
To assess ELLs with Special needs, it should be done without bias and this should
include intellectual performance assessments, functional behavioral assessments
and ………….
assessments to identify learning disabilities.
morphological and grammatical assessments.
Cultural aspects related to family background.
..to L2 learners may be in the form of direct correction.
Input
Social feedback
Negative feedback
..is the communication that occurs between people and it helps L2 learners progress
in the learning language.
Scaffolding
Input
All learning is seen as a social process that is based on sociocultural settings. Who
claims this?
Chomsky
Vygotsky
Piaget
is the area of what I can do with help of learners and experts.
Scaffolding
The Zone of Proximal Development
Social interaction
According to the Ethnography of Communication and Social Psychology described in

the text “Introducing SLA acquisition” written by Saville-Troike (2005) which macro-
social factor is not considered?
Social boundaries and national borders have also an influence on SLA. Its functions
is …………………
to unify speakers of the same language community and to exclude outsiders

from insider communication.
The Accommodation Theory refers to ……………
L1 speakers adjusting the linguistic structures to simplify their language when

they are talking to an L2 learner who is not fluent.
tendency to adjust their people’s behavior while interacting to control the social
differences between both speakers.
social constraints
social motivations
people’s bonds
Bilingualism, plurilingualism or multilingualism) can be used interchangeably to refer

to the use of two or more languages
True
False
The …………….. suggests that “a child's second language competence is partly

dependent on the level of competence already achieved in the first language
Balance theory
The main similarity between Two-way immersion and Paired literacy is that……..
native speakers of both languages are instructed together in both languages
learners are taught in academic content giving emphasis on L2.
programs can be implemented either as a one-way or a two-way program.
. analyzes language, particularly language forms, in terms of how they work and
integrate into the wider language system at various levels.
Bilingual learners find easier advance in their studies and also feel comfortable with
multiple communities of students on their campuses.
True
False
The Balance hypothesis says that knowing one language restnets the possibilities for
learning other languages, and proficiency in any language implies fewer skills in the
other ones.
True
False
One of these questions is not considered in a bilingual education.

Do only children with the majority language speaking is considered?
Are both languages taught as subjects, and is the aim of the bilingual
programme literacy in both languages?
Do Are both languages used during the whole curriculum or only in certain
stages?
According to Rodríguez and others, both languages should be used in instruction.
True
False
One of the reasons normed tests of vocabulary are essential for assessing bilingual
children is because……..
One of the variables to consider bilingual education is...
the pupil's mother tongue
the languages of the school's building
the language of the school society
In early grades, the minority language is mainly used in school because it will be
easier for the child to adjust to educational demands, and also to bridge the gap
between the home and the school. This happens in...
the maintenance model
The minority language is as important as the majority language. This happens in...
the transitional model
One of the characteristics of the Mainstreaming/Submersion Education is...
Students interact more during school hours and work freely after their lessons.
Students are taught throughout the program in the majority language,

disregarding their mother tongue.
The minority children are denied access to majority schools and receive lessons
in their own language.
Mainstreaming with Pull-out Classes is...
that the minority language children are taken out from conventional classes in
order to provide them compensatory lessons in the majority language.
that minority language children are taken out from conventional classes in order
to provide them simple lessons in the minority language
majority and minority language speakers receive instruction completely

separated.

programmes.

The minority children are denied access to majority schools and receive lessons in
their own language. This is on of the characteristics of the ...
Mainstreaming/Submersion Education.
Mainstreaming with Pull-out Classes.
Segregationist Education.
Which type of bilingual education is this: Consists of teaching minority children in

their language until they are deemed competent enough in the majority language to
cope with it in general education
Transitional Bilingual Education
Separatist Education.
In which strong bilingual education the two languages are to be used in a balanced
way in the classroom.
The main objective of Immersion Bilingual Education is...
is to produce efficient bilinguals.
to produce true European citizens.
to produce relatively balanced bilinguals, which means competent in both

languages, biliterate and multicultural children
Which strong bilingual education shows that both languages are equally valued, and
students can learn from each other
Anterior
MID TERM EXAM

Realización
Fecha: 13-dic-2022 20:54:47

In L1, ………..
verbal and non-verbal communication is given and children repeat what they
hear.
students interact with other students in a language class.
During the Preproduction stage, …………
students may not produce any speaking of the language.
students should produce their first words.
students use single words
Who found that damage to the front part of the left hemisphere resulted in language
loss?
Saussure
Pierre Broca
Wernicke
For most people, language happens in the ………………. of the brain.
left hemisphere
right hemisphere
front hemisphere
Choose the right option. Pit Corder is related to …………
Universal Grammar
Error anysisis
What is the Language Acquisition Device (LAD)?
This is an instinctive mental capacity that helps children to acquire and produce
language.
This is a hypothetical tool hardwired into the brain that helps children listen to
words rapidly.
Language production follows regular and predictable patterns. They are produced in
Linguistic and Psychological contexts
True
False
is the communication that occurs between people and it helps L2 learners progress
in the learning language.
Scaffolding
Input
The Accommodation Theory refers to ……………
L1 speakers adjusting the linguistic structures to simplify their language when

