Research methods 1.

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1. What is the aim? What we are trying to achieve, the purpose of the re-
search. It can be phrased as a question. eg: "To investigate
the effects a certain drug on memory" or "Are girls more
likely to act vulnerable than boys?"

2. What is the hy- A specific prediction expressed in terms of a change in

pothesis? variables of what will be discovered.

3. What are the 3 Directional (one-tailed) hypothesis, non-directional

types of hypothe- (two-tailed) hypothesis and null hypothesis (HO).
sis in an experi-
ment?

4. What is It predicts the direction in which change is expected to oc-

a directional cur and the expected results. It uses words like faster/slow-
(one-tailed) hy- er/better/worse...
pothesis?

5. What is It predicts a change and does not specify direction, nor-

a non-direction- mally used when there is no previous research. It uses
al (two-tailed) hy- words like impact/effect/change...
pothesis?

6. What is a null hy- It is what would be found if the hypothesis is not supported
pothesis (HO)? by the results- the hypothesis we're trying to disprove. It
uses words like no impact/no change...

7. What is sam- Sampling is searching and selecting a group of partici-

pling? What is pants who will take part in the study. The sample must
the requirement be representative of target population so results can be
of a sample? generalised.

8. What is op- Opportunity sampling is selecting participants based on

porunity sam- who is available at a certain place & time. Pros: easy
pling? What are method, better knowledge of participants. Cons: prone to
it's pros and bias & turns into volunteer sampling.
cons?

9. What is random Random sampling is when every member of the popula-

sampling? What tion has an equal change of being chosen or selected. For
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are it's pros and example pulling names out of a hat. Pros: unbiased selec-
cons? tion so the sample is representative & can be generalised.
Cons: impractical

10. What is volunteer Volunteer sampling is individuals who have chosen to take
sampling? What place in the study, for example by responding to an Ad.
are it's pros and Pros: easy method. Cons: prone to bias, volunteers certain
cons? "type" of person, demand characteristics if ppts know the
aim of the experiment- "screw you" or perfect ppt. Counter
arguement: can be solved through deception & debriefing
them at the end.

11. What is system- Systematic sampling is when participants are chosen in

atic sampling? a systematic (orderly) way from the target population, for
What are it's example using nth term. Pros: better version of random
pros? sampling, unbiased selection, representative so can be
generalised.

12. What is stratified Stratified sampling is when participants are selected to

sampling? What represent a target population (in proportions or %) by di-
are it's pros and viding the population into stratas (subgroups). Pros: sam-
cons? ple can be generalised to target population. Cons: time
consuming & need for other sampling method first.

13. What is snowball Snowball sampling is when the researcher collects data
sampling? What on the few members of a target population they can locate
are it's pros and and then ask those individuals to provide info needed to
cons? locate other members of that population. Pros: sometimes
the only method to find a difficult population. Cons: costly,
time consuming, unrepresentative sample, only used for
exploration.

14. What are vari- Variables are a thing whose values can change. An exper-
ables? What are iment tries to find out whether the independent variable
the 5 types? has an effect on the dependent variable. There are also
control variables, extraneous variables and confounding
variables.

15. An independent variable is a variable of the experiment

that is manipulated by the researcher (what you change).
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What is an inde-
pendent variable
(IV)?

16. What is a de- A dependent variable is a variable that you measure and
pendent variable what you investigate and get results on.
(DV)?

17. What are control Control variables are variables that are kept the same to
variables (CV)? make sure the IV is the variable changing the DV and
assure a fair test.

18. What is an ex- An extraneous variable is a variable other than the IV

traneous variable which may affect the DV and the results of the experiment.
(EV)? They cannot be elimiated, only minimized. The remaining
EV are a source of error, but don't invalidate the experi-
ment.

19. What is a con- When the EV does have an effect on the DV and the
founding variable results. This can ruin the experiment.
(CfV)?

20. What is opera- Operationsalisation is the process of achieving a precise

tionalisation? description of particular key terms in research.

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 Research Methods 1.2
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1. What are ethics? Ethics are standards of conduct that distinguish right &
wrong. Psychologists have a duty to respect rights & dignity
of everyone, they must follow certain moral principals to
protect participants and the reputation of psychology.

