Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 169 (2022) 112862

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

Solar Energy-Powered Battery Electric Vehicle charging stations: Current

development and future prospect review
Kah Yung Yap a, Hon Huin Chin b, *, Jiří Jaromír Klemeš b
a
School of Energy and Chemical Engineering, Xiamen University Malaysia, Jalan Sunsuria, Bandar Sunsuria, 43900, Sepang, Selangor, Malaysia
b
Sustainable Process Integration Laboratory – SPIL, NETME Centre, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Brno University of Technology - VUT Brno, Technická 2896/2,
616 69, Brno, Czech Republic

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Solar energy offers the potential to support the battery electric vehicles (BEV) charging station, which promotes
Solar energy sustainability and low carbon emission. In view of the emerging needs of solar energy-powered BEV charging
Battery electric vehicle (BEV) stations, this review intends to provide a critical technological viewpoint and perspective on the research gaps,
Charging station (CS)
current and future development of solar energy-powered BEV charging stations to fill the gap of the absence of
Vehicle-to-grid (V2G)
Solar power systems
review articles. The current technical limitations of solar energy-powered industrial BEV charging stations
Grid integration include the intermittency of solar energy with the needs of energy storage and the issues of carbon emission and
Energy storage systems (ESS) maintenance of solar arrays. This review article also provides a detailed overview of recent implementations on
solar energy-powered BEV charging stations, pointing out technological gaps and future prospects to serve as a
guideline for academia and industry. The main observations from this review include the hybrid integration of
other renewable energy such as wind or biogas can be a feasible solution to mitigate the intermittency of solar
energy, battery swapping to mitigate the slow charging speed, utilising virtual inertia device to regulate fre­
quency fluctuation that mitigate electricity blackout due to high penetration of solar or other renewable sources
in power grid, and avoiding charging in the periods when the grid electricity has a high content of carbon
emissions. The decentralised operations of energy management should be promoted to allow secured energy
transactions and optimise charging/discharging operations. The optimal choosing criteria for the solar-enabled
BEV are also provided as guidelines for industry or academia.

the technology of BEV has improved tremendously over the decades,

there are inevitable limitations and technical barriers to the adoption of
1. Introduction
BEV due to the hardware and software limitations, as the followings:

Battery electric vehicle (BEV), which is a kind of electric vehicle

(i) The charging of BEV is usually done using the grid power, which
(EV), emphasizes its improvements on sustainability and environmental
is considerably generated by the conventional power generations
friendliness [1]. However, the source of electricity is in many cases
from coal, oil, gas and fossil fuel. The carbon emission of BEVs is
generated by conventional power systems from coal, oil and gas. It vi­
not improved if the aspects charging electricity is considered, as
olates the initial intention of BEV, which is to reduce the environmental
compared to the conventional car without the need for charging.
impact and carbon emission. As the trend of BEV grows significantly
(ii) The charging of BEVs deteriorates the local distribution grid by
after the relentless efforts by the government, BEV manufacturers,
drawing a higher amount of electricity, which may result in
environmental activists and non-government organisations (NGO), it
technical difficulties in voltage regulation, harmonic mitigation
introduces several controversies and technical limitations [2]. As the
and frequency regulation.
popularity of BEV increases with its matured technological advance­
(iii) The demand response (DR) management is burdened when there
ments and environmental sustainability trends, the BEV initially aims to
is the involvement of BEV. The EV battery is also subject to slow
achieve net-zero consumption of non-renewable sources from oil, gas
charging, ageing problem and stability issues.
and fuel as well as near-zero CO2 emission [3], which contributes to
global warming, air pollution and greenhouse effect [4]. Even though

