String (physics)

In physics, a string is a physical entity

postulated in string theory and related
subjects. Unlike elementary particles,
which are zero-dimensional or point-like by
definition, strings are one-dimensional
extended entities. Researchers often have
an interest in string theories because
theories in which the fundamental entities
are strings rather than point particles
automatically have many properties that
some physicists expect to hold in a
fundamental theory of physics. Most
notably, a theory of strings that evolve and
interact according to the rules of quantum
mechanics will automatically describe
quantum gravity.

Overview
In string theory, the strings may be open
(forming a segment with two endpoints) or
closed (forming a loop like a circle) and
may have other special properties. Prior to
1995, there were five known versions of
string theory incorporating the idea of
supersymmetry, which differed in the type
of strings and in other aspects. Today
these different string theories are thought
to arise as different limiting cases of a
single theory called M-theory.

In string theories of particle physics, the

strings are very tiny; much smaller than
can be observed in today's particle
accelerators. The characteristic length
scale of strings is typically on the order of
the Planck length, about 10−35 meter, the
scale at which the effects of quantum
gravity are believed to become significant.
Therefore on much larger length scales,
such as the scales visible in physics
laboratories, such entities would appear to
be zero-dimensional point particles.
Strings are able to vibrate as harmonic
oscillators, and different vibrational states
of the same string are interpreted as
different types of particles. In string
theories, strings vibrating at different
frequencies constitute the multiple
fundamental particles found in the current
Standard Model of particle physics.
Strings are also sometimes studied in
nuclear physics where they are used to
model flux tubes.

As the string propagates through

spacetime, a string sweeps out a two-
dimensional surface called its worldsheet.
This is analogous to the one-dimensional
worldline traced out by a point particle.
The physics of a string is described by
means of a two-dimensional conformal
field theory associated with the
worldsheet. The formalism of two-
dimensional conformal field theory also
has many applications outside of string
theory, for example in condensed matter
physics and parts of pure mathematics.

Types of strings

Closed and open strings

Strings can be either open or closed. A

closed string is a string that has no end-
points, and therefore is topologically
equivalent to a circle. An open string, on
the other hand, has two end-points and is
topologically equivalent to a line interval.
Not all string theories contain open
strings, but every theory must contain
closed strings, as interactions between
open strings can always result in closed
strings.

The oldest superstring theory containing

open strings was type I string theory.
However, the developments in string
theory in the 1990s have shown that the
open strings should always be thought of
as ending on a new physical degree of
freedom called D-branes, and the
spectrum of possibilities for open strings
has significantly increased.

Open and closed strings are generally

associated with characteristic vibrational
modes. One of the vibration modes of a
closed string can be identified as the
graviton. In certain string theories, the
lowest-energy vibration of an open string
is a tachyon and can undergo tachyon
condensation. Other vibrational modes of
open strings exhibit the properties of
photons and gluons.
Orientation

Strings can also possess an orientation,

which can be thought of as an internal
"arrow" that distinguishes the string from
one with the opposite orientation. By
contrast, an unoriented string is one with
no such arrow on it.

See also
Cosmic strings
Elementary particle
Brane
D-brane
References
Schwarz, John (2000). "Introduction to
Superstring Theory" (http://xxx.uni-augs
burg.de/abs/hep-ex/0008017) .
Retrieved Dec. 12, 2005.
"NOVA's strings homepage" (https://ww
w.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/elegant/)

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