2. What is the BPS? The British Psychological Society. It governms psychology

& created a list of ethical guidelines all psychologists must
follow.

3. What are the 1. Full informed consent- permission (if they are younger
6 ethical guide- than 16 from their legal guardians)
lines? (Remem- 2. Decieve- psychologists can lie to ppts to ensure an
ber: Can Do Can't honest andwer and avoid demand characteristics.
Do With Partici- 3. Confidentiality- animosity (no names- instead numbers,
pants) initials & fake names)
4. Debrief: if psychologist deceives ppts, at the end they
must reveal the lies & the real aim of the experiment, and
check that ppts are okay
5. Right to withdraw: tell participants they can drop out at
the start, if they feel stressed and at the end of exp
6. Protection from Physical & Psychological harm: if ppts
are harmed they must be offered therapy or counselling at
the end.

4. What is A CBA is carried out by an ethics committee (like the BPS),

a Cost/benefit they weigh the means (costs) againsts the ends (benefits)
analysis? Define of the experiment. Costs are the harm to the participants as
costs and bene- a concequence of the research, such as distress, ridicule
fits. or loss of self-esteem must be balanced against the ends.
Benefits are the value of the resarch to society, which must
be balanced against the costs to participants.

5. When does the When the benefits to society outweight the costs.
ethics commitee
like BPS allow re-
search to be car-
ried out?

6.

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 Research Methods 1.2
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Who were the 2 Milgram and his electric shock experiments. Zimbardo and
researchers that his prison experiment.
ethical guide-
lines were creat-
ed because of?

7. What are pilot Pilot studies are small scale trial runs of actual experi-
studies? ments. It allows the investigator to identify flaws with the ex-
periment. It tests for problems with the design (MP,RM, IG),
clarity of instructions (standardisation) for the participants
& measuring instruments (operationalised DV). It allows
the time scale of the actual experiment to be estimated,
and saves time and money.

8. What are the fea- Falsified, Objective, Reliable & Empirical

tures of a sci-
ence?

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 Research methods 1.3
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1. What are the 3 Independent groups, repeated measures & matched

types of experi- pairs.
mental designs?

2. What is inde- Independent groups are when different participants are

pendent groups? used in each condition of the experiment. Pros: avoids
What are the pros order effects (1C per person)- practice & fatigue. Cons:
and cons? more people and participant variables may affect results.

3. What are repeat- Repeated measures are when participants do both con-
ed measures? ditions, C1 and C2. Pros: no participant variables, less
What are the pros people needed. Cons: order effects- practice & fatigue.
and cons?

4. How can order Through counterbalancing- half of participants do C1 and

effects be then C2, the other half do C2 and then C1. This eliminates
controlled? order effects of practice and fatigue and increases the
(counter-argue- validity and accuracy of the experiment.
ment)

5. What are Matched pairs are when a group of participants are re-
matched pairs? cruited, and then matching people are found for them.
What are the pros Pros: avoids order effects (no need for counterbalancing.
and cons? Cons: very time consuming, impossible to match 2 people
exactly, dropouts lose 2 people's data.

6. What are the 4 Lab experiment, field experiment, natural experiment &
types of experi- quasi experiment. They are different in how the IV changes
ment? and under what cirmcunstances.

7. What are lab ex- Lab experiments are conducted under controlled condi-
periments? What tions, the researcher changes the IV to see the effect on
are the pros and the DV. Pros: control over experiment & environment- high
cons? internal validity & reliable. Cons: lacks ecological validity &
external validity, so findings are not generalisable.

8. What are field ex- Field experiments are carried out in natural settings, the
periments? What researcher manipulates IV to see the effect on the DV.
are the pros and Pros: internal & external validity and some degree of con-
cons?
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trol. Cons: EV are likely to disort findings, lower internal
validity & control than lab experiment (less reliable).

9. What are natur- Natural experiments are carried out in natural preexisting
al experiments? setting, researcher does not manipulate the IV as it is
What are the pros already naturally changing. Pros: high ecological validity,
and cons? no researcher influence & high external validity. Cons: lack
of control, risk of EV, low internal validity & reliability.

