Identity (social

science)

Identity is the qualities, beliefs, personality

traits, appearance, and/or expressions that
characterize a person or group.[note 1]

In sociology, emphasis is placed on

collective identity, in which an individual's
identity is strongly associated with role-
behavior or the collection of group
memberships that define them.[1]
According to Peter Burke, "Identities tell us
who we are and they announce to others
who we are."[1] Identities subsequently
guide behavior, leading "fathers" to behave
like "fathers" and "nurses" to act like
"nurses."[1]

In psychology, the term "identity" is most

commonly used to describe personal
identity, or the distinctive qualities or traits
that make an individual unique.[2][3]
Identities are strongly associated with self-
concept, self-image (one's mental model
of oneself), self-esteem, and
individuality.[4][5] Individuals' identities are
situated, but also contextual, situationally
adaptive and changing. Despite their fluid
character, identities often feel as if they
are stable ubiquitous categories defining
an individual, because of their grounding in
the sense of personal identity (the sense
of being a continuous and persistent
self).[6]
In psychology

Narcissus painting by Caravaggio, depicting Narcissus gazing upon the water after falling in love with his own reflection.

Erik Erikson (1902–1994) became one of

the earliest psychologists to take an
explicit interest in identity. An essential
feature of Erikson's theory of psychosocial
development was the idea of the ego
identity (often referred to as the self),
which is described as an individual's
personal sense of continuity.[7] He
suggested that people can attain this
feeling throughout their lives as they
develop and is meant to be an ongoing
process.[8] The ego-identity consists of
two main features: one's personal
characteristics and development, and the
culmination of social and cultural factors
and roles that impact one's identity. In
Erikson's theory, he describes eight distinct
stages across the lifespan that are each
characterized by a conflict between the
inner, personal world and the outer, social
world of an individual. Erikson identified
the conflict of identity as occurring
primarily during adolescence and
described potential outcomes that depend
on how one deals with this conflict.[9]
Those who do not manage a resynthesis
of childhood identifications are seen as
being in a state of 'identity diffusion'
whereas those who retain their given
identities unquestioned have 'foreclosed'
identities.[10] On some readings of Erikson,
the development of a strong ego identity,
along with the proper integration into a
stable society and culture, lead to a
stronger sense of identity in general.
Accordingly, a deficiency in either of these
factors may increase the chance of an
identity crisis or confusion.[11]

The "Neo-Eriksonian" identity status

paradigm emerged in 1966, driven largely
by the work of James Marcia.[12] This
model focuses on the concepts of
exploration and commitment. The central
idea is that an individual's sense of identity
is determined in large part by the degrees
to which a person has made certain
explorations and the extent to which they
have commitments to those explorations
or a particular identity.[13] A person may
display either relative weakness or
strength in terms of both exploration and
commitments. When assigned categories,
there were four possible results: identity
diffusion, identity foreclosure, identity
moratorium, and identity achievement.
Diffusion is when a person avoids or
refuses both exploration and making a
commitment. Foreclosure occurs when a
person does make a commitment to a
particular identity but neglected to explore
other options. Identity moratorium is when
a person avoids or postpones making a
commitment but is still actively exploring
their options and different identities.
Lastly, identity achievement is when a
person has both explored many
possibilities and has committed to their
identity.[14]

Although the self is distinct from identity,

the literature of self-psychology can offer
some insight into how identity is
maintained.[15] From the vantage point of
self-psychology, there are two areas of
interest: the processes by which a self is
formed (the "I"), and the actual content of
the schemata which compose the self-
concept (the "Me"). In the latter field,
theorists have shown interest in relating
the self-concept to self-esteem, the
differences between complex and simple
ways of organizing self-knowledge, and
the links between those organizing
principles and the processing of
information.[16]