they are talking to an L2 learner who is not fluent.
tendency to adjust their people’s behavior while interacting to control the social
differences between both speakers.
The Wernicke and Broca’s areas are located on the……
left hemisphere
right hemisphere
frontal eye field
a systematic process of learning other-s language apart of the first or native

language.
L2 learners get the language easier or more successfully than others that are under
some differences such as...
wealthy family, level of education and paradigms among others.
gender, motivation, level of education and learning strategies among others.
genre, reasons, social class and learning styles among others.
The role of the age in learning a second language is considered a success when …
the sooner the learners starts, the better grammaticality judgments, fluency and
functional competence they develop.
the sooner the learners starts, the merrier.
the sooner the learner starts, the faster they speak.
When we talk about language learning…
it presupposes teaching happens in schools, colleges and so on.
it happens naturally with the ones who are native speakers.
It does not presuppose teaching.
These are the factors that influence on how quickly the student progresses when
learning/acquiring the language…
level of formal education, family background, and length of time spent in the
place.
level of formal education, sex and length of time spent in the place.
level of formal education, family background, and ethnicity.
According to Krashen, in the Acquisition-Learning hypothesis, …
adults have 'the acquired system' and 'the learned system' to develop
competence in a second language.
the acquisition of grammatical structures follows a natural order and are

predictable.
grammatical sequencing should be followed when the goal is acquisition more

than learning
The implication of the …………………….. says that grammatical sequencing should not be
followed when the goal is acquisition more than learning.
Natural order hypothesis
Monitor Hypothesis
Acquisition hypothesis
The first language has interference on the second language acquisition, and the role
of…
L1 in the L2 depends on some similarities and differences between them.
L2 in the L1 depends on some similarities and differences between them.
L1 and L2 depend on some similarities and differences between them.
although familiar with the rule, fail to perform accordingly.
deviates resulting from ignorance of the rule.
is writing in the target L2 language using their L1 grammar
Religion and cultural background can favor L2 acquisition if…
the dominant and minority group have much in common.
both groups do not share common believes.
minority groups do not interact with the dominant group.
Multilingualism is highly valued if the student…
goes abroad to study or in an exchange program with all instruction is in the L2.
memorizes many languages.
pays a lot of money to study two or three languages.
Motivation
Reading
Interaction
Who teaches him/herself is considered as ………
reciprocal Interaction.
Input.
autodidact
When do we say that cognitive processing took place?
What is acquired in L2 includes only that portion of L2 input “which is

assimilated and fed into the IL system.
What is acquired in L1 includes only that portion of L2 input “which is

assimilated and fed into the LS.
What is acquired in input includes only that portion of L1 input “which is

assimilated and fed into the IL system
Feedback interaction means that ….
teachers make learners aware that the way they are speaking is acceptable and
provide them a grade.
native speakers make learners aware that the way they are speaking is not
acceptable and provide them a model.
native speakers make learners understand that the way they are speaking is
acceptable and do not provide them a model.
Complete with the correct answer. Language learning…
is the result of direct instruction with the rules of language.
presupposes that learners have an unconscious of the new language.
children have advanced knowledge of grammar.
Choose the correct answer. The Zone of Proximal Development…
takes place only with assistance of a person who has a higher knowledge.
is a result of an innate capacity to learn a second language.
is developed with group learning with other students who have the same
knowledge level.
Choose the correct answer. Feedback…
is positive when it is direct, for example “You must say…”.
is negative when it is direct, for example “That’s the wrong word”.
is negative when it happens in a natural context, for example “You cannot

what?”.
Choose the correct answer. Age, sex, and linguistic context is a…
Macro-social factor
Indirect factor.
Anterior Siguiente
UNIT FOUR QUIZ

Realización
Fecha: 02-dic-2022 21:32:27

Regular and predictable patterns occur at Language production and they are:
vocabulary, phonology, morphology, syntax, discourse
gender, phonetics, morphology, speech, discourse
vocabulary, phonemes, morphology, sounds, discourse analysis
Which of the following sentences is considered a Variable syntax?
That is a large city or That is a big city
That is a large city or That a large city
Peter is a tall student or Peter is the tallest
Motivation, self-confidence and anxiety are…
Linguistics contexts.
Psychological contexts.
Input contexts.
Motivation
Production
Interaction
Who teaches himself/herself is considered as ………
reciprocal Interaction.
Input.
autodidact
contributes to acquisition only if it remains in the learners’ brain in order to be

processed.
Psychological context
Language input
Linguistic context
When there is a direct correction, it is said that it is a…
positive feedback
motivation
negative feedback
When it comes to language learning, it is advisable that you step out of or your……….…
and feel free of making mistakes.
comfort zone
growth zone
zone of proximal development