10. What are qua- Quasi experiments contain a naturally occurring IV, specif-
si experiments? ically a difference between people, internal to participants.
What are the pros Pros & cons the same as natural experiments.
and cons?

11. What are the 4 Situational variables, participant variables, demand char-
types of extra- acteristics and investigator effects.
neous variables
that have to be
controlled to pre-
vent them from
becoming con-
founding?

12. What are situ- Situational variables are outside influences on the experi-
ational variables ment, for example time. They can be removed by standar-
and how can they dising the time, procedures & setting of the experiment.
be controlled/re-
moved?

13. What are par- Participant variables are individual differences between
ticipant variables participants. They can be removed by a careful selection
and how can they of participants- repeated measures or matched pairs de-
be controlled/re- signs.
moved?

14. What are de- Demand characteristics are when participants change
mand character- their behaviour in line with their interpretation of the aims
istics and how of the experiment, through the "screw you" or perfect
can they be con- participant. They can be removed by single blind (emitting
trolled/removed? information so participants don't know whether they're
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 Research methods 1.3
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part of the treatment or control group) or double blind
(participants & experimentor are emitted info).

15. What are investi- Investigator effects are when the researcher change their
gator effects and behaviour in a way that will support their prediction (hy-
how can they pothesis), for example prods to participants. They can be
be controlled/re- removed by double blind (emitting information so partic-
moved? ipants & researcher don't know who is in the control or
treatment group- aim of experiment not known). However,
this is very complicated to carry out.

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 Research Methods 1.4
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1. What are the 4 Quantitative data, qualitative data, primary data and sec-
types of data? ondary data.

2. What is quantita- Quantitative data is data that exists as numbers, it tends

tive data? What to measure a concept. Pros: easy to analyse. Cons: lacks
are the pros and detail.
cons?

3. What is qualita- Qualitative data is data that exists as words & describes a
tive data? What concept. Pros: lots of detail. Cons: difficult to analyse.
are the pros and
cons?

4. What is prima- Primary data is orginal data collected specifically for the
ry data? What investigation of the researcher, eg: questionnaires. Pros:
are the pros and more reliable. Cons: time consuming.
cons?

5. What is sec- Secondary data is data collected by someone else that

ondary data? already exists before the investigation, eg: journals. Pros:
What are the pros easy to use. Cons: bias.
and cons?

6. What are de- Descriptive methods create statistics and data that helps
scriptive meth- describe, show or summarise data in a meaningful way.
ods and what They are broken down into graphs (bar charts, pie charts
are they broken & line graphs) and numerical summaries.
down into?

7. What is numer- Measures of central tendency (middle) and measures of

ical summaries dispersion (spread out).
divided into?

8. Give the 3 mea- 1. Mean- all scores added & divided by the num. the
sures of central numbers. 2. Median- all scores put in order & middle score
tendency. How identified. 3. Mode- most common occuring score from all
are they calculat- numbers.
ed?

9.
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 Research Methods 1.4
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Give the 2 mea- 1. Range- top value minus bottom value. 2. Standard de-
sures of disper- viation- average amount that scores differ from the mean.
sion. How are
they calculated?

10. What is reliabili- Reliability is the consistency (accuracy) of a test or proce-

ty? dure. If you get similar results when repeating it then the
experiment is reliable.

11. What are the 3 1. Inter-rater (scorer) reliability- would two obeservers
ways to test relia- come to the same conclusion? operationalised variables
bility? & standardised procedures for it to work.
2. Test-retest- by repeating the experiment you measure
the consistency of results, but there may be the order
effect of practice.
3. Split-half reliability- if a test is of equal difficulty through-
out, do scores at the beginnning compare to those at the
end?

12. What is validity? Validity is the degree to which the test measures what
What are the 6 is claims to measure (correctness). There is temporal
types of validity? validity, ecological validity, face validity, predictive validity,
construct validity & concurrent validity.

13. Briefly describe Temporal validity is how relevant the time period is in af-
the 6 types of va- fecting the findings. Ecological validity measures if the ex-
lidity. periment reflects real life. Face validity measures common
sense. Predictive validity measures how accurately the
experiment predicts future performance. Construct validity
compares results with expectations. Concurrent validity
compares 2 methods of testing with results.