Weinreich's identity variant similarly

includes the categories of identity
diffusion, foreclosure and crisis, but with a
somewhat different emphasis. Here, with
respect to identity diffusion for example,
an optimal level is interpreted as the norm,
as it is unrealistic to expect an individual
to resolve all their conflicted
identifications with others; therefore we
should be alert to individuals with levels
which are much higher or lower than the
norm – highly diffused individuals are
classified as diffused, and those with low
levels as foreclosed or defensive.[17]
Weinreich applies the identity variant in a
framework which also allows for the
transition from one to another by way of
biographical experiences and resolution of
conflicted identifications situated in
various contexts – for example, an
adolescent going through family break-up
may be in one state, whereas later in a
stable marriage with a secure professional
role may be in another. Hence, though
there is continuity, there is also
development and change.[18]
Laing's definition of identity closely follows
Erikson's, in emphasising the past, present
and future components of the experienced
self. He also develops the concept of the
"metaperspective of self", i.e. the self's
perception of the other's view of self,
which has been found to be extremely
important in clinical contexts such as
anorexia nervosa.[19] Harré also
conceptualises components of
self/identity – the "person" (the unique
being I am to myself and others) along
with aspects of self (including a totality of
attributes including beliefs about one's
characteristics including life history), and
the personal characteristics displayed to
others.

In social psychology
At a general level, self-psychology is
compelled to investigate the question of
how the personal self relates to the social
environment. To the extent that these
theories place themselves in the tradition
of "psychological" social psychology, they
focus on explaining an individual's actions
within a group in terms of mental events
and states. However, some "sociological"
social psychology theories go further by
attempting to deal with the issue of
identity at both the levels of individual
cognition and of collective behaviour.[20]

Collective identity

Many people gain a sense of positive self-

esteem from their identity groups, which
furthers a sense of community and
belonging. Another issue that researchers
have attempted to address is the question
of why people engage in discrimination,
i.e., why they tend to favour those they
consider a part of their "in-group" over
those considered to be outsiders. Both
questions have been given extensive
attention by researchers working in the
social identity tradition. For example, in
work relating to social identity theory, it
has been shown that merely crafting
cognitive distinction between in- and out-
groups can lead to subtle effects on
people's evaluations of others.[16][21]

Different social situations also compel

people to attach themselves to different
self-identities which may cause some to
feel marginalized, switch between
different groups and self-identifications,[22]
or reinterpret certain identity
components.[23] These different selves
lead to constructed images dichotomized
between what people want to be (the ideal
self) and how others see them (the limited
self). Educational background and
occupational status and roles significantly
influence identity formation in this
regard.[24]

Identity formation strategies

Another issue of interest in social

psychology is related to the notion that
there are certain identity formation
strategies which a person may use to
adapt to the social world.[25] Cote and
Levine developed a typology which
investigated the different manners of
behavior that individuals may have.[25]
Their typology includes:
Cote and Levine's identity formation strategy typology
Type Psychological signs
Develops cognitive blocks
Refuser that prevent adoption of
adult role-schemas
Possesses greater
psychological resources
Drifter
than the Refuser (i.e.,
intelligence, charisma)
Has a sense of
dissatisfaction due to high
Searcher
personal and social
expectations
Possesses clear personal
Guardian values and attitudes, but
also a deep fear of change
Consciously desires self-
Resolver
growth
Kenneth Gergen formulated additional
classifications, which include the strategic
manipulator, the pastiche personality, and
Personality signs Social signs
Shows extensive dependency
Engages in childlike upon others and no
behavior meaningful engagement with
the community of adults
Has no meaningful
Is apathetic toward
engagement with or
application of
commitment to adult
psychological resources
communities
Interacts to some degree with
Shows disdain for
role-models, but ultimately
imperfections within the
these relationships are
community
abandoned
Sense of personal Has an extremely rigid sense
identity is almost of social identity and strong
exhausted by sense of identification with adult
social identity communities
Accepts personal skills Is responsive to communities
and competencies and that provide opportunity for
uses them actively self-growth
the relational self. The strategic
manipulator is a person who begins to
regard all senses of identity merely as role-
playing exercises, and who gradually
becomes alienated from their social self.
The pastiche personality abandons all
aspirations toward a true or "essential"
identity, instead viewing social interactions
as opportunities to play out, and hence
become, the roles they play. Finally, the
relational self is a perspective by which
persons abandon all sense of exclusive
self, and view all sense of identity in terms
of social engagement with others. For
Gergen, these strategies follow one
another in phases, and they are linked to
the increase in popularity of postmodern
culture and the rise of
telecommunications technology.

