Results in Optics 9 (2022) 100325

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Results in Optics
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A Highly Birefringent Negative Chromatic Dispersion Photonic Crystal

Fibre for Long-haul Transmission: Design and Analysis
Frederick Arhinful a, *, Emmanuel Kofi Akowuah a, Iddrisu Danlard a, b, Albert Dede a
a
Department of Computer Engineering, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana
b
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Sunyani Technical University, Sunyani, Ghana

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: In this work, we report for the first time, a simplex index guiding circular PCF (CPCF) structure operating from
Photonic crystal fibre 1350 nm to 1650 nm wavelength, which exhibits a highly negative dispersion of − 13686.5 ps/(nm-km) at the
Birefringence telecommunication wavelength of 1.55 µm. The proposed CPCF exhibits a birefringence of 2.26 × 10− 2 , with a
Chromatic dispersion
low confinement loss of 4.7 × 10− 5 dB/km, which is suitable for ultra-high speed broadband dispersion
Confinement loss
Polarization compensation in long-distance transmission as well as supercontinuum generation, polarization maintenance,
and sensing applications.

1. Introduction Faisal et al. proposed a triangular PCF for compensating residual

Photonic crystal fibres (PCF) have been widely researched for their
superior characteristics to overcome the fundamental shortcomings of
conventional optical fibres. PCFs provide great design flexibility because
of their unique properties such as tunable dispersion and birefringence,
low confinement losses, controllable nonlinearity, etc. (Seraji and
Anzabi, 2020; Biswas et al., 2021; Amin et al., 2022; Akowuah et al.,
2009; Kumari Pawan Kumar Inaniya, 2017; Shah and Kumar, 2020; Kalli
et al., 2021). PCF structures are helpful in different applications, such as
fibre amplifiers, lasers, sensors, high-power transmission, multiplexer-
demultiplexer, polarization rotators, etc. (Rafi et al., 2020; Yu et al.,
2020; Abdelaal et al., 2020; Chen et al., 2018). Chromatic dispersion is
the primary reason for pulse broadening and bit error, limiting the
bandwidth of broadband communication (Akowuah et al., 2009; Faisal
et al., 2018). PCFs designed as dispersion-compensating fibres can easily
reduce the overall dispersion of the entire transmission process and
enhance signal quality (Chen et al., 2018).
Over the years, many dispersion compensation fibres (DCFs) have
been proposed for mitigating chromatic dispersion in long-haul trans­
mission (Faruk et al., 2020). Lee et al. (2017) presented a dispersion
compensating PCF using a double-hole assisted core for high and uni­
form birefringence. They achieved a negative dispersion of − 150 ps/
(nm-km) over a wavelength range of 1380 nm–1780 nm. However, the
overall birefringence reported is low and requires further optimization.
dispersion (Faisal et al., 2018). The authors achieved a chromatic
dispersion of − 995.83 ps/(nm-km) at a wavelength of 1550 nm and
birefringence of 4.4 × 10− 2 , but their design was complex and there­
fore challenging to fabricate. Another large negative PCF with high
birefringence for dispersion compensation was presented by Upadhyay
et al. (2020). They obtained a negative dispersion of − 810 ps/(nm-km)
and confinement loss of 1.23 × 10− 5 at the operating wavelength of
1550 nm. Also, their work exhibited a birefringence of 3.6 × 10− 3 .
Nevertheless, the design is complex. Paul et al. (2022) achieved a
negative chromatic dispersion of − 2357.54 ps/(nm-km) and nonline­
arity of 74.68 W− 1 km− 1 at 1550 nm wavelength. However, the bire­
fringence and confinement loss, which characterize the performance of
the DCF, were ignored. A PCF with a silica core described by Kumar
Pandey et al. (2020) with six uniform air-holes and four uniform air-
holes arranged at the corners of the square within the core attained
− 600.3 ps/(nm-km) and − 366.5 ps/(nm-km) at 1.3 µm and 1.55 µm,
respectively. They reported a low confinement loss of 9.9 × 10− 7 dB/cm
and 5 × 10− 5 dB/cm at 1.3 µm and 1.55 µm, respectively, while the
birefringence was as low as 3.6 × 10− 3 dB/cm. Another dispersion
compensating fibre was reported by Islam et al. The reported fibre
exhibited a negative dispersion of − 1528.5 ps/(nm-km) at 1550 nm.
Islam et al. (2017) with a birefringence of 4.74 × 10− 3 at 1.55 µm. They
used circular and elliptical air-holes to design five rings. However, the
reported birefringence is low, and the design requires additional