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 Content analysis, correlations & case studies
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1. What is content A research tool to indirectly observe the presence of con-

analysis? cepts within the media, carried out on secondary data to
produce quantitative data. Example: Waynforth & Dunbar
Lonely Hearts Column Content Analysis

2. How is the Researchers break down the content into manageable

process carried categories- coding units.
out?

3. What are the Advantages: you can make comparisons, see patterns &
advantages and trends, qualitative data is converted to quantitative data-
disadvantages of makes complex text easier to analyze, easy and not time
content analy- consuming, high credibility. Disadvantages: no new per-
sis? spectives gained, does not give context (meaning loses
original depth & detail), may distort the truth (bias), cannot
establish cause & effect.

4. How to do a 1. Data is collected (secondary)

content analy- 2. Researcher examines & familiarizes themselves with
sis? (qualitative the data
data turns to 3. Researcher identifies coding units (operationalize) eg:
quantitive) behavioral categories
4. Data is analyzed by applying coding units (words)
5. Tally chart is made & the number of times a coding unit
appears is counted

5. What is the role To look for a relationship between two variables (one thing
of correlations? varies in accordance to another). It cannot establish cause
& effect.

6. Positive correla- As one variable rises, so does the other. eg: the more
tions money you earn, the better quality of living

7. Negative correla- As one variable rises, the other falls. eg: the more parties
tions you attend, the less you study
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8. No correlation The two co-variables don't vary together at all. eg: cycle
test result & eye color

9. Correlation coef- Shows strength & direction of correlation. -1 is a strong

ficient negative correlation, around -0.5 is a moderate negative
correlation, between -0.5 and 0 is a weak negative corre-
lation, between 0 and +0.5 is a weak positive correlation,
around +0.5 is a moderate positive correlation and +1 is a
strong positive correlation.

10. What are case Case studies are in-depth studies of unique individuals.
studies? The data produced is qualitative data- detailed but difficult
to analyze. Case studies are ideographic (subjective). This
research method was used often by Sigmund Freud in the
psychodynamic approach.

11. How do case They use a range of different research methods, through
studies increase the process of triangulation
reliability (mak-
ing the investiga-
tion capable of
being repeated)?

12. What does trian- Triangulation includes interviews (structured, semi-struc-

gulation include? tured & unstructured), observations (covert/overt, par-
ticipant/non-participant, event/time sampling, naturalis-
tic/controlled) and past records (medical histories, diaries)

13. What are the Advantages: high validity- lots of detail & depth (qualita-
advantages and tive data), allow researchers to study events or complex
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disadvantages of psychological areas they can't ethically manipulate (they
case studies? study an existing problem), efficient- it only takes 1 case
study to prove / disprove a theory
Disadvantages: lack of control- EV can affect outcome,
difficult to establish cause & effect, bias-researchers be-
come too involved & lose objectivity, small samples make
it difficult to generalize, risk of misinformation

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 Self-report & types of Q
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1. What does self Self report involves asking participants questions orally
report involve? (interview) or in written form (questionnaire)

2. What are ques- A pre-set list of questions that participants need to re-
tionnaires? spond to, usually to asses thoughts or feelings.

3. What are the Advantages: cost-effective (large number of data at a low

advantages and cost), less effort and data is easy to analyze. Disadvan-
disadvantages of tages: Social Desirability Bias (SDB- like Demand Char-
questionnaires? acteristics) & response bias- not reading Q properly.

4. What are inter- Interviews are like questionnaires but conducted

views? What 3 face-to-face. The three types are structured interviews,
types are there? semi-structured interviews and unstructured interviews.

5. What are struc- They are made up of pre-determined questions that are
tured interviews? asked in a fixed order.

6. What are the Advantages: they are easy to replicate (high reliability) due
advantages and to standardized form. Disadvantages: Social Desirability
disadvantages of Bias issues, not possible for interviewer to deviate from
structured inter- structure or ask to elaborate answers (follow-up Q)
views?

7. What are They are made up of a list of questions prepared in

semi-structured advance but interviewers are also free to ask follow up
interviews? questions or deviate from the structure.

8. What are un- There are no set questions, it works more like a conversa-
structured inter- tion with a general aim of a certain topic to discuss- free
views? flowing interaction.

