Journal of Petroleum Geology, Vol.

34(2), April 2011, pp 117-134 117

SOURCE ROCK POTENTIAL OF THE

UPPER JURASSIC – LOWER CRETACEOUS
SUCCESSION IN THE SOUTHERN
MESOPOTAMIAN BASIN, SOUTHERN IRAQ

Q. Abeed*, A. Alkhafaji** and R. Littke*+

This paper reports on the hydrocarbon potential of subsurface samples from the Upper Jurassic
Lower Cretaceous succession at the Rumaila (North and South), Zubair, Subba and West Qurna
oilfields in southern Iraq. A total of 37 fine-grained core samples of the Sulaiy, Yamama, Ratawi
and Zubair Formations from ten wells were analyzed. Contents of organic carbon and sulphur
were measured; other analyses included Rock-Eval pyrolysis, optical microscopy in incident light,
solvent extraction and gas chromatography of non-aromatic hydrocarbons. The results indicated
that the samples from the Cretaceous succession (Yamama, Zubair and Ratawi Formations) are
at moderate levels of thermal maturity, whereas samples from the Upper Jurassic – Lower
Cretaceous Sulaiy Formation are at a stage of thermal maturity beyond peak oil generation.
According to the results of this study, the Sulaiy Formation is an excellent highly-mature source
rock and it is probably responsible for the generation of large quantities of oil in the study area.
The samples differ with respect to their organic facies and biomarker distribution, indicating
that palaeo depositional conditions varied significantly.

INTRODUCTION on these intervals. The purpose of this study is to

About 80 % of Iraq’s oil production comes from only
two reservoir intervals: the Cenozoic (Kirkuk Group
or “Main Pay” at the Kirkuk field in northern Iraq),
and the Cretaceous (Zubair Sandstone at Zubair, and
the Mishrif Formation carbonates at Rumaila) in
southern Iraq. Petroleum systems in other parts of
the country remain either undeveloped or only partially
developed, and most of Iraq’s oil reserves are located
in the Mesopotamian Basin which is dominated by
Cretaceous plays (Aqrawi et al., 2010). Source rocks
are mostly Tithonian – Lower Cretaceous shales but
only limited geochemical analyses have been performed
* Institute of Geology and Geochemistry of Petroleum
and Coal, RWTH Aachen University, Lochnerstrasse
4-20, D-52056 Aachen, Germany.
** Dept. of Chemistry, College of Science for Women,
University of Babylon, Iraq.
+
Corresponding author, email:
littke@lek.rwth-aachen.de
analyze potential source rocks at oilfields in the Basra
area of southern Iraq with respect to quantity, quality
and maturity of organic matter. Analytical data was
used also to interpret source rock depositional
environments.
Stratigraphic and Tectonic Setting
The Mesopotamian Basin lies in the east of the Stable
Shelf (sensu Jassim and Goff, 2006; Aqrawi et al.,
2010) which covers most of central, southern and
western Iraq. Buday and Jassim (1984) divided the
Mesopotamian Basin into (from north to south) the
Tigris, Euphrates and Zubair subzones (Fig. 1). The
Zubair subzone includes the study area around the
city of Basra. Oilfields here are located along elongate,
narrow anticlines. According to Jassim and Goff
Key words: Mesopotamian Basin, Iraq, Rumaila oilfield,
Zubair oilfield, Sulaiy Formation, source rocks, organic
geochemistry.

© 2011 The Authors. Journal of Petroleum Geology © 2011 Scientific Press Ltd
118 Source rock potential of the Upper Jurassic – Lower Cretaceous succession, southern Iraq

38°E 40°E 42°E 44°E 46°E 48°E

TURKEY Daryacheh ye Orumiyeh

LEGEND

Th
Oil field
(Producing,Appraised,Discovered)

ru
st
Gasfield

Fo

Zo
Buhayrat Al Asad Mosul
Studied well

ld
36°N Erbil

ne
Tigris Subzone A

ed
Euphrates Subzone B

Zo
Kirkuk

ne
Zubair Subzone

SYRIA N

34°N Samarra

34°N

M
Buhayrat ath Tharthar

e
R A s
o IRAN
ut Ar Ramadi
p
ba Baghdad
o
ta
S

h
a

JORDAN
- m
lm

Je Behr al Milh
Karbala
ia
zi
a

Ad Diwaniyah
n
n

ra B
32°N
B
Z

Zo Najaf a 32°N
o

ne s
in
n
e

MAJNOON
Nasiriyah
C
WEST QURNA WQ-41
WQ-12
NAHR UMR Basra

30°N SUBBA RUMAILA N.

Rumaila N.-172
SINDABAD 30°N
Su-8 Zb-40
RATAWI
TUBA Basra
Rumaila N.-167
ZUBAIR
RUMAILA Tu-1 K U WA I T
LUHAIS

RACHI JEBEL SANAM

DIBDIBBA
JERISHAN
UMM QASR
SAUDI ARABIA 0 50 100 150 200km.

40°E 42°E 44°E 46°E 48°E

Fig. 1. Map of oilfields in Iraq with boundaries of the Mesopotamian Basin and major tectonic units (after
Aqrawi et al., 2010). Inset map shows oilfields and wells in the study area near Basra.

(2006), these structures originated during the Late 1991; Al-Ameri et al., 2009). The Sulaiy in its type
Proterozoic Nabitah orogeny and were reactivated area in Saudi Arabia rests on the Upper Jurassic Hith
during the Permo-Carboniferous, Mesozoic and Anhydrite Formation and passes up into the overlying
Tertiary, possibly related to movement of Yamama Formation (van Bellen et al., 1959) (Fig. 2).
Infracambrian salt (Aqrawi et al., 2010). It was deposited in a shelfal sea and is known from
Aqrawi et al. (2010) divided the Tithonian – outcrops in Saudi Arabia (Jassim and Goff, 2006)
Cretaceous succession in Iraq into six supersequences where it comprises chalky, massive limestones and
which correspond broadly to Sharland et al.’s (2001) calcarenites (Powers et al., 1966) and is of early
AP8 and AP9 Megasequences. The basal Valanginian age. A section described by Rabanit (in
supersequence (upper Tithonian – middle Valanginian) van Bellen et al., 1959) at well Ratawi-1 in SE Iraq
includes the argillaceous and marly limestones of the consists of over 331 m (base not reached) of detrital,
Sulaiy Formation which is a major source rock in oolitic limestones and recrystallized limestones with
southern Iraq, Kuwait and Saudi Arabia (Beydoun, minor shales. In southern Iraq, the formation is
 Q. Abeed, A. Alkhafaji and R. Littke 119

composed of alternating argillaceous, dolomitic and

Lithology
Formation

Tectonics
Petroleum
System
pyrite-rich limestones with a thickness between 196

Age
and 304 m (Al-Ameri et al., 1999).
The overlying Yamama Formation is known from
outcrops in Saudi Arabia (Powers et al., 1966). van r at
ya
Bellen et al. (1959) described a 257 m thick interval Maastrichtian Ta
at well Ratawi-1 as the “Yamama-Sulaiy” Formation.