In social anthropology
Anthropologists have most frequently
employed the term identity to refer to this
idea of selfhood in a loosely Eriksonian
way[26] properties based on the
uniqueness and individuality which makes
a person distinct from others. Identity
became of more interest to
anthropologists with the emergence of
modern concerns with ethnicity and social
movements in the 1970s. This was
reinforced by an appreciation, following
the trend in sociological thought, of the
manner in which the individual is affected
by and contributes to the overall social
context. At the same time, the Eriksonian
approach to identity remained in force,
with the result that identity has continued
until recently to be used in a largely socio-
historical way to refer to qualities of
sameness in relation to a person's
connection to others and to a particular
group of people.

The first favours a primordialist approach

which takes the sense of self and
belonging to a collective group as a fixed
thing, defined by objective criteria such as
common ancestry and common biological
characteristics. The second, rooted in
social constructionist theory, takes the
view that identity is formed by a
predominantly political choice of certain
characteristics. In so doing, it questions
the idea that identity is a natural given,
characterised by fixed, supposedly
objective criteria. Both approaches need to
be understood in their respective political
and historical contexts, characterised by
debate on issues of class, race and
ethnicity. While they have been criticized,
they continue to exert an influence on
approaches to the conceptualisation of
identity today.
These different explorations of 'identity'
demonstrate how difficult a concept it is to
pin down. Since identity is a virtual thing, it
is impossible to define it empirically.
Discussions of identity use the term with
different meanings, from fundamental and
abiding sameness, to fluidity, contingency,
negotiated and so on. Brubaker and
Cooper note a tendency in many scholars
to confuse identity as a category of
practice and as a category of analysis.[27]
Indeed, many scholars demonstrate a
tendency to follow their own
preconceptions of identity, following more
or less the frameworks listed above, rather
than taking into account the mechanisms
by which the concept is crystallised as
reality. In this environment, some analysts,
such as Brubaker and Cooper, have
suggested doing away with the concept
completely.[28] Others, by contrast, have
sought to introduce alternative concepts in
an attempt to capture the dynamic and
fluid qualities of human social self-
expression. Stuart Hall for example,
suggests treating identity as a process, to
take into account the reality of diverse and
ever-changing social experience.[29][30]
Some scholars have introduced the idea of
identification, whereby identity is perceived
as made up of different components that
are 'identified' and interpreted by
individuals. The construction of an
individual sense of self is achieved by
personal choices regarding who and what
to associate with. Such approaches are
liberating in their recognition of the role of
the individual in social interaction and the
construction of identity.

Anthropologists have contributed to the

debate by shifting the focus of research:
One of the first challenges for the
researcher wishing to carry out empirical
research in this area is to identify an
appropriate analytical tool. The concept of
boundaries is useful here for
demonstrating how identity works. In the
same way as Barth, in his approach to
ethnicity, advocated the critical focus for
investigation as being "the ethnic
boundary that defines the group rather
than the cultural stuff that it encloses",[31]
social anthropologists such as Cohen and
Bray have shifted the focus of analytical
study from identity to the boundaries that
are used for purposes of identification. If
identity is a kind of virtual site in which the
dynamic processes and markers used for
identification are made apparent,
boundaries provide the framework on
which this virtual site is built. They
concentrated on how the idea of
community belonging is differently
constructed by individual members and
how individuals within the group conceive
ethnic boundaries.

