Basic Signals/Generalized Functions

by
Prof. Santanu Chowdhury
GLA University, Mathura
Let us define 𝑢∆ (t) : Basic Signals
𝑢∆ (t)
1
1
2

∆ 0 ∆
- t
2 2
∆
Let us define 𝑢∆ (t) : Basic Signals
𝑢∆ (t)
∆
1 0 t < -2
1 1 ∆ ∆
1
2 ⇒ 𝑢∆ (t)=
∆
.𝑡 +
2
- ≤ t ≤-
2
∆
2

∆ 0 ∆ 1 t >
- t 2
2 2
∆
Let us define 𝑢∆ (t) : Basic Signals Unit Step Function 𝑢(𝑡)
𝑢∆ (t) We define u(t)) as
∆
1 0 t < -2 u(t) = lim 𝑢∆ (t)
1 1 ∆ ∆ ∆→0
1
2 ⇒ 𝑢∆ (t)=
∆
.𝑡 +
2
- ≤ t ≤-
2
∆
2 ⇒ 0
1
t < 0
∆ 0 ∆ 1 t > u(t) =
2
t = 0
- t 2
2 2 1 t > 0
∆

𝑢(t)
1
1
2

0 t
Can we differentiate u(t) at t = 0 ?
Let us define 𝑢∆ (t) : Basic Signals Unit Step Function 𝑢(𝑡)
𝑢∆ (t) We define u(t)) as
∆
1 0 t < -2 u(t) = lim 𝑢∆ (t)
1 1 ∆ ∆ ∆→0
1
2 ⇒ 𝑢∆ (t)=
∆
.𝑡 +
2
- ≤ t ≤-
2
∆
2 ⇒ 0
1
t < 0
∆ 0 ∆ 1 t > u(t) =
2
t = 0
- t 2
2 2 1 t > 0
∆

𝑑
Let us define 𝛿∆ (t) = 𝑢 (t) : 𝑢(t)
𝑑𝑡 ∆
1
∆ 1
0 t < - 2
1 ∆ ∆ 2
𝛿∆ (t)= - ≤ t ≤-
∆ 2 2 0 t
∆
0 t > 2
Can we differentiate u(t) at t = 0 ?
∞ 1
Subject to ‫׬‬−∞ 𝛿∆ (t). 𝑑𝑡 = 0 + ∆. +0=1
∆
(Area under the curve )
Let us define 𝑢∆ (t) : Basic Signals Unit Step Function 𝑢(𝑡)
𝑢∆ (t) We define u(t)) as
∆
1 0 t < -2 u(t) = lim 𝑢∆ (t)
1 1 ∆ ∆ ∆→0
1
2 ⇒ 𝑢∆ (t)=
∆
.𝑡 +
2
- ≤ t ≤-
2
∆
2 ⇒ 0
1
t < 0
∆ 0 ∆ 1 t > u(t) =
2
t = 0
- t 2
2 2 1 t > 0
∆

𝛿∆ (t) 𝑑
Let us define 𝛿∆ (t) = 𝑢 (t) : 𝑢(t)
𝑑𝑡 ∆
1 ⇒ 1
∆ ∆ 1
1
0 t < - 2
1 ∆ ∆ 2
∆ 𝛿∆ (t)= - ≤ t ≤-
∆ 2 2 0 t
0 ∆ ∆
∆ 0 t >
- 2
t 2
2 Can we differentiate u(t) at t = 0 ?
∆ ∞ 1
Subject to ‫׬‬−∞ 𝛿∆ (t). 𝑑𝑡 = 0 + ∆. +0=1
∆
(Area under the curve )
𝛿∆ (t) =
𝑑
𝑢 (t) Basic Signals 𝛿∆ (t)
𝑑𝑡 ∆ 𝛿∆ (t)
∆
0 t < -2 1
1 ∆ ∆ ∆
𝛿∆ (t)= - ≤ t ≤-
∆

0
2

t >
∆
2
⇒
1
∆ ⇒
2
∞ ∆ 0 ∆
Subject to ‫׬‬−∞ 𝛿∆ (t). 𝑑𝑡 = 1 - t
2 2
∆

1
∆

0
t

Effect of Reducing ∆
Subject to the condition
∞
to ‫׬‬−∞ 𝛿∆ (t). 𝑑𝑡 = 1
 𝛿∆ (t) =
𝑑
𝑢 (t) Basic Signals 𝛿∆ (t)
𝑑𝑡 ∆ 𝛿∆ (t)
∆
0 t < -2 1
1 ∆ ∆ ∆
𝛿∆ (t)= - ≤ t ≤-
∆