sh
The upper 203 m, now assigned to the Yamama

ni

Neo-Tethyhs
ira
1000

Sh

closure of
Formation (Sadooni, 1993), comprises 12 m of brown
Campanian
detrital limestones with thin shale beds overlain by a
rth
191 m of micritic and oolitic limestones (Jassim and Ha
Goff, 2006). According to Rabanit (in van Bellen et i
Santonian ’d
al., 1959), the Yamama-Sulaiy comprises in Sa
descending stratigraphical order six units: (1) 625 ft 1500

Neo-Tethys
a

Obduction
Coniacian
Turonian-
(190.5 m) of fine-grained detrital and oolitic m
nu
Ta

Cretaceous
limestones; (2) 40 ft (12.2 m) of brown detrital
limestones; (3) 260 ft (79.3 m) of brown detrital ib
as
limestones, shaly in part, with abundant organic debris; Kh
(4) 74 ft (22.6 m) of brown recrystallized limestones if
with rare organic remains; (5) 36 ft (11 m) of dark hr
is 2000

Cenomanian
M
grey limestones with streaks of current-bedded,
la
slightly arenaceous shale; (6) 86 ft (20.7 m) of dark ai
m
grey, massive, pyritic limestones. Ru
i
Supersequence 1 of Aqrawi et al. (2010) also ad
m
contains the limestone-dominated Lower Member of Ah
2500
the Ratawi Formation which is approximately d
du
au
Albian

equivalent in stratigraphic position to the Garagu M

Formation of northern and central Iraq. Samples in r
r Um
this study were taken from the clastic-dominated upper h
Na
member of the formation (which is assigned to

Neo-Tethys
opening of
a
Supersequence II: Aqrawi et al., 2010). The Ratawi Aptian ib
u’a 3000
Formation was defined by Nasr in 1950 (van Bellen Sh
et al., 1959) based on data from well Ratawi-1. Its ir
Barremian ba
thickness in southern Iraq ranges from 23 to 629 m. Zu
In some areas to the east and north of the type well i
location, beds of sandy shale and sandstone occur Hauterivian taw
Ra
and the formation contains a higher proportion of sand 3500
to the north and west (Jassim and Goff, 2006). In Valanginian a
am
the study area, the Ratawi Formation is 220-300 m m
Ya
thick. The upper member passes gradually into the Berriasian
y
lai
Zubair Formation (Alsharhan and Nairn, 1997). Su
U. Jurassic

Tithonian
The Ratawi Formation (Lower Member) is
ia
disconformably overlain by the progradational Zubair U.Kimmeridgian tn 4000
Go
Formation at the base of Supersequence II.
evaporite shale
According to van Bellen et al. (1959), the Zubair Legend shaly lmstn

Formation can be subdivided at its type locality at silty lmstn marl silt
source
Zubair field into five units (from top to bottom): (i) reservoir organic
silty shale
lmstn unconf.
the Upper Shale (100 m thick); (ii) the Upper seal massive sandstone sample
Sandstone or “Main Pay” composed of thick quartz source/ reservoir lmstn

arenites; (iii) the black or greenish- black Middle Shale;

(iv) the Lower Sandstone; and (v) the Lower Shale.
The proportion of shale in the formation decreases
rapidly to the SW. To the NE, the formation consists
almost entirely of shale near Dujaila in Central Iraq.
In South Iraq, the Zubair Formation comprises 380-
400 m of alternating shales, siltstone and sandstones.
Fig. 2. Generalised stratigraphic column for the
study area in southern Iraq, with petroleum system
elements and the location of core samples analysed.
(After Al-Ameri et al., 2009).
120 Source rock potential of the Upper Jurassic – Lower Cretaceous succession, southern Iraq
It passes laterally into the limestone-marl of the Shu’aiba
or Sarmord Formations in the around Buzurgan near
the frontier with Iran (Jassim and Goff, 2006).
The Albian Nahr Umr and overlying Maudud
Formations were deposited in the overlying
Supersequence III of Aqrawi et al. (2010). Due to the
abrupt facies change between the Nahr Umr and
Shu’aiba Formation, these two cycles may be separated
by an unconformity. After relative tectonic stability of
the basin in the previous sedimentary cycle, greater
tectonic instability occurred in the region during the
interval between the Cenomanian and the Campanian
which was characterized by alternating siliciclastic and
carbonate deposition (Fig. 2). The Hartha, Shiranish,
and Tayarat Formations of Campanian and
Maastrichtian ages probably represent transgressive
deposition which was terminated by end-Maastrichtian
uplift and regression. The thickness of the Lower
Cretaceous succession ranges from 500 to 700 m,
and of the Upper Cretaceous from 700 to 1400 m.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
For this study, 37 fine-grained samples from the Upper
Jurassic – Lower Cretaceous succession from depths
ranging from 3167 to 4500 m were analysed (Table
1). The samples came from cores recovered from ten
wells in the Rumaila North and South, Zubair, West
Qurna and Subba oilfields (locations in Fig. 1), and
were provided by the Iraq South Oil Company. The
samples came from four formations: Zubair
(Barremian-Aptian), Ratawi (Hautervian), Yamama
(Valanginian), and Sulaiy (Tithonian-Berriasian).
Samples were visually selected from dark-coloured
fine-grained core intervals. Stratigraphic and lithologic
information is presented in Table 1. Geochemical
analyses were performed in the laboratories of the
Institute of Geology and Geochemistry of Petroleum
and Coal, RWTH Aachen University.
Vitrinite Reflectance
and Fluorescence Microscopy
Vitrinite reflectance (VRr) was measured with a Zeiss
Axiophot microscope following the procedures
described by Schoenherr et al. (2007). Another Zeiss
Axiophot microscope equipped with an ultraviolet/violet
light source was used to recognize liptinite macerals
in fluorescent light because liptinite cannot be easily
seen in reflected white light (Taylor et al., 1998).
TOC analysis and Rock-Eval Pyrolysis
TOC was measured with a LECO RC-412 apparatus
based on IR- absorption of CO2-bands in a two-stage
measurement process in an oxygenated atmosphere at
variable temperatures. During the first stage, organic
carbon is converted to CO2 at temperatures ranging
from 350°C to 520°C (TOC). During the second
stage, carbonates are converted to CO 2 in a
temperature range from 520°C to 1050°C. The
CO2concentrations were quantified by IR-absorption.
Two standards were used for the calibration,
containing 1.01 % +/-0.01 % C (LECO Synthetic
Carbon) and 12 % C (LECO Calcium Carbonate).
Standard deviations are less than 0.5 %.
Rock-Eval and TOC results provided information
about the dispersed organic matter (OM) in the core
samples, including quantity and type of OM, level of
maturity and source rock potential. The S1-signal is
a measure of the amount of hydrocarbons liberated
at 300 °C and represents the volatile portion of the
bitumen present in the rock. The S2 peak represents
the amount of hydrocarbons generated during
temperature-programmed pyrolysis (300 – 600 °C),
and represents the bitumen that would be generated
if burial and maturation continued to completion. S1
and S2 are expressed in mg of hydrocarbon per gram
(mg HC/g) of rock. S3 is the quantity of CO2 formed
by pyrolysis of the OM expressed in milligrams of
CO2 per gram of rock (mg CO2/g). Tmax (°C) is the
temperature at which the maximum of the S2 peak
is reached and represents an estimate of thermal
maturity. Although high TOC values may indicate
good source rock potential, much of the OM may
be inert due to sedimentary reworking, oxidation or
advanced levels of maturation and therefore have very
little generation potential (Espitalié et al., 1985; Leckie
et al., 1988).
The Hydrogen Index (HI) is the normalized S2
value (S2/TOC), expressed as mg HC/g of TOC,
which allows the types of OM to be estimated (Table
1). The Oxygen Index (OI) is the normalized S3 value
(S3/TOC), expressed in mg CO 2/g TOC. The
Production Index (PI) or transformation ratio (PI =
S1 / [S1+S2]) indicates the level of thermal maturation
and also the presence of migrated hydrocarbons.
Solvent extraction, liquid chromatographic
fractionation, GC-FID and GC-MS
After the core samples were ground down, the
resulting sediment powder (ca. 5 g) was extracted
for 24 h using 50 ml of DCM (CH 2 Cl 2 ;
dichloromethane). The solvent was removed with a
rotary evaporator. The extracts were separated by
column chromatography over activated silica gel and
eluted sequentially into six fractions using n-pentane
(fraction 1), n-pentane/CH2Cl2 (95/5 v/v, fraction 2),
n-pentane/CH2Cl2(90/10 v/v, fraction 3), pentane/
CH2Cl2(40/60 v/v, fraction 4), CH2Cl2 (fraction 5)
and methanol (fraction 6). Details of the procedure
were described by Schwarzbauer et al. (2000) and
Amijaya et al. (2006). GC was carried out with a
Carlo Erba 8000 gas chromatograph equipped with
Table 1. TOC and Rock-Eval pyrolysis results of the studied samples from the Zubair, Ratawi,Yamama and Sulaiy Formations from wells in the Rumaila (R-),
North Rumaila (Ru-), Subba (Su-), Zubair (Zb-) and West Qurna (WQ-) oilfields (locations in Fig. 1).