As a non-directive and flexible analytical

tool, the concept of boundaries helps both
to map and to define the changeability and
mutability that are characteristic of
people's experiences of the self in society.
While identity is a volatile, flexible and
abstract 'thing', its manifestations and the
ways in which it is exercised are often
open to view. Identity is made evident
through the use of markers such as
language, dress, behaviour and choice of
space, whose effect depends on their
recognition by other social beings.
Markers help to create the boundaries that
define similarities or differences between
the marker wearer and the marker
perceivers, their effectiveness depends on
a shared understanding of their meaning.
In a social context, misunderstandings can
arise due to a misinterpretation of the
significance of specific markers. Equally,
an individual can use markers of identity to
exert influence on other people without
necessarily fulfilling all the criteria that an
external observer might typically associate
with such an abstract identity.
Boundaries can be inclusive or exclusive
depending on how they are perceived by
other people. An exclusive boundary
arises, for example, when a person adopts
a marker that imposes restrictions on the
behaviour of others. An inclusive boundary
is created, by contrast, by the use of a
marker with which other people are ready
and able to associate. At the same time,
however, an inclusive boundary will also
impose restrictions on the people it has
included by limiting their inclusion within
other boundaries. An example of this is the
use of a particular language by a
newcomer in a room full of people
speaking various languages. Some people
may understand the language used by this
person while others may not. Those who
do not understand it might take the
newcomer's use of this particular
language merely as a neutral sign of
identity. But they might also perceive it as
imposing an exclusive boundary that is
meant to mark them off from the person.
On the other hand, those who do
understand the newcomer's language
could take it as an inclusive boundary,
through which the newcomer associates
themself with them to the exclusion of the
other people present. Equally, however, it is
possible that people who do understand
the newcomer but who also speak another
language may not want to speak the
newcomer's language and so see their
marker as an imposition and a negative
boundary. It is possible that the newcomer
is either aware or unaware of this,
depending on whether they themself
knows other languages or is conscious of
the plurilingual quality of the people there
and is respectful of it or not.

In philosophy
Nietzsche called for a rejection of "Soul
Atomism" in The Gay Science. Nietzsche
supposed that the Soul was an interaction
of forces, an ever-changing thing far from
the immortal soul posited by both
Descartes and the Christian tradition. His
"Construction of the Soul" in many ways
resembles modern social constructivism.

Heidegger, following Nietzsche, did work

on identity. For Heidegger, people only
really form an identity after facing death.
It's death that allows people to choose
from the social constructed meanings in
their world, and assemble a finite identity
out of seemingly infinite meanings. For
Heidegger, most people never escape the
"they", a socially constructed identity of
"how one ought to be" created mostly to
try to escape death through ambiguity.
Ricoeur has introduced the distinction
between the ipse identity (selfhood, 'who
am I?') and the idem identity (sameness, or
a third-person perspective which
objectifies identity).[32]

In religion
A religious identity is the set of beliefs and
practices generally held by an individual,
involving adherence to codified beliefs and
rituals and study of ancestral or cultural
traditions, writings, history, mythology, and
faith and mystical experience. Religious
identity refers to the personal practices
related to communal faith along with
rituals and communication stemming from
such conviction. This identity formation
begins with an association in the parents'
religious contacts, and individuation
requires that the person chooses the same
or different religious identity than that of
their parents.[33][34]

The Parable of the Lost Sheep is one of

the parables of Jesus, it is about a
shepherd who leaves his flock of ninety-
nine sheep in order to find the one which is
lost. The parable of the lost sheep is an
example of the rediscovery of identity their
aim is to lay bare the nature of the divine
response to the recovery of the lost, the
lost sheep represents a lost human
being.[35][36][37]

Christian meditation is a specific form of

personality formation, though often used
only by certain practitioners to describe
various forms of prayer and the process of
knowing the contemplation of God.[38][39]

In Western culture, personal and secular

identity are deeply influenced by the
formation of Christianity,[40][41][42][43][44]
throughout history, various Western
thinkers who contributed to the
development of European identity were
influenced by classical cultures and
incorporated elements of Greek culture as
well as Jewish culture, leading to some
movements such as Philhellenism and
Philosemitism.[45][46][47][48][49]