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: farhinful2@st.knust.edu.gh (F. Arhinful), ekakowuah.coe@knust.edu.gh (E.K. Akowuah), idanlard@st.knust.edu.gh (I. Danlard), adede3@st.
knust.edu.gh (A. Dede).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rio.2022.100325
Received 2 September 2022; Received in revised form 21 October 2022; Accepted 30 October 2022
Available online 1 November 2022
2666-9501/© 2022 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc-nd/4.0/).
F. Arhinful et al. Results in Optics 9 (2022) 100325

Fig. 1. (a) Cross-sectional view of the proposed CPCF structure, (b) Finer mesh FEM.

Table 1
Optimal CPCF parameters.
Λ d1 d2 d3 d4 d5
1.4 µm 0.14*Λ µm 0.15*Λ µm 0.16*Λ µm 0.3 0.8
optimization. The same authors (IEEE, 2019a) reported an octagonal
PCF with five rings of two different diameters. They achieved a negative
chromatic dispersion of − 1449 ps/(nm-km) at the wavelength of 1.55
µm, which is suitable for dispersion compensation in telecommunication
transmission. The authors obtained a nonlinearity of 100.5 W− 1 km− 1 at
the wavelength of 1.55 µm. However, their investigation did not show
confinement loss, which is a significant factor regarding dispersion
compensation fibre for optical communication. Again, the air holes of
the entire design were close together, making fabrication difficult. Islam
et al. (2019) presented a new PCF suitable for dispersion compensation.
Their investigation realized a negative chromatic dispersion of
− 2015.30 ps/(nm-km) and confinement loss of 3.41 × 10− 1 dB/cm at
1.55 µm. At the same time, the reported fibre exhibited a high nonlin­
earity of 99.73 W− 1 km− 1 at the same wavelength. Meanwhile, the
dispersion value still needs further tuning.
For the first time, we report, a simplex index guiding circular PCF
(CPCF) structure operating from 1350 nm to 1650 nm wavelength,
which exhibits a highly negative dispersion of − 13686.5 ps/(nm-km) at
the telecommunication wavelength of 1.55 µm. The proposed CPCF
exhibits a birefringence of 2.26 × 10− 2 , with a low confinement loss of
4.7 × 10− 5 (dB/km) which is suitable for ultra-high speed broadband
dispersion compensation in long-distance transmission and super­
continuum generation, polarization maintenance, and sensing applica­
tions (Biswas et al., 2019; Danlard and Technology, 2022; Danlard et al.,
2022).
values of the pitch, Ʌ the diameter d. The Sellmeier equation has been
used to determine this structure’s refractive index of pure silica. It is
wavelength-dependent, as shown below (Danlard and Akowuah, 2020;
Haider et al., 2022):
0.6962λ2 0.4079λ2 0.8975λ2
n2 (λ) = 1 + 2
+ 2 + 2 (1)
λ − 0.0047 λ − 0.0135 λ − 97.934
where n and λ are the refractive index of silica and the wavelength of
light, respectively.
The numerical analysis were performed by investigating the optical
properties of the proposed CPCF structure employing the full vector
finite method-based software COMSOL Multiphysics (version 5.6). The
FEM has been used to solve Maxwell’s equations by taking into
consideration the surrounding subspaces in the uniform subspaces that
make up the cross-section of the proposed PCF. The mesh quality statics
for the proposed CPCF is presented as 0.5906 minimum elements,
0.9312 average elements, 63,674 domain triangles, 2680 quad, 3696
edges elements, and 448 vertex elements. By incorporating a circular
PML into FEM, confinement losses across the operating wavelengths
were evaluated. The circular PML with a thickness of 0.5 μm has been
used to avoid reflections. The PML thickness for the optimum structure
was chosen following a convergence test. The given vectorial equation is
created from Maxwell’s equations, using anisotropic PML.
([ ] )
Δ × s− 1 Δ × E − k02 n2eff [s]E = 0 (2)
E is the electric field, whereas ko = 2π/λ (this is the free space wave
number). We calculated the refractive index using the Eqs. (3)–(6) for
the analyses of chromatic dispersion D(λ), birefringence B, and
confinement Loss Lc (Faruk et al., 2020; Biswas et al., 2019; Danlard
et al., 2022; Biswas et al., 2018; Ahmad et al., 2018; Talukder et al.,
2020).