S1 S2 Tmax VRr TOC HI Sulphur CaCO3 (%)

Well Formation Depth (m) Lithology PI TIC
(mg HC/g rock) (mg HC/g rock) (°C) (%) (%) (mg HC/g TOC) (%) (TIC*8.333)
Ru-28 Zubair 3204 Mudstone 0.04 0.25 427 0.73 0.55 45 0.14 1.0 0.06 0.5
Ru-28 Zubair 3245 Mudstone 0.07 0.81 427 0.79 1.06 76 0.08 1.3 0.2 1.7
Ru-215 Zubair 3170 Mudstone 0.15 1.95 436 0.75 1.06 184 0.07 0.7 0.3 2.5
Ru-215 Zubair 3184 Mudstone 4.23 40.83 419 0.69 21.68 188 0.09 10.5 0.03 0.2
Ru-215 Zubair 3187 Mudstone 0.04 0.40 414 0.83 0.60 67 0.09 0.6 0.1 0.8
Ru-215 Zubair 3222 Mudstone 0.04 0.44 426 0.75 0.74 59 0.08 0.7 0.1 0.8
Ru-19 Ratawi 3277 Mudstone 0.13 1.70 429 0.76 1.39 122 0.07 1.4 0.2 1.7
R-172 Ratawi 3432 Mudstone 0.11 0.38 430 0.58 1.07 36 0.22 1.1 0.2 1.7
R-172 Ratawi 3446 Mudstone 0.14 0.27 434 0.65 0.61 44 0.34 0.88 0.3 2.5
R-172 Ratawi 3465 Mudstone 0.30 0.38 436 0.69 0.59 64 0.44 1.2 0.2 1.7
R-172 Yamama 3550 Marlstone 0.12 0.40 436 0.69 0.82 49 0.23 2.0 6.6 55.0
R-172 Yamama 3605 Marlstone 1.66 4.74 430 0.58 0.86 551 0.26 2.0 6.8 56.7
R-172 Yamama 3655 Marlstone 2.23 4.59 435 0.67 0.91 504 0.33 1.8 5.0 41.7
R-172 Yamama 3751 Marlstone 4.88 3.25 418 0.36 0.84 387 0.60 2.2 7.1 59.2
R-172 Sulaiy 3995 Carbonate 74.30 11.34 440 0.76 9.55 119 0.87 2.1 10 83.3
R-172 Sulaiy 4012 Carbonate 42.24 11.06 445 0.85 4.69 236 0.79 2.8 9.5 79.2
R-172 Sulaiy 4042 Carbonate 22.65 6.39 438 0.72 3.31 193 0.78 2.3 10 83.3
R-172 Sulaiy 4066 Carbonate 71.67 8.40 438 0.72 9.44 89 0.90 3.0 11 91.7
R-172 Sulaiy 4086 Carbonate 78.11 9.58 445 0.85 3.14 305 0.89 2.9 9 75.0
Ru-167 Yamama 4141 Marlstone 0.11 0.37 439 0.62 0.32 115 0.23 2.4 7.3 60.8
Ru-167 Sulaiy 4483 Carbonate 1.35 1.47 458 1 2.07 71 0.48 0.8 10 83.3
Ru-167 Sulaiy 4498 Carbonate 0.36 0.30 449 1.29 1.11 27 0.55 1.0 9.5 79.2
Ru-167 Sulaiy 4500 Carbonate 1.45 4.60 470 1.28 8.04 57 0.24 2.4 8 66.7
Su-8 Zubair 2883 Shale 0.06 1.15 431 0.6 1.04 111 0.05 0.5 2 16.7
Q. Abeed, A. Alkhafaji and R. Littke