Learning the culture of the dominant language community and get adapted to its
values and behavioral patterns is…
Acculturation
National status
Boundaries
Social factors have to deal with…
Access to Education
Access to food
Access to health
Do age, education, sex and ethnicity affect circumstances of learning?
True
False
Maybe
Is memorization a very good method for students of a second language?
True
False
Maybe
Vygotsky believed that children are social learners.
Collaborative learning experiences happen through discussion.
Teachers should let students work in pairs.
Questioning should be used to clarify confused ideas.
In the USA, English is the single and national language and everybody is expected to
speak this language for national unity. This is a case of
Global and National status
Institutional forces and constrains
When a person crosses borders, it is necessary to learn the culture of that

community and get adapted to the values and behavioral patterns in order to have
full participation.
That is acculturation
That is Additive bilingualism
Cultural-based learning
When the dominant group members do not want to be identified with the minority
community…
they don’t learn the minority language.
they impose their language to the minority community.
they get adapted to their culture and customs instead.
One group negatively affected by the learning of L2 is the one who…
is segregated by the target group who want to be socially distant.
is conquered due to institutional forces
wants to learn the language but is now allowed by the target group.
One group negatively affected by the learning of L2 is the one who…
prefers to be distant from the dominant group because they do not want to lose
their identity.
is inserted in the dominant community to learn their language.
is forced to learn the dominant language with political purposes.
Religion and cultural background can favor L2 acquisition if…
the dominant and minority group have much in common.
both groups do not share common believes.
minority groups do not interact with the dominant group.
To live in a Country linguistically diverse is …
advantageous because the learner can assimilate its variations and became
linguistically rich.
not a good idea because the learner can get confused with the dialects or
variations of the target language.
disadvantageous because it can damage his/her native language.
Anterior Siguiente

Language Exp. Learning Acquisition Sexto Semestre

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Language Exp. Learning Acquisition Sexto Semestre

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Tema 1: Introduction to language acquisition https://evirtual.espe.edu.ec/programas_scorm.cgi?id_curso=22732&id_unidad=257415&id_p...

1.1. Language Acquisition vs Language learning

When a child is born, he/she begins acquiring his/her first

According to linguists, there is a significant distinction between

1.1. Language Acquisition vs Language learning

In this context, let’s give a formal

Here you have a comparative table:

1.1. Language Acquisition vs Language learning

Adapted from several sources

Figure 2, Language Acquisition Figure 3, Language Learning

1.2. What is first language L1? What is second language L2?

1.2. What is first language L1? What is second language L2?

1.3. What is Second language Acquisition (SLA)?

Figure 4, Stages of Second Language Acquisition

1.5. Linguistic competence and Linguistic performance

1.5. Linguistic competence and Linguistic performance

Factors that Influence Linguistic Performance

(a) the linguistic competence or unconscious linguistic knowledge of the speaker-hearer,

1.6. Theories of second language acquisition

1. Universal Grammar (Linguistically oriented)

1.6. Theories of second language acquisition

These authors, Bley-Broman en Epstein et al.

1. Nativist Theories - Input-based Theories

In the following lines, we will study Krashen's

Figure 5, Stephen Krashen’s biographical data

1.6. Theories of second language acquisition

● The Acquisition-Learning distinction

1.6. Theories of second language acquisition

Figure 6, The 5 hypotheses of Krashen's Theory of Second

Note. Taken from Stephen Krashen's theory of Second

1.6. Theories of second language acquisition

Figure 7, Stephen Dr. Krashen quotes

Note. Quotes Taken from (TOP 25 QUOTES BY STEPHEN

1.6. Theories of second language acquisition

1. The Acquisition-Learning distinction

2. The Natural Order hypothesis

1.6. Theories of second language acquisition

3. The Monitor hypothesis

1.6. Theories of second language acquisition

4. The Input hypothesis

1.6. Theories of second language acquisition

5. The Affective Filter hypothesis

1.7. Domains of language learning: cognitive, linguistic, and social/affective.

2. It is in charge of the production of language or language outputs.

3. For most people, language happens in the ………………. of the brain.

4. Temporal lobe ……………………………..

interprets sounds and transforms into sentences.

the ability to express oneself easily and articulately.

The Critical Period

males seem to be better at memorizing complex forms.

9. Social constructionist consider gender associated to a matter of ………..

10. The intrinsic motivation focuses on ………….

external factors that encourage and facilitate their language achievement.

2.1 Languages and the brain

Psychologists and psycholinguists highlight the cognitive

Professor Dave Explains (2020). The Brain and Language

2.1 Languages and the brain

The discovery of the Broca's area The discovery of the Broca's

2.1 Languages and the brain

The Language Loop

Lateral Sulcus: It is one of the most protruding structures of the brain.

2.1 Languages and the brain

The left hemisphere presents this language loop in about