2. Design and theoretical basis D(λ) = −

λ ∂2 Re[neff ]
(3)
c ∂λ2
Fig. 1(a) and (b) demonstrate the geometrical representation and the ⃒ ⃒
finite element mesh for the suggested CPCF, respectively. The design of B = ⃒nx − ny ⃒ (4)
the CPCF cladding is arranged with five circular air-hole rings and two
40π ( )
elliptic air holes, as shown in Fig. 1. Lc = Im neff (5)
The air-hole in the center is missing, making up our design’s inner lnln (10) λ
core. The pitch (Ʌ), which is the distance between air holes, was set at ( ∫∫ ⃒ 2 ⃒ )
⃒E ⃒dxdy 2
(1.4 µm, 1.5 µm, and 1.6 µm). The diameter (d) of the circular air-hole is Aeff = ∫∫ 4 (6)
chosen as d1 = 0.14*Ʌ µm, d2 = 0.15*Ʌ µm, and d3 = 0.15*Ʌ µm, |E| dxdy
whereas the diameter for the elliptic air-hole is selected as d4 and d5
[ ]
(0.3, 0.8) µm to enhance birefringence of the proposed CPCF as shown in
1
πAeff − 2

the Table 1. Na = 1 + (7)

λ
We obtained dispersion characteristics by controlling optimum

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F. Arhinful et al. Results in Optics 9 (2022) 100325

Fig. 2. Electric field distribution of the proposed PCF at 1.55 µm wavelength for (a) X-Polarization mode and (b) Y-Polarization mode.

Fig. 3. (a) Dispersion properties as a function of wavelength on different pitch Λ, (b) Dispersion properties as a function of wavelength on different parameters of
diameter, (d).

2πΛ √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
̅ We have analyzed the proposed CPCF based on the effect of the
Veff = n2eff + n2FSM
λ diameter (d) of the air holes and the pitch Λ, the distance between one
From the above equations, λ is the operating wavelength, c is the ve­
( )
locity of light, and Re neff is the real part of the refractive index of the
design. The nx represents the real parts of the refractive index for x-
polarized and ny denotes the real parts of the refractive index for the y-
polarization of the proposed PCF. Veff represents the effective V
parameter to determine the single-mode operation of the proposed
CPCF. neff is the effective index of the fundamental mode, whereas nFSM
is the effective index of the fundamental space-filling mode.
3. Results and discussion
This section discusses the simulation results of all the performance
parameters of the novel CPCF, such as chromatic dispersion, effective
mode area, confinement loss, and birefringence, with the operating
wavelength from 1.35 µm to 1.65 µm. Applying finer mesh to the pro­
posed CPCF structure makes it possible to derive accurate electric field
distributions of the x-polarized and y-polarized modes, as shown in
Fig. 2. It is seen that the electric field intensity is exceptionally high at
the core region as one moves away from the core, showing that most of
the light signal is confined to the core.
(8)
air hole and another, on all the parameters of the PCF. We investigated
the effect of Λ on chromatic dispersion property. The variation of
chromatic dispersion as a function of wavelength for commercial
communication from 1.2 µm − 1.65 µm is illustrated in Fig. 3(a) and (b).
It is shown from the curve that the dispersion coefficient is recorded as
− 1089.76 ps/(nm-km), − 790.04 ps/(nm-km), and − 348.47 ps/(nm-
km) when the pitch Λ is increased to 1.4 µm, 1.5 µm, 1.6 µm respectively
at 1.55 µm wavelength. It is observed that an increase in the pitch makes
the electric field weak enough to confine the light to the core region,
thereby changing the dispersion coefficient.
We also determined the influence of the diameter d of the air-holes
on the chromatic dispersion property. Fig. 3b shows the graph of the
chromatic dispersion curve against the operating wavelength from 1.2
µm to 1.6 µm. when d = 0.14*Λ µm, Λ = 1.5 µm. It is demonstrated that
the lowest dispersion value of the curve moves towards the wavelength
region, and the whole curve increases. The dispersion coefficient is
recorded at − 13686.5 ps/(nm-km) at 1.55 µm wavelength when d =
0.15*Λ µm. the dispersion value reduces to − 12346.6 ps/(nm-km) at the
wavelength of 1.55 µm when d = 0.16*Λ µm, and the chromatic
dispersion coefficient further decreases to − 1503.52 ps/(nm-km) at the
operating wavelength of 1.55 µm. It can be observed that parameter d of