Su-8 Yamama 3572 Carbonate 11.31 16.25 419 0.76 2.72 598 0.41 0.7 11 91.7
WQ-12 Yamama 3623 Carbonate 0.08 0.43 437 0.65 0.31 140 0.16 0.1 11 91.7
Zb-40 Zubair 3249 Mudstone 0.18 2.44 432 0.68 1.49 164 0.07 0.5 0.3 2.5
Zb-40 Zubair 3332 Mudstone 0.06 0.62 430 0.71 0.55 113 0.09 0.6 0.04 0.3
Zb-40 Zubair 3433 Mudstone 0.08 0.66 430 0.69 0.72 91 0.11 1.8 0.3 2.5
Ru-212 Zubair 3167 Mudstone 0.24 1.52 423 0.63 1.40 108 0.14 4.0 0.03 0.2
Ru-212 Zubair 3195 Mudstone 0.15 1.08 427 0.68 1.36 80 0.12 5.4 0.07 0.6
Ru-212 Zubair 3205 Mudstone 0.05 0.84 430 0.8 0.97 87 0.06 0.8 0.2 1.7
Ru-212 Zubair 3207 Mudstone 0.08 0.73 426 0.6 0.92 79 0.10 1.2 0.1 0.8
Ru-158 Sulaiy 4350 Carbonate 1.22 1.35 441 0.7 0.96 141 0.47 0.3 11 91.7
Ru-158 Sulaiy 4355 Carbonate 0.65 0.52 451 0.75 0.85 61 0.56 0.4 10 83.3
Ru-158 Sulaiy 4360 Carbonate 0.76 1.05 438 1 1.02 103 0.42 0.3 10.5 87.5
Ru-158 Sulaiy 4365 Marlstone 0.39 0.40 449 1.2 0.87 46 0.49 2.2 6 50.0
121
122 Source rock potential of the Upper Jurassic – Lower Cretaceous succession, southern Iraq
1.0
IMMATURE
0.9
0.8
PRODUCTION INDEX (PI)
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
LOW LEVEL CONVERSION
0.0
380
Fig. 3. Plot of Rock-Eval Tmax versus Production Index for samples from the Zubair, Ratawi,Yamama and Sulaiy
Formations from wells in the study area in southern Iraq.
a 30 m × 0.25 mm ID × 0.25 μm film Zebron–ZB 5
fused silica column. The oven temperature was
programmed from 60 to 300 °C at a rate of 3 °C /min,
with a 20 min isothermal period at 300 °C. Injection
was performed in the split/splitless mode with a splitless
time of 60 s. Hydrogen was used as a carrier gas
(injection temperature: 270 °C).
GC/MS analysis was carried out using a Finnegan
MAT 8222 mass spectrometer linked to an HP 5890
gas chromatograph. A 30 m × 0.25 ID × 0.25 μm film
Varina CP Sil-8CB fused silica column was used.
Helium was used as carrier gas. The temperature was
programmed from 80 to 310 °C at a rate of 3 °C/min,
with a 5 min isothermal period at 310 °C.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The TOC content of samples from the Zubair
Formation varies between 0.4 and 1 %; however two
exceptional samples had 2.7 and 22 % TOC. Ratawi
Formation samples had 0.6 to 1.4 % TOC; TOC values
for the Yamama Formation range from 0.3 to 2.7 %
(Table 1). The highest average TOC contents were
present in the Sulaiy Formation, ranging up to 10 %.
Based on their organic richness, all these intervals
have the potential to act as efficient petroleum source
rocks (c.f. Leckie et al., 1988; Peters and Moldwan,
1993).
OIL ZONE DRY GAS ZONE
CONDENSATE ZONE
Zubair Fm
Ratawi Fm
Yamama Fm
Sualiy Fm
HIGH LEVEL CONVERSION-
EXPULSION
430 480 530
Tmax (°C)
Kerogen Maturity
Kerogen maturity was evaluated on the basis of
Rock-Eval Tmax and PI values (Fig. 3) as well as
vitrinite reflectance (Fig. 4). Tmax values were only
reported for samples with S2 values > 0.2 mg HC/g
(Table 1) and vary for the Zubair, Ratawi and Yamama
Formations between 414 and 439°C. This range
indicates a level of thermal maturity at the beginning
of the oil window. PI values generally range from
0.06 to 0.2 but may reach values of 0.3-0.6, especially
in the Ratawi and Yamama Formations in well R-172
indicating impregnation by migrated petroleum (Fig.
3). Vitrinite reflectance in general ranges between
about 0.6 and 0.7 % (Fig. 4, Table 1).
The Sulaiy Formation samples were obtained from
greater depths (4000-4500 m). They are characterized
by Tmax values between 438 and 470 °C indicating
that the samples are highly mature or overmature with
respect to oil generation. PI values vary between 0.4
and 0.9 (with one exception) and are particularly high
in well R-172. The high PI values (Figs 3, 5) indicate
impregnation by generated bitumen which is related
to the presence of mature organic matter. Vitrinite
reflectance values range between 0.7 and 1.2 %
indicating maturities close to or beyond peak oil
generation (Figs 4, 5).
In summary, maturities seem to be closely related
to present-day burial depth (Fig. 5). Maturities are
 Q. Abeed, A. Alkhafaji and R. Littke 123

1000
Rr
~ 0.55 % V Zubair Fm
Ratawi Fm
900
Yamama Fm
Type I
Oil Prone Sualiy Fm

800

700
HYDROGEN INDEX (mg HC/g TOC)

600
Type II
Oil Prone

500

ow
ind
lW
Oi

400

ow
300

ind
sW
Mixed Type II/III
Oil/Gas Prone

Ga
r
VR

et
0%

W
200
te-
1.0

r
VR
sa
~

en

%
nd

Type III
.40

w
Co

o
Gas Prone
i nd
1
W
~

100
as
yG
Dr

Type IV
Inert
0.0
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6
VRr (%)
Fig. 4. Plot of vitrinite reflectance (VRr) versus hydrogen index (HI) for samples from the Zubair, Ratawi,
Yamama and Sulaiy Formations from wells in the study area in southern Iraq, indicating thermal maturity and
petroleum generation potential.

significantly higher in the Tithonian-Valanginian Sulaiy 1994). S2 values are moderate to high (HI reaches
Formation than in the overlying Zubair, Ratawi, and 500-600 in several samples). The kerogen has both
Yamama Formations. high hydrocarbon generation potential and high
sulphur content (Table 1) and can therefore be
Kerogen Quality and Organic Facies classified as Type II-S (Fig. 6).
Samples from the Zubair Formation are characterized The Sulaiy Formation contains abundant solid
by abundant vitrinite and sporinite with additional algal bitumen which is an overmature relic of previously-
material (alginite; Plate 1). A similar organic facies is formed oil. Petroleum generation is also expressed
present in the Ratawi Formation but the percentage of by high PI values. S2 and HI values are moderate
alginite is lower. This organic facies is consistent with and higher in the shallower samples (about 100 to
the relatively low S2 and HI values in these units (Figs 300 mg HC/g TOC) than in the deeper samples
4, 5, 6, 7). Kerogen can be classified as early mature (about 50 to 150 mg HC/g TOC). These values
Type III with only moderate to low oil generation reflect the advanced maturity of this formation;
potential. kerogen can be classified as Type II-III. However,
The Yamama Formation contains abundant bituminite/ based on the maceral composition (Plate 1), sulphur
amorphous organic matter with minor vitrinite, inertinite content (Table 1) and maturity, it can be assumed
and sporinite (Plate 1). This maceral composition is that this was originally Type II-S kerogen with a
typical of marine source rocks (Littke and Sachsenhofer, high petroleum generation potential.
124 Source rock potential of the Upper Jurassic – Lower Cretaceous succession, southern Iraq

2500
Zubair Fm
Ratawi Fm.

Yamama Fm
Sualiy Fm

3000

3500
Depth (m)

4000

4500

5000
0 1 2 410 440 470 0 300 600 0 0.5 1
VRr (%)
.