0
2

t >
∆
2
⇒
1
∆ ⇒
2
∞ ∆ 0 ∆
Subject to ‫׬‬−∞ 𝛿∆ (t). 𝑑𝑡 = 1 - t
2 2
∆
Unit Impulse Function δ(𝑡)
We define 𝛿(t)) as 𝛿(t) = lim 𝛿∆ (t) 1
∆→0
𝑑 ∆
𝛿 𝑡 = u(t)
𝑑𝑡
𝛿(t) = 0 t ≠ 0 0
∞
t
Subject to ‫׬‬−∞ 𝛿(t). 𝑑𝑡 = 1
∆
𝛿(t) → ∞ t= 0
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑈𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 Effect of Reducing ∆
Subject to the condition
∞
to ‫׬‬−∞ 𝛿∆ (t). 𝑑𝑡 = 1
 𝛿∆ (t) =
𝑑
𝑢 (t) Basic Signals 𝛿∆ (t)
𝑑𝑡 ∆ 𝛿∆ (t)
∆
0 t < -2 1
1 ∆ ∆ ∆
𝛿∆ (t)= - ≤ t ≤-
∆

0
2

t >
∆
2
⇒
1
∆ ⇒
2
∞ ∆ 0 ∆
Subject to ‫׬‬−∞ 𝛿∆ (t). 𝑑𝑡 = 1 - t
2 2
∆

Unit Impulse Function δ(𝑡)

We define 𝛿(t)) as 𝛿(t) = lim 𝛿∆ (t) 1
∆→0
𝑑 ∆
𝛿 𝑡 = u(t) 𝛿(t) Area under the
𝑑𝑡
1 ⇒ curve = Unity
𝛿(t) = 0
∞
t ≠ 0 ⇒ 0
t
Subject to ‫׬‬−∞ 𝛿(t). 𝑑𝑡 = 1
0 t ∆
𝛿(t) → ∞ t= 0
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑈𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 Symbolic Representation
Effect of Reducing ∆
Subject to the condition
∞
to ‫׬‬−∞ 𝛿∆ (t). 𝑑𝑡 = 1
 Basic Signals
Heaviside Unit Step Function 𝑢(𝑡)
𝑢(t)
0 t < 0 1
1
u(t) =
2
t = 0 1
2
1 t > 0
0 t Oliver Heaviside (1850-1925)

Unit Impulse Function δ 𝑡 − 𝐴𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝐷𝑖𝑟𝑎𝑐 𝐷𝑒𝑙𝑡𝑎 𝐹𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝑑 𝛿(t)
𝛿 𝑡 = u(t) Area under the
𝑑𝑡
1 curve = Unity
𝛿(t) = 0 t ≠ 0
∞
Subject to ‫׬‬−∞ 𝛿(t). 𝑑𝑡 = 1 0 t
Paul Dirac (1902-1984)

Can we differentiate 𝛿(t) at t = 0 ?

The functions derived from Delta Function by Differentiation and Integration are called Singularity Functions
 Basic Signals
Unit Doublet Function 𝛿 ′ (t)
𝑑 𝑑
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑 𝑑 𝑢 𝑡+ ∆/2 −𝑢(𝑡−∆/2) 𝑢 𝑡+ ∆/2 − 𝑑𝑡𝑢 𝑡−∆/2
𝛿 ′ (t) = 𝛿(t) = 𝑢 𝑡 = [ lim ] = lim 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 ∆ →0 ∆ ∆ →0 ∆

𝛿 𝑡+ ∆/2 −𝛿(𝑡−∆/2)
𝛿 ′ (t) = lim
∆ →0 ∆

∞ 1 ∞ ∆ ∞ ∆ 1
Now ‫׬‬−∞ 𝛿 ′ (t). 𝑑𝑡 = lim [ ‫׬‬−∞ 𝛿 𝑡 + 2 . 𝑑𝑡 − ‫׬‬−∞ 𝛿 𝑡 − 2 . 𝑑𝑡 ] = lim 1 −1 =0
∆ →0 ∆ ∆ →0 ∆

𝛿∆′ (t) Doublet Function is defined as :

𝛿 ′ (t)
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
𝛿 ′ (t) = 𝛿(t) = 𝑢 𝑡
1 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
∆ ∆ ∞
Subject to න 𝛿 ′ (t). 𝑑𝑡 = 0
2
−∞
∆ 0 0
- t
𝛿 ′ (t)→ +∞ as t → 0− t
2 1
∆ ∆ 𝛿 ′ (t) → −∞ as t → 0+
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑈𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔
Area under the curve = Zero
 Basic Signals Two Forms of Unit Step Function
Unit Step Function

as k → ∞,
The function approaches
Unit Step Function
0 t < 0 0 t < 0
1 u(t) =
u(t) =
2
t = 0
1 t ≥ 0
1 t > 0