9. What are the Advantages: much more flexibility and detail, greater in-
advantages and sight due to follow-up Q being used. Disadvantage: data
disadvantages of is harder to analyze (qualitative) and SDB issues, low
unstructured in- reliability
terviews?

10. What are Open

Questions?
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 Self-report & types of Q
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Questions in which respondents are free to answer the
question in any way they want, there are no fixed range of
answers. For example: Why are you tired?

11. What are the Advantages: produces qualitative data that is rich in detail.
advantages and Disadvantages: qualitative data is difficult to analyze
disadvantages of
Open Ques-
tions?

12. What are Closed Questions that offer fixed range of responses. For exam-
Questions? ple: do you know we have a holiday next week? (yes or
no). They can include a likert scale (which should be made
up of even-point scales to take away the "neutral option"
which decreases data) eg: 1 2 3 4 5 6

13. What are the Advantages: produces quantitative data- easy to analyze
advantages and and easy to answer. Disadvantage: quantitative data lacks
disadvantages of detail, responses are limited.
Closed Ques-
tions?

14. What do all sur- A pilot study to check the questions are unambiguous,
veys / self-re- don't contain subjective words, don't influence partici-
ports need be- pant's answers (leading Q), are easy to understand and
fore being con- have no SDB (e.g: statement + Q)
ducted?

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 Observations
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1. What is covert observa- Participants are unaware that they are being ob-
tion? served (covert= under cover). For example a
one-way mirror or CCTV (Closed Circuit Television)
camera

2. What are the advan- Advantages: no demand characteristics (perfect

tages and disadvan- ppt or screw you effect), easier with less proce-
tages of covert observa- dures like consent. Disadvantages: often unethical,
tion? you go against informed consent (unless you get
retroactive consent)

3. What is overt observa- Participants are aware that they are being ob-
tion? served (overt = open- with permission). For exam-
ple an inspector sitting in a classroom

4. What are the advan- Advantages: observers can have help to set up the
tages and disadvan- study, and can ask for permission- ethical. Disad-
tages of overt observa- vantages: demand characteristics (perfect ppt or
tion? "screw you" effect), low validity

5. What is controlled The researcher manipulates the setting and situa-

(structured) observa- tion, (but not participants) therefore this means the
tion? experiment can be repeated with different people
(high reliability).

6. What are the advan-
tages and disadvan-
tages of controlled
(structured) observa-
tion?
Advantages: more reliable, controls mean cause
& effect can be established. Disadvantages: low
ecological validity (doesn't reflect real life) and so
difficult to generalize

7. What are naturalistic They take place in the natural setting, with no ma-
(unstructured) observa- nipulations made by the researcher.
tions?

8. What are the advan- Advantages: high ecological validity, lots of

tages and disadvan-
tages of naturalistic
(unstructured) observa-
tions?
in-depth qualitative data. Disadvantages: issues of
subjectivity (too much information), low reliability
therefore data is not generalizable
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9. What are the 2 types Participant and non-participant observation

of naturalistic (unstruc-
tured) observations?

10. What is participant ob- When observers are part of the group / activity /
servation? situation of what they are observing.

11. What are the advan-
tages and disadvan-
tages of participant ob-
servation?
Advantages: higher ecological validity, lots of in-
formation and insight can be gathered, less de-
mand characteristics. Disadvantages: observer
may loose objectivity (identify to much with the
group studied), difficult to replicate (because ob-
servers that can form part of said group are often
scarce)

12. What is non-participant When observers are not part of the group / activity
observation? / situation, they sit away and observe

13. What are the advan- Advantages: observer is more objective, recording
tages and disadvan- data is easier and results are more accurate. Disad-
tages of non-participant vantages: demand characteristics due to observer
observation? and loss of insight on the group.

14. What are the two meth- Time sampling and event sampling, we can check
ods of observation? reliability by doing Inter-observer reliability
How can we check the
reliability of observa-
tions?

15. What is time sampling? The behavior of each participant is recorded at

fixed time intervals (producing little qualitative data)

16. What is event sam- Specific behaviors (operationalized into behavioral

pling? categories) are recorded each time they occur (pro-
ducing quantitative data-tally chart)

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