Tmax ( C) Hydrogen Production

A B C Index D Index

Fig. 5. Profiles of (a) vitrinite reflectance (VRr), (b) Tmax, (c) hydrogen index (HI) and (d) production index (PI)
versus depth for the analysed samples from the Zubair, Ratawi, Yamama and Sulaiy Formations.

Bitumen Composition: n- and iso-alkanes
The non-aromatic fractions of the source rocks from
the study area are dominated by n-alkanes. Typical
chromatograms for samples from the four formations
analysed are shown in Fig. 8a-d.
Samples from the Zubair Formation are
characterized by the occurrence of long- and short-
chain n-alkanes in high concentrations. Long-chain
n-alkanes (C25 to C29) show a predominance of odd-
over even-numbered molecules which is expressed
by CPI values greater than 1 (Table 2). This is typical
of a land-plant contribution and also indicates low-
to-moderate source rock maturity. At high maturities,
a value of 1 would be expected and a much lower
concentration of long-chain n-alkanes. For the short
chain n-alkanes, there is an odd-over-even
predominance especially in the C17 range. This is
typical of rocks with a contribution of phytoplankton/
algae. Pristane and phytane are abundant but occur in
smaller concentrations than the adjacent n-alkanes
 Q. Abeed, A. Alkhafaji and R. Littke 125

Type I Oil Prone Type II Oil Prone

Zubair Fm
14.0
Ratawi Fm

Yamama Fm
12.0
Sualiy Fm

Mixed Type II/III

S2 (mg HC/g rock)

10.0

8.0

6.0
Type III

4.0

2.0
Type IV
Inert
0.0
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0

TOC (%)

Fig. 6. Plot of Rock-Eval S2 versus total organic carbon (TOC) for the analysed samples from the Zubair,
Ratawi, Yamama and Sulaiy Formations.

Fig. 7. Plot of Rock-Eval hydrogen index

1000
(HI) versus Tmax for the analysed samples Rr
~ 0.55 % V Zubair Fm.
from the Zubair, Ratawi, Yamama and
Sulaiy Formations. Ratawi Fm

900 Yamama Fm
Type I
Oil Prone Sualiy Fm

800

700
HYDROGEN INDEX (mg HC/g TOC)

600

Type II
Oil Prone
500

400
ow
i nd
lW
Oi

300
ow

Mixed Type II/III

ni d

Oil / Gas Prone

r
VR

sW
0%

Ga

200
1.0

et

Rr
-W

V
~

0%
te
sa

Type III
1.4

ow
en

i nd
nd

Gas Prone
~

100
Co

W
as
yG
Dr

Type IV
Inert
0.0
330 380 430 480

Tmax (ºC)
126 Source rock potential of the Upper Jurassic – Lower Cretaceous succession, southern Iraq

Zub air Fo r m at io n

10µm 50µm 50µm

5µm 5µm 50µ m

Rataw i Form ati on

5µm 5µm 5µm

Vitrinite Rr = 0.75

Inertinite Rr = 1.35

50µm 50µm 50µm

Yam am a Fo r m at io n

50µm 50µm 50µm

Solid Bitumen

5µm 50µm 50µm

Sulai y Fo r m at i o n

5µm 5µm 50µm

50µm solid bitumen 50µm solid bitumen 50µm

Plate 1. Photomicrographs of particulate organic matter in the analysed samples from the Zubair, Ratawi,
Yamama and Sulaiy Formations under transmitted light (right-hand column) and incident light (left-hand and
central column).The upper rows of the incident light images for each of the four formations are illuminated
under fluorescent light.
 Q. Abeed, A. Alkhafaji and R. Littke 127

Fig. 8.Typical whole

solvent extract
chromatograms obtained
by gas chromatography-
flame ionization detector
(GC-FID) showing a Zubair Fm C-27
concentrations of n-
alkanes, pristane (Pr) and
3249 m
phytane (Ph) for the
analysed samples.

b Ratawi Fm
3277 m C-27

c Yamama Fm.
3572 m C-27

d Sulaiy Fm.
4350 m
C-27

Retention time (mins) . .M

indicating that the samples are not biodegraded.
Accordingly, Pr/n-C17 and Ph/n-C18 ratios are less than
1 (Fig. 9, Table 2). Pr/Ph ratios are variable but are
often > 1 (up to 5.3) indicating oxic/suboxic
depositional conditions and/or a contribution of higher
plant material (Table 2).
The Ratawi Formation samples came from the
shale-rich upper member (see Fig. 2). Chromatograms
(Fig. 8b) show a predominance of odd- over even-
numbered n-alkanes expressed in Table 2 by CPI
(Carbon Preference Index) values greater than 1 (up
to 1.38). The pristane/phytane ratio is up to 2.14, and
both iso-alkanes occur in smaller concentration than
the adjacent n-alkanes. Therefore, Pr/n-C17 and Ph/n-
C18 ratios are < 1. This data indicates that the upper
part of the Ratawi Formation was deposited in a
similar environment to the Zubair Formation.
For the Yamama Formation, the n-C17/n-C27 ratios
(Table 2) are > 1 with values up to 4. No odd/even or
even/odd predominance was observed. The unimodal
n-alkane distribution (Fig. 8c) is typical for mature
source rocks (Tissot and Welte, 1984). A marine origin
for the organic matter in the Yamama Formation is
also indicated by low Pr/Ph ratios (Table 2), which
were < 1 for all the studied samples. No biodegradation
was observed for the Yamama Formation: Pr/n-C17
and Ph/n-C18 ratios are consistently < 0.3 (Table 2).
Extracts from the Sulaiy Formation do not show
long-chain n-alkanes (Fig. 8d). Therefore n-C17/n-C27
ratios are very high or cannot be calculated (Table 2).
128 Source rock potential of the Upper Jurassic – Lower Cretaceous succession, southern Iraq

Table 2. Concentration ratios of different organic molecules as calculated from gas chromatography – flame
ionization detector (GC-FID) analyses for the analysed samples from wells in southern Iraq. *Carbon
preference index (CPI) was calculated using the equation of Bray and Evans (1961).