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: chin@fme.vutbr.cz (H.H. Chin).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2022.112862
Received 30 December 2021; Received in revised form 24 March 2022; Accepted 13 August 2022
Available online 6 September 2022
1364-0321/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
K.Y. Yap et al.
Abbreviations
Acronym Definition
AC Alternating current
AI Artificial intelligence
BEV Battery electric vehicle
BSS Battery-swapping station
CS Charging station
DC Direct current
DL Deep learning
DR Demand response
EOL End of life
ESS Energy storage system
EV Electric vehicle
FLC Fuzzy logic controller
ICE Internal combustion engines
LC Inductor-capacitor
LSTM Long short-term memory
The most potential renewable energy sources, such as solar energy,
have become an alternative power system to provide electricity for BEV
charging stations (CS). Apart from conventional CS, there is also an
emerging battery-swapping station (BSS) that swaps the depleted bat­
tery with a fully charged battery [5]. The grid integration of
solar-powered BEVs is crucial to eliminate the dependency on conven­
tional power sources, which are non-renewable with pollution. In the
foreseeable future, the combination of solar energy and BEV is inevi­
tably significant to empower the BEV charging process with RES. The
invention of BEV is aimed to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, pollution
and noise. It reduces the dependency on fossil fuel and conventional
internal combustion engines (ICE) [6].
The electricity generation required for BEV charging is also needed
to be renewable energy sources (RES) from wind, solar and hydro to
fulfil the net-zero initiative in huge declines in the use of coal, oil and gas
by BEV. Wind power is appliable to provide electricity for BEV CS with
the support of a storage system [7]. The wind power is readily available
at a windy location; however, its generated power is in alternate currnet
(AC), and it requires a rectifier to convert AC to direct current (DC) for
BEV CS. On the contrary, the solar panels are categorised as mono­
crystalline, polycrystalline and thin-film cells. The solar power systems
exhibit higher stability and contribute to direct DC for BEV CS; however,
its biggest limitation is unavailability during nighttime. Hydro energy is
also applicable to contribute electricity for BEV CS; however, due to its
large size for dam and its impracticality in the urban area, therefore
hydro power is the last choice for BEV CS among RES.
As an example, in California, USA, the grid has lowered carbon
emissions by more than 70% near zero-carbon by mandating zero-
emission BEV deployment [8]. The BEV charging infrastructure in the
UK is promising, supported by ultra-low emission vehicle (ULEV)
strategy and aggressive emission targets [9]. Solar power exhibits some
limitations and shortcomings. The intermittency of solar irradiance (EE)
and temperature (T) under dynamic weather and partial shading con­
ditions (PSC) is the major challenge for solar power. Plus, a maximum
power point tracking (MPPT) controller is mandatory to track the global
maximum power point (GMPP) and maximise power extraction due to
the non-linearities of I–V and P–V curves [10]. The lack of virtual inertia
(VI) in solar energy [11] is also asynchronous with the modern power
system and results in power instability issues [12]. Synchronverter or
virtual-inertia (VI)-based inverters are used to mitigate this issue by
emulating the dynamic behaviour of a synchronous machine (SM) [13].
The solar power system is chosen for BEV CS instead of wind and hy­
dropower due to the following reasons:
2
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 169 (2022) 112862
ML Machine learning
MPP Maximum power point
MPPT Maximum power point tracking
NGO Non-government organisations
P2P Peer to peer
PCC Point of common coupling
PEV Plug-in electric vehicles
PHEV Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles
PoW Proof of work
PSC Partial shading conditions
PV Photovoltaic
RES Renewable energy source
RNN Recurrent neural network
SDG Sustainable development goal
SM Synchronous machine
ULEV Ultra-low emission vehicle
V2G Vehicle-to-grid
VI Virtual inertia
(i) The availability of solar energy is usually better and highly
accessible in an urban area for BEV CS as compared to wind and
hydro.
(ii) The technological maturity of solar power systems is relatively
higher as compared to wind and hydropower systems in terms of
grid integration and DC conversion for BEV CS.
(iii) Solar power systems generate DC output which is optimal for BEV
CS, which is dependent on DC-DC fast charging, whereas wind
and hydropower generate AC. The power conversion from AC to
DC introduces power losses and higher incurring costs.
Although a huge area or space is required for the installation and
deployment of solar panels, some technological breakthroughs