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F. Arhinful et al. Results in Optics 9 (2022) 100325

Fig. 4. (a) Effects of pitch on birefringence properties of the proposed CPCF, (b) effects of diameter, d, on birefringence properties of the proposed CPCF.

Fig. 5. (a) Effects of pitch on confinement loss properties of the proposed CPCF, (b) effects of diameter, d, on confinement loss properties of the proposed CPCF.

the proposed circular structure is an important factor in determining the suitable for better optical communication. However, the dispersion
chromatic dispersion property. It is demonstrated that when the diam­ curve becomes less significant, especially from 1.55 µm to 1.65 µm,
eter is decreased to 0.14*Λ µm, a highly negative dispersion value of when both the optimum values of pitch and diameter are changed. We
− 13686.5 ps/(nm-km) is recorded for dispersion compensation which is investigated the birefringence property of the proposed PCF. Fig. 4a

Fig. 6. (a) Effective mode area of the proposed PCF, (b) Numerical Aperture of the proposed PCF.

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F. Arhinful et al. Results in Optics 9 (2022) 100325

For the optimized geometrical parameters, the x polarization mode’s

Fig. 7. V-parameter for the proposed CPCF.
shows the variation of the modal analysis of the birefringence of the
proposed PCF against wavelength on several values of the pitch Λ. The
simulation results demonstrated birefringence estimation of 2.6 × 10− 2,
2.1 × 10− 2, and 1.69 × 10− 2 when the pitch Λ changed to 1.4 µm, 1.5
µm, 1.6 µm, respectively, at the wavelength of 1.55 µm. Fig. 5a dem­
onstrates a tremendous change in the modal birefringence when the
pitch is decreased. We have also analyzed the diameter effects on the
birefringence of the proposed structure. Fig. 4b reports the diameter
d effect on the birefringence characteristics of the proposed PCF as a
function of the wavelength band from 1.2 µm to 1.7 µm.
The birefringence result from Fig. 4b is presented with the estimation
of 1.628 × 10− 2, 1.74 × 10− 2, 1.87 × 10− 2 when the diameter changed
to 0.14*Λ µm, 0.15*Λ µm, 0.16*Λ µm, respectively at the wavelength of
1.55 µm. Our simulation results show that an increase in the diameter
d increases the birefringence when the pitch is kept constant. A tradi­
tional polarization-maintaining fibre demonstrates a high birefringence
estimation of 5 × 10− 4 (Hasan et al., 2017). Our proposed PCF is almost
52 times better than conventional fibre. It is revealed that, with opti­
mum design parameters, our proposed PCF shows a high birefringence
of 2.6 × 10− 2 in the optical communication band and can also sense
applications.
We have analyzed confinement loss, an essential requisite in optical-
fibre communication. Fig. 5 depicts the confinement loss of the proposed
PCF as a function of the wavelength. The effects of the global pitch and
diameter around optimum values have been examined, and it is shown
that the variation of the global parameter with optimum values has no
significant influence on confinement loss and, therefore, can be
considered negligible. The confinement loss is found to be of the order of
10− 5 for the entire wavelength bands.
Fig. 6 illustrates the relationship between effective area and wave­
length for the minimum values of diameter d. The proposed PCF’s
effective area is 3.65 µm2 at 1550 nm wavelength, and it gradually de­
creases as the wavelength increases because the guided mode of the fibre
becomes stronger at longer wavelengths. The numerical aperture of the
suggested circular PCF is shown in Fig. 6b as a function of wavelength.
most significant numerical aperture is around 0.53961 at around 1.55
µm. Nevertheless, for both polarizations, the numerical aperture grows
linearly with wavelength.