Well Formation Depth m. Age Pr/Ph Pr/n-C17 Ph/n-C18 n-C17/n-C27 (Pr/n-C17)/(Ph/n-C18) CPI*

Ru-28 Zubair 3170 L. Cretaceous 0.67 0.13 0.21 40 0.62 1.11

Ru-28 Zubair 3204 L. Cretaceous 1.25 0.26 0.19 8 1.38 1.09

Ru-28 Zubair 3245 L. Cretaceous 3.34 0.72 0.26 2 2.79 1

Ru-215 Zubair 3170 L. Cretaceous 2.07 0.44 0.20 5 2.14 0.9

Ru-215 Zubair 3187 L. Cretaceous 1.66 0.29 0.22 10 1.31 1.21

Ru-215 Zubair 3222 L. Cretaceous 1.26 0.19 0.20 5 0.96 1.21

Ru-215 Zubair 3283 L. Cretaceous 0.96 0.21 0.27 16 0.75 0.9

Ru-19 Zubair 3201 L. Cretaceous 1.54 0.23 0.17 4 1.35 1.17

Ru-19 Ratawi 3277 L. Cretaceous 2.14 0.45 0.23 2 1.95 1.38

R-167 Yamama 4141 L. Cretaceous 0.93 0.12 0.14 4 0.87 0.94

R-167 Sulaiy 4483 U. Jurassic 0.70 0.20 0.32 - 0.61 0.65

R-167 Sulaiy 4498 U. Jurassic 0.76 0.14 0.31 - 0.47 -

R-167 Sulaiy 4500 U. Jurassic 0.85 0.13 0.25 - 0.54 -

Su-8 Zubair 2883 L. Cretaceous 1.80 0.36 0.23 9 1.58 1.09

Su-8 Yamama 3572 L. Cretaceous 0.29 0.27 0.45 1 0.58 0.99

WQ-12 Yamama 3623 L. Cretaceous 0.16 0.15 0.40 3 0.37 0.9

Zb-40 Zubair 3188 L. Cretaceous 0.69 0.13 0.19 - 0.68 -

Zb-40 Zubair 3433 L. Cretaceous 5.27 1.03 0.22 1 4.61 0.91

Zb-40 Zubair 3249 L. Cretaceous 4.78 0.68 0.19 1 3.57 1.39

Zb-40 Zubair 3332 L. Cretaceous 1.34 0.25 0.18 5 1.36 1.14

Ru-212 Zubair 3167 L. Cretaceous 1.27 0.21 0.18 11 1.15 0.83

Ru-212 Zubair 3195 L. Cretaceous 3.20 0.67 0.21 3 3.21 1.33

Ru-212 Zubair 3205 L. Cretaceous 2.75 0.73 0.33 2 2.21 1.22

Ru-212 Zubair 3207 L. Cretaceous 1.37 0.26 0.22 14 1.16 1.12

Ru-158 Sulaiy 4350 U. Jurassic 0.51 0.24 0.39 7 0.62 0.9

Ru-158 Sulaiy 4355 U. Jurassic 0.93 0.27 0.34 8 0.79 0.92

Ru-158 Sulaiy 4360 U. Jurassic 0.68 0.18 0.33 17 0.56 0.92

Ru-158 Sulaiy 4365 U. Jurassic 0.96 0.22 0.25 24 0.89 0.92

There is no odd/even or even/odd predominance (Fig.
8d). This pattern is typical of source rocks which
have passed peak oil generation. This conclusion is
consistent with the results from vitrinite reflectance
and Tmax analyses. For all samples, Pr/n-C17 ratios are
< 0.3 indicating that samples are not biodegraded and
have reached an advanced level of maturity (Fig. 9).
Pr/Ph ratios are consistently < 1 which is indicative
of marine organic matter deposited in carbonate/
evaporite environments (Dydik et al., 1978).
Bitumen Composition: Hopanes and Steranes
Biomarkers provide important information on source
rock depositional environments and plant communities
as well as the abundance of bacteria and several
biomarkers are moderately resistant to maturation and
biodegradation (Peters et al., 2005b; Hunt, 1996). At
subsurface temperature ranges of ~150-200 °C,
organic molecules are cracked to gas during
metagenesis. Biomarkers are severely reduced in
concentration or completely destroyed because of their
instability under these conditions (Peters et al.,
2005b).
Hopanes
Hopanoids are pentacyclic compounds usually in the
C27 to C35 range which dominate the triterpanes found
in sediments and crude oils (Miles, 1994), and are
widely used for correlation of crude oils and source
rocks (Hunt, 1996). They can be used to estimate oil
and source rock maturity. Immature sediments have
a 17β(H), 21β(H) stereochemistry which changes to
17α(H), 21β (H) with increasing maturity (Miles,
1994).
Several hopanes were identified in this study (Table
3.1, Fig. 10) and were used to investigate the maturity
and depositional environment of the respective
formations (Table 4).
 Q. Abeed, A. Alkhafaji and R. Littke 129

100.0
Zubair Fm.
Ratawi Fm
e III
Yamama Fm Ty p
Sulaiy Fm n o us
r ige
Ter

I
10.0
e II/II
Ty p
tion ed
Pristan e/n C17

Mi x

Ox
r ad a
d eg II

id
e
Bio Ty p

at i
al
Alg

on
e
rin
Ma

Re
du
cti
1.0

on
ion
tu r at
Ma
0.10
0.10 1.0 10.0

Phyt ane/nC18

Fig. 9. Plot of phytane/ n-C18 versus pristane n-C17 ratios from gas chromatography – flame ionization detector
(GC-FID) chromatograms of source rock extracts, showing variation of organic matter type, thermal maturity
and depositional environment (fields after Peters et al., 2005a).

The Ts/(Ts+Tm) ratio (Table 4) must be interpreted Steranes

with caution because Ts and Tm commonly co-elute
with tricyclic or tetracyclic terpanes on the m/z 191
mass chromatogram, resulting in possibly spurious
values for Ts/ (Ts+Tm) ratios (Peters and Moldwan,
1993). Ts/(Ts+Tm) appears to be sensitive to clay-
catalyzed reactions. For example, oils from carbonate
source rocks appear to have unusually low Ts/
(Ts+Tm) ratios compared with those from shales
(Peters et al., 2005b). The high value of Ts/(Ts+Tm)
for the Ratawi Formation (Table 4) is therefore
unreliable as a maturity indicator, as both pyrolysis
and vitrinite reflectance results indicate that Ratawi
Formation is at oil window maturities. The high value
may have been affected by the clay content in the
upper part of this formation or by migrated bitumen.
The moretane/hopane ratio decreases with
increasing maturity (Peters and Moldwan, 1993). The
Zubair Formation has the highest moretane/hopane
ratio of the samples analysed (Table 4), consistent
with the immaturity of these samples.
The gammacerane/hopane ratio ranges from 0 to
0.55 (Table 4). Gammacerane is more resistant to
biodegradation than hopane, but this is not of
significance in the studied samples because the
presence of n-alkanes indicates the absence of
biodegradation (Alexander et al., 1984). Moreover
gammacerane is an indicator of hypersaline conditions
(Peters et al., 2005b; Zhang et al., 1988). Values are
low for most samples.
The sterols in eukaryotic organisms are precursors
of the steranes in source rocks and petroleum (Peters
et al., 2005a,b). These compounds are found in the
saturated hydrocarbon fraction and are derived from
both plants and animals. Biologically produced sterols
have 8β,9α,10β,13β,14α,17α,20-R stereochemistry.
Thermally induced changes to this stereochemistry
occur at the 5, 14, 17 and 20 positions so that
maturity ratios relate the concentrations of α and β
configurations and the R and S isomers (Miles, 1994).
Steranes can also be used as a correlation tool by
using plots of C27-C28-C29 isomers (Hunt, 1996).
In this study, different sterane biomarkers were
used to assess the maturity of the samples (see Table
4 for biomarker ratio calculations, and Table 3.2 and
Fig. 11 for peak identification).
The 20S/(20S+20R) ratio of 5α,14α,17(H)-
steranes ranges from 0 in biological samples to ~0.5
(0.52-0.55 = equilibrium) with increasing thermal
maturity (Peters et al., 2005b). This and the other
biomarker maturity parameters are of little use in the
case of the highly mature Sulaiy Formation. For the
other formations, values range between 0.17 and 0.6
indicating early mature conditions.
Isomerization at C-14 and C-17 in the C29 20S and
20R regular steranes causes an increase in ββ/
(ββ+αα) ratios from near-zero values to 0.7 (0.67-
0.71 = equilibrium) with increasing maturity (Seifert
and Moldwan, 1986). The range of ratio values in
130 Source rock potential of the Upper Jurassic – Lower Cretaceous succession, southern Iraq