Unit Step Function in Switching Circuits

 Basic Signals
Unit Impulse Function δ 𝑡 − 𝐴𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝐷𝑖𝑟𝑎𝑐 𝐷𝑒𝑙𝑡𝑎 𝐹𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
1. δ 𝑡 is obtained by differentiating a function at a discontinuity. It is not a ordinary function.
2. Dirac delta function is an approximation of a signal that is
• Very large near t = 0
• Very small little away from t=0
• has integral 1
3. Thinking of evaluating δ 𝑡 at a given value of t is only for conceptual purpose.
4. It makes mathematical sense only when δ 𝑡 is used in the integral equation
∞
‫׬‬−∞ 𝛿(t). 𝑑𝑡 = 1.
5. The exact shape of Dirac delta function does not matter. It can be approximated using rectangular,
exponential, triangular, Gaussian and sinusoidal functions.
6. Delta Function enables us to handle Differentiation at finite discontinuities.
7. Functions as a building block element in understanding of Signals.
8. Facilitates identification of a Linear Time Invariant System.
9. Facilitates Transformation of Signals from time domain to frequency domain.
10. Plays an important role in Digital Signal Processing, Communications Systems and Control
Theory.
 Basic Signals
Unit Impulse Function δ 𝑡 − 𝐴𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝐷𝑖𝑟𝑎𝑐 𝐷𝑒𝑙𝑡𝑎 𝐹𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝐷𝑖𝑟𝑎𝑐 𝐷𝑒𝑙𝑡𝑎 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑖𝑡 ℎ𝑎𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
Since 𝛿(t) = 0 for t ≠ 0, 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙
( The value of x(t) & y(t) at t ≠ 0 does not matter and x(t)=y(t) at t = 0 )
𝑥(t)
∞ ∞
‫׬‬−∞ 𝑥 𝑡 . 𝛿(t). 𝑑𝑡 = ‫׬‬−∞ 𝑦 𝑡 . 𝛿(t). 𝑑𝑡
y(t)=x(0)
∞ ∞ ∞
1 ⇒ ‫׬‬−∞ 𝑥 𝑡 . 𝛿(t). 𝑑𝑡 = ‫׬‬−∞ 𝑥 0 . 𝛿(t). 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑥 0 . ‫׬‬−∞ 𝛿(t). 𝑑𝑡 = x(0).1 =𝑥(0)
𝛿(t) Multiplying a function x(t) by an impulse function at time t = 0
0 and integrating extracts the value of x(0)
t

𝑥(t) Since 𝛿(t−𝑡0 ) = 0 for t ≠ 𝑡0 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙
( The value of x(t) & y(t) at t ≠ 𝑡0 does not matter and x(t)=y(t) at t =𝑡0 )
y(t)=x(𝑡0 ) ∞ ∞
‫׬‬−∞ 𝑥 𝑡 . 𝛿(t−𝑡0 ). 𝑑𝑡 = ‫׬‬−∞ 𝑦 𝑡 . 𝛿(t−𝑡0 ). 𝑑𝑡
1
𝛿(t−𝑡0 ) ∞ ∞
⇒ ‫׬‬−∞ 𝑥 𝑡 . 𝛿(t−𝑡0 ). 𝑑𝑡 = ‫׬‬−∞ 𝑥 𝑡0 . 𝛿(t−𝑡0 ). 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡0
0 𝑡0 Multiplying a function x(t) by an impulse function at time t = 𝑡0
t
and integrating extracts the value of x(𝑡0 )
This is the Sifting Property of 𝛿(t) and is used for modeling Sampling process
 Summary Basic Signals
Unit Step Function 𝑢(𝑡) 𝑢(t)
0 t < 0 1
1
u(t) =
2
t = 0 1
2
1 t > 0
0 t
Unit Impulse Function δ 𝑡
𝑑 𝛿(t)
𝛿 𝑡 = u(t) Area under the
𝑑𝑡
1 curve = Unity
𝛿(t) = 0 t ≠ 0
∞
Subject to ‫׬‬−∞ 𝛿(t). 𝑑𝑡 = 1 0 t
Unit Doublet Function 𝛿 ′ 𝑡
Area under the
𝑑 𝛿 ′ (t)
𝛿 ′ (t) = 𝛿(t) curve = Zero
𝑑𝑡
∞
Subject to ‫׬‬−∞ 𝛿 ′ (t). 𝑑𝑡 = 0
0 t