From Fig. 7, the maximum and a minimum estimated values for Veff
are 2.284 and 2.197 respectively at 1.55 µm wavelength. The result of
the Veff for CPCF is less than 2.405 for all wavelength bands. The value of
Veff for single mode fibre is less than 2.405, which can be verified from
References Paul et al. (2022), Islam et al. (2019) and IEEE (2022).
Therefore, it can be strongly concluded that the CPCF design is a single-
mode fibre.
Table 2 summarizes the comparison of our proposed PCF design with
the pertinent modern PCF structures. For several air-hole design pa­
rameters, the comparison is analyzed based on chromatic dispersion,
birefringence, and confinement loss at the commercial wavelength of
1.55 µm. Table 2, Reference Faisal et al. (2018) shows the highest
birefringence, which is suitable for dispersion compensation. However,
their paper did not report confinement loss, and their design looks
difficult to fabricate. It can be seen from Table 2 that our proposed
circular PCF is achieving a very low dispersion value far better than most
of the previous papers published on PCF designs. Our design’s main
objective is to ensure the fabrication process is feasible. Several methods
can be employed to create PCF designs. These include traditional dril­
ling, the stack and draw approach, and sol-gel casting. The draw and
stack method makes it simple to adjust both the core’s shape and the
cladding’s refractive index profile. Sol-gel techniques offer considerable
design flexibility and can be used to manufacture PCF on a large scale.
Sol-gel technique and straw and draw methods have been used to
fabricate many complicated PCF structures (Lee et al., 2017; Islam et al.,
2019; Danlard and Technology, 2022). They, therefore, can be used to
fabricate our designed PCF. The proposed PCF allows a wide range of
design flexibility, and manufacturing the structure will be considerably
simpler than PCFs that include non-circular air holes.
4. Conclusion
This paper presented a theoretical analysis of a novel CPCF with a
five-ring structure that exhibited a highly negative dispersion over the
wavelength band of 1350 nm–1650 nm. The proposed CPCF demon­
strated a large negative chromatic dispersion of − 13686.5 ps/(nm-km)
at 1.55 µm, low confinement loss of 4.7 × 10− 5 dB/km, and a high
birefringence of 2.26 × 10− 2 . The proposed PCF consists of circular air
holes, which makes it possible to fabricate using a two-step stack and
draw process or a gel casting technique. This proposed structure would
be suitable for ultra-high speed broadband dispersion compensation in
long-distance transmission and supercontinuum generation, polariza­
tion maintenance, and sensing applications.
Funding
This research did not receive any specific grant from funding
agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

Table 2
Shows a comparison table between the proposed circular PCF and current PCF structures in terms of modal parameters for a similar air holes design at a 1550 nm
wavelength.
Refs. PCF structure Dispersion (ps/nm-km) Birefringence (B) Confinement loss (dB/km) Wavelength (µm)
− 3 − 2
Lee et al. (2017) Square − 150 7.5 × 10 Order of 10 1.38–1.78
Faisal et al. (2018) Triangular − 995.83 4.4 × 10− 2 N/A 1.55
Islam (2017) Square − 1528.5 4.74 × 10− 3 N/A 1.34–1.64
IEEE (2019b) Octagonal − 1449 N/A N/A 1.55
Islam (2019) Square − 2421.90 N/A 3.41 × 10− 1 1.55
Upadhyay et al. (2020) Square − 810 3.6 × 10− 3. 1.23 × 10− 5 1.55
Kumar Pandey et al. (2020) Circular − 366.5, − 600.3 N/A 9.9 × 10− 7, 5 × 10− 5
1.3 and 1.55
Paul et al. (2022) Modified square − 2357.54 N/A N/A 1.55
The Proposed CPCF Circular ¡13686.5 2.26 £ 10¡2 4.7 £ 10¡5 1.55

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F. Arhinful et al. Results in Optics 9 (2022) 100325

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