Table 3.1. Hopane peak identification, see Fig. 10.

Peak No. Name Synonym Mass Formula
H1 18α(H)-22, 29, 30-Trinorneohopane Ts. Ts 370 C27 H46
H2 17α(H)-22, 29, 30-Trinorhopan Tm. Tm 370 C27 H46
H3 17α(H), 21β(H)-Dinorhopane. Bisnorhopane 384 C28 H48
H4 17α(H), 21β(H)-30- Norhopane. 398 C29 H50
H5 18α(H)-Norneohopane C29 - Ts 398 C29 H50
H6 17α(H), 21β(H)-Hopane. Hopane 412 C30 H52
H7 17β(H), 21α(H) -Hopane. Moretane 412 C30 H52
H8 Gammacerane 412 C30 H52
H9 (22S)-17α(H), 21β(H)-29-Homohopane 426 C31 H54
H10 (22R)-17α(H), 21β(H)-29-Homohopane 426 C31 H54
H11 (22S)-17α(H), 21β(H)-29-Dihomohopane 440 C32 H56
H12 (22R)-17α(H), 21β(H)-29-Dihomohopane 440 C32 H56
H13 (22S)-17α(H), 21β(H)-29-Trihomohopane 454 C33 H58
H14 (22R)-17α(H), 21β(H)-29-Trihomohopane 454 C33 H58
H15 (22S)-17α(H), 21β(H)-29-Tetrahomohopane 468 C34 H60
H16 (22R)-17α(H), 21β(H)-29-Tetrahomohopane 468 C34 H60
H17 (22S)-17α(H), 21β(H)-29-Pentahomohopane 482 C35 H62
H18 (22R)-17α(H), 21β(H)-29-Pentahomohopane 482 C35 H62
Table 3.2. Sterane peak identification, see Fig. 11.

Carbon No. Peak No. Compound Configuration Mass

St1 (20S)-5α(H), 14α(H), 17α(H)-Cholestane ααα20S 372
St2 (20R)-5α(H), 14β(H), 17β(H)-Cholestane αββ20R 372
C27- Sterane
St3 (20S)-5α(H), 14β(H), 17β(H)-Cholestane αββ20S 372
St4 (20R)-5α(H), 14α(H), 17α(H)-Cholestane ααα20R 372
St5 (20S)-24-Methyl-5α(H), 14α(H), 17α(H)-Cholestane ααα20S 386
St6 (20R)-24-Methyl-5α(H), 14β(H), 17β(H)-Cholestane αββ20R 386
C28- Sterane
St7 (20S)-24-Methyl-5α(H), 14β(H), 17β(H)-Cholestane αββ20S 386
St8 (20R)-24-Methyl-5α(H), 14α(H), 17α(H)-Cholestane ααα20R 386
St9 (20S)-24-Ethyl-5α(H), 14α(H), 17α(H)-Cholestane ααα20S 400
St10 (20R)-24-Ethyl-5α(H), 14β(H), 17β(H)-Cholestane αββ20R 400
C29- Sterane
St11 (20R)-24-Ethyl-5α(H), 14β(H), 17β(H)-Cholestane αββ20S 400
St12 (20S)-24-Ethyl-5α(H), 14α(H), 17α(H)-Cholestane ααα20R 400

