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Discovering Civil and Environmental Engineering
3.2 Loads on Building Structures
3.2.1 Types of Loads
Types of Loads
Common types of loads to be considered
• Dead Loads
• Live Loads
• Wind Loads
• Soil Loads
• Water and Wave Loads
• Earthquake (seismic) Loads
• Thermal Loads
Design of structures requires: determination of typical worst‐case
loads expected to be applied to them
Load factors
• Amplifying factors are used in design equations to increase the design
loads
• This is to account for uncertainties involved when estimating loads
• Example: U = 1.2 D + 1.6 L, where D = Dead Load; L = Live Load
Types of Loads
How loads can act on a structure
• Point Load, unit in kN (1 kN = 1000 N)
• Line Load, kN/m
• Distributed Load (over an area), kN/m2
3.2.2 Dead Loads and Live Loads
www.BuildingHow.com
Dead Loads
Weights of building structures themselves:
• Self‐weight of structural members: beams, columns, floor slabs,
roofs, walls, etc.
• Weight of objects permanently attached to structure: windows,
tiles, etc.
• Calculated by density of material × component size
Live Loads
books
Objects inhabiting inside: books
• People, storage, moving vehicles, etc. books
• Furniture & fixtures (ceiling lights, pipe ducts,
etc.)
• Magnitude and location may change
Uniform live loads usually assumed on a building floor
Tabulated in building codes
Effects of dead & live loads
• Deflection of beams & floors
• Settlement of foundations
Effects of dead & live loads
Total or partial collapse of
structural elements such as
columns, beams, walls and floor Total collapse of a roof
slabs
3.2.3 Environmental Loads
www.civilread.com
Wind Loads
• Wind movement of air
• Wind flow past a building wind is
accelerated or decelerated
• Pressure of air changes accordingly
• Positive pressures on building surfaces
causes inward forces
• Negative pressure on building surfaces
and roof causes outward forces and
uplift on roof
• Wind loads depend on wind speed and
direction, and building shapes
Wind
Effects of wind loads pressure
profile
• Lateral deflection
• Toppling of building/structure
• Damage of structural elements such as Structure
roofs/ walls/ windows/ etc.
• Excessive building vibration
Soil loads
• Example: soil load on retaining wall
• Tendency of soil to slip lateral load on retaining wall
Gravity
Wall
Retained
Excavated side
side
Effects of soil loads
• Lateral deflection / toppling of retaining structure
• Landslide
Slope protection against soil loads
Types of Slopes:
Weep holes
Water loads
• Water build‐up in soil increased
hydrostatic pressure on a retaining wall
• Hydrostatic pressure on a dam
Thermal loads
• Changes in temperature lead to thermal expansion of structural /
non‐structural members
“Fixed/clamped ends”
Fixed Fixed
wall wall
Beam
Roller: Rotation and
Pin: Rotation “Pin and roller supports” translation allowed
allowed
Beam
Earthquake load (Seismic load)
• Ground movement seismic waves
• Can induce horizontal & vertical loads on
buildings and structures
3.2.4 Building structures
Building categories by height
• Single‐storey • High‐rise (24m < h < 100m)
• Multi‐storey (h < 24m)
• Tall buildings
• Supertall buildings
Loads on buildings
Vertical loads: Sliding
Gravity
Foundation
and settling
Lateral loads: Overturning
Wind,
earthquake
Important for
tall buildings
Foundations of buildings
Load resistance of buildings
Lateral loads
are critical
Steel bars
take tension
Concrete takes
Tension compression
Compression
Concrete
takes heavy
loading from
above
Structural Steel Reinforced Concrete
Load resistance of buildings (cont’d)
Displacement
Force
Lateral Stiffness = Force / Displacement
Example:
• Force = 1,000 kN
• Displacement = 5 mm
• Stiffness = 1,000 kN/5 mm = 200 kN/mm
The aim is to increase the lateral stiffness
Make the building stiff and strong
Some common structural systems for buildings
1. Rigid frame
2. Shear wall
3. Wall‐frame
4. Framed tube
5. Core wall with outriggers
1. Rigid‐frame system
• Columns, beams and floor slabs rigidly connected
• Typical material used: Reinforced concrete
• Rigid joints at junctions
• Open, rectangular structure easy space planning
• Economical limit: ~25 stories
Plan
• Low lateral stiffness not effective for tall buildings
Elevation
2. Shear wall system
Shear Walls
• Shear walls, beams & slabs
• Shear wall ‐‐ vertically continuous structure
Much stiffer than rigid frame
Provides most of lateral (& some gravity) resistance
• Economical limit: ~35 stories
Beams
Shear Walls
3. Wall‐frame system
• Shear walls combined with rigid frames
• They are constrained to deflect together
stiffer structure than frames or shear walls alone
• Appropriate for up to ~50 stories
Frame Shear walls
column
Wall‐frame system (cont’d)
Shear Shear
• Shear walls often form Wall Wall
box shaped cores
around stairs and
elevators Beam
• Core walls as a spatial
system can transmit Plan
Column Core (shear walls)
lateral loads in both
directions, and can
resist all type of loads Column
• Shape of core is
governed by elevator
and stair requirements
Beam
Elevation
4. Tube systems
Interior
columns for
• Very stiff rigid frame w/ closely gravity loads
spaced columns (2‐4 m between
centers) around perimeter Framed‐tube
• A “tube” is formed for gravity and
entire lateral
• Suitable for both steel and loading
reinforced concrete
• Closely spaced exterior columns &
beams façade looks like a wall
with perforated window openings
Plan
Tube systems (cont’d)
• Tube‐like structure acts like a non‐perforated vertical
cantilevered tube, but with reduced stiffness due to openings
along external wall
• When subjected to bending by lateral forces, columns on
opposite sides of the vertical neutral axis experience tension and
compression
• The frames (beams and columns) parallel to the direction of
lateral load are subjected to in‐plane bending
Variations:
• Framed‐tube
• Tube‐in‐tube
• Braced‐tube
• Bundled‐tube
Tube systems (cont’d)
Framed‐Tube Systems Tube‐in‐tube systems
Hopewell Center
DeWitt‐Chestnut Apartments in
Chicago
Tube systems (cont’d)
Braced‐tube Systems Bundled‐tube systems
100‐story John Hancock
Sears Tower, Chicago
Building (Chicago)
5. Core with outrigger system
High rise building as “skier”
• concrete core ~ main body
• outriggers ~ arms
• exterior columns ~ ski poles
Function of the outriggers:
• reduce the overturning moment
in the core (which would
otherwise act as a pure
cantilever)
• transfer the reduced moment to
columns outside the core
Outrigger structures found in sports
Core with outrigger system (cont’d)
ICC
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3.2 Loads on Building Structures
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