Implications
The implications are multiple as various
research traditions are now heavily
utilizing the lens of identity to examine
phenomena. One implication of identity
and of identity construction can be seen in
occupational settings. This becomes
increasing challenging in stigmatized jobs
or "dirty work".[50] Tracy and Trethewey
state that "individuals gravitate toward and
turn away from particular jobs depending
in part, on the extent to which they validate
a "preferred organizational self".[51] Some
jobs carry different stigmas or acclaims. In
her analysis Tracy uses the example of
correctional officers trying to shake the
stigma of "glorified maids".[52] "The
process by which people arrive at
justifications of and values for various
occupational choices." Among these are
workplace satisfaction and overall quality
of life.[53] People in these types of jobs are
forced to find ways in order to create an
identity they can live with. "Crafting a
positive sense of self at work is more
challenging when one's work is considered
"dirty" by societal standards".[54] "In other
words, doing taint management is not just
about allowing the employee to feel good
in that job. "If employees must navigate
discourses that question the viability of
their work, and/ or experience obstacles in
managing taint through transforming dirty
work into a badge of honor, it is likely they
will find blaming the client to be an
efficacious route in affirming their
identity".[53]

In any case, the concept that an individual

has a unique identity developed relatively
recently in history. Factors influencing the
emphasis on personal identity may
include:
in the West, the Protestant stress on
one's responsibility for one's own soul
psychology itself, emerging as a distinct
field of knowledge and study from the
19th century onwards
the growth of a sense of privacy since
the Renaissance
specialization of worker roles during the
industrial period (as opposed, for
example, to the undifferentiated roles of
peasants in the feudal system)
occupation and employment's effect on
identity
increased emphasis on gender identity,
including gender dysphoria and
 transgender issues

Identity changes

An important implication relates to identity

change, i.e. the transformation of identity.

Contexts include:

Radical career-change is when an

individual drastically change your career
path.[55][56]
Gender identity transition is when an
individual experiences gender dysphoria,
that persuades them to change their
lives to fit into their gender identity.[57]
National immigration is an identity
change because one has to adapt to a
new society and these norms can vary
across national context.[58]
Adoption is an identity change as well
because one has to explore alternative
features and coming to terms that one
is adopted.[59]
Diagnosis of an illness can also be an
identity change because this experience
can change the way you view yourself.
The identity shifts in the face of
illness.[60]
See also
Identity politics
International Identity Federation
Otium
Online identity
Passing
Racial dysphoria
Role engulfment
Self and Identity (journal)

Self-consciousness
Self-discovery
Spoiled identity
Notes
1. Compare Collins Dictionary of Sociology,
quoted in Covington, Peter (2008). "Culture
and Identity". Success in Sociology (https://
books.google.com/books?id=aZIVM2t6Ys0
C) . Dublin: Folens Limited. p. 12.
ISBN 9781850082606. Retrieved
12 November 2020. "Jary and Jary (1991)
define identity as 'a sense of self that
develops as the child differentiates from
parents and the family, and takes a place in
society.' "

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Further reading
Gil G. Noam, Gil G.; Lapsley, Daniel K.
(1988). Self, Ego, and Identity: Integrative
Approaches. New York: Springer-Verlag.
doi:10.1007/978-1-4615-7834-5 (https://
doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4615-7834-
5) . ISBN 978-1-4615-7836-9.
Jenkins, Richard (2008). social identity
(3rd ed.). Abingdon: Routledge.
ISBN 978-0-203-92741-0.
 Fukuyama, Francis. Identity: The Demand
for Dignity and the Politics of
Resentment. New York: Farrar, Strause
and Giroux.
Jaspal, Rusi; Breakwell, Glynis M.
(2014). Identity Process Theory: Identity,
Social Action and Social Change. New
York: Cambridge University Press.
ISBN 978-1-107-02270-6.

External links
Wikiquote has quotations related to
Identity.

Media related to Identity (social

science) at Wikimedia Commons
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy –
Identity (http://plato.stanford.edu/entrie
s/identity/)
1. "Social Identity Theory" (https://web.ar
chive.org/web/20061231193527/htt
p://www.tcw.utwente.nl/theorieenover
zicht/Theory%20clusters/Interpersona
l%20Communication%20and%20Relati
ons/Social_Identity_Theory.doc/) .
Universiteit Twente. 9 September
2004. Archived from the original (htt
p://www.tcw.utwente.nl/theorieenover
zicht/Theory%20clusters/Interpersona
l%20Communication%20and%20Relati
ons/Social_Identity_Theory.doc/) on
31 December 2006.
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