this study is from 0.24 to 0.86. The Yamama and
Sulaiy Formations appear to have reached equilibrium
conditions, whereas lower values for the Zubair
Formation indicate lower maturities.
Thermal maturity, facies as well as redox potential
during deposition can affect the diasteranes/ steranes
ratio. As a result, this ratio is useful for maturity
determination only when the oils or bitumens being
compared are from similar source-rock organic facies
(Peters et al., 2005b). Diasteranes are more stable
than steranes, and the diasterane/sterane ratio
therefore increases at maturity stages corresponding
to peak oil generation and above (Peters et al., 1990).
In this study calculated values vary between 0.14 and
0.49 (Table 4) and there is no clear correlation with
depth or age of the rocks.
DISCUSSION: SOURCE ROCK
CHARACTERIZATION
Zubair Formation
The Zubair Formation contains variable amounts of
Type III kerogen and is characterized by abundant
terrestrial macerals such as vitrinite and sporinite. A
terrestrial source is also indicated by the bimodal
distribution of n-alkanes (Fig. 8a). Rarely, very high
concentrations of organic matter were found. The
organic matter is generally at an early mature stage as
indicated by different maturation parameters and also
by the presence of brightly fluorescing organic
particles (liptinites; Plate 1). Al-Ameri et al. (2009)
suggested that the Zubair Formation in the same study
area varies from immature to mature (VRr = 0.3-
0.8%) with Tmax of 420-440 °C. With the exception
of some samples from wells Ru-215 and Zb-40, most
samples of the Zubair Formation seem to have a poor
to fair potential for hydrocarbon generation (Table
1). As a result of its low maturity, only deeper and
more mature parts of the Zubair Formation will
significantly contribute to petroleum generation.
Ratawi Formation
Results indicate that samples from the Upper Member
of the Ratawi Formation contain good quantities of
organic matter; however kerogen is mainly Type III
with moderate hydrocarbon generation potential, as
 Q. Abeed, A. Alkhafaji and R. Littke
Ratawi Fm
3277 m
m/z 191
Sulaiy Fm
4360 m
m/z 191
H1
Fig. 10.Typical hopane distributions for the studied formations. Hopanes were absent or were at very low
concentrations in the samples from the Sulaiy Formation. Labelled peaks are identified in Table 3.1.
indicated by the high contents of vitrinite and sporinite.
Biomarker parameters suggest that the Ratawi
Formation is at an early mature stage, similar to the
Zubair Formation. A terrestrial source is also supported
by the high ratio of C29/(C27+ C28) regular steranes
(Fig. 12) and the bimodal distribution of n-alkanes
(Fig. 8b).
In summary, the Ratawi Formation has only a fair
potential for hydrocarbon generation and has not
reached peak oil generation in the study area.
Yamama Formation
The Yamama Formation consists of three cycles of
inner-ramp sediments separated by outer-ramp facies.
Each inner–ramp cycle shallows up into either an oolitic
shoal or a patch reef. The outer-ramp facies are
composed of mudstones or shales (Sadooni, 1993).
The Yamama Formation is a marine carbonate-rich
source rock unit. At wells Su-8 and R-172, the
formation has good source rock potential as indicated
by the high values of TOC, S1, S2, PI. Kerogen is
classified as Type I or II/III (Fig. 6) with abundant
amorphous organic matter being visible under the
microscope. The GC-FID fingerprints also support a
very low terrestrial contribution to the organic matter
131
Zubair Fm
3183 m
m/z 191
Yamama Fm
3572 m
m/z 191
in this formation (Fig. 8c). Regular steranes are
dominated by C27 (Fig. 12) consistent with a dominant
input of marine organic matter. The occurrence of
solid bitumen in a few of the samples may indicate
that some petroleum generation has occurred, although
most of the maturity parameters indicate that peak oil
generation has not been reached.
Sulaiy Formation
The results indicate that the uppermost Jurassic –
Lower Cretaceous Sulaiy Formation has significant
source rock potential. Maturity parameters suggest
that this formation has reached and passed peak oil
generation but has not yet reached the (dry) gas
generation zone (Table 1). The unimodal shape of the
GC traces of n-alkanes and the CPI values also
indicate the high maturity of this formation. In well
R-167 from South Rumaila oilfield, samples from the
Sulaiy Formation contain solid bitumen (Plate 1)
indicating that effective petroleum migration has
occurred. The Sulaiy Formation can be regarded as a
good source rock which has already realized most of
its petroleum generation potential. Pr/Ph ratios indicate
an anoxic, carbonate-dominated, marine depositional
environment for the formation (Table 2). Although
132 Source rock potential of the Upper Jurassic – Lower Cretaceous succession, southern Iraq
Ratawi Fm
m/z217
327 7m
Sulaiy Fm
m/z217
.SulaiyFm 436 5m
Fig. 11.Typical sterane distributions for the studied formations. No steranes were found in samples of the
Sulaiy Formation. Labelled peaks are identified in Table 3.2.
kerogen is classified as Type II/III (Fig. 6), this is
probably an effect of high maturity; microscope
observations indicate that very little terrestrial organic
matter is present. The high thermal maturity which
has also reduced HI values is indicated by vitrinite
reflectance and Tmax values, and by the missing hopane
and sterane biomarkers which have been thermally
degraded (Figs. 10, 11). According to these results
and the favourable burial history, the Sulaiy Formation
appears to be an excellent source rock.
CONCLUSIONS
Potential Upper Jurassic – Lower Cretaceous source
rocks in the subsurface of the Rumaila (North and
South), Zubair, Subba and West Qurna oilfields,
southern Iraq, were analysed using organic
geochemical methods. Results indicate that the
Cretaceous Zubair and Ratawi Formations can be
classified as poor to fair source rocks containing
predominantly Type III kerogen. The thermal maturity
of these formations was generally low and they were
thermally immature to early mature. By contrast, the
Yamama Formation has good source rock potential
and contains Type II-S kerogen. Its thermal maturity
is generally low to moderate, and peak oil generation
Zubair Fm
m/z217
31 83m
Yamama Fm
m/z217
3572m
has not yet been reached. Elevated PI values indicate
some petroleum impregnation in the Yamama
Formation.
The oldest and deepest samples studied belonged
to the Tithonian-Valanginian Sulaiy Formation.
Kerogen quality and type are difficult to evaluate due
to the high thermal maturity of the samples. However
a thickness of about 200 to 300 m, high TOC contents
and relatively high HI values indicate that the Sulaiy
Formation has excellent source rock characteristics
in the study area.
Whereas the thermal maturity of the Zubair, Ratawi
and Yamama Formations is not sufficient for significant
petroleum generation to have occurred, the Sulaiy
Formation has reached and partly passed the peak oil
generation stage, and high PI values indicate strong
petroleum impregnations. Overall thermal maturity
closley corresponds to present-day depth.
Molecular geochemical parameters indicate
variable depositional environment for samples from
the different units analysed. The Yamama and Sulaiy
Formations are interpreted as typical marine,
carbonate-rich source rocks deposited under anoxic
bottom-water conditions. The Zubair and Ratawi
Formations have a greater input of higher land plant
material. All the source rock extracts have a high
 Q. Abeed, A. Alkhafaji and R. Littke 133

C28

100
0
Zubair Fm
Ratawi Fm
Yamama Fm

75
25
50

50
Dia/(Dia+Reg)

25
75
0.35
0.44
0.14
0.35

0.39
0.49

0.38
0.35
0.24

0.45
0.19
0.44
0.4

-
-

100

0
C27 C29
0 25 50 75 100
ββ/(ββ+αα)
Sterane

0.36
0.38
0.29
0.59

0.24
0.69
0.82

0.71
0.65
0.81
0.86

0.73
0.8

- Fig. 12.Triangular diagram of C29, C28, C27 regular

- steranes (after Peters et al., 2005b)
20S/(20S+20R)

concentration of n-alkanes indicating that

0.17
0.31
0.54

0.75
0.43
0.22
0.44

0.22
0.42

hydrocarbons have not been significantly affected by

0.6
-

-
-
-
-

biodegradation.
Gammacerane

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Hopane

0.24
0.03

0.55
0.4

0.3
-

-
-

-
-
-

-
-
-
-
/

The authors are grateful to Abdullah Ali Al-Yasrrei (Iraq

South Oil Company) for his assistance with providing
the samples analysed in this study. They express their
Extended.
Hopane

11.28
1.21
1.34
2.19
1.06
1.04
1.53
0.92

3.62
0.85

gratitude to Sabine Heim and Jan Schwarzbauer

-

-
-
-
-

(Institute of Geology and Geochemistry of Petroleum

and Coal, RWTH Aachen University) for helpful
Moretane/
Hopane

discussions, especially concerning the biomarker data.

Hopane

0.59
0.19
0.02

0.55
0.41
0.15

0.06
0.13
0.11

0.98
0.3

-
-
-

They thank T. Al-Ameri (University of Baghdad) and

an anonymous reviewer for helpful comments which
Table 4. Hopane and sterane biomarker parameters used in this study.

improved the original manuscript

Ts/Hopane

0.42
0.02
0.03
0.09

0.44

0.32
0.07

0.03
0.01
0.29
-

-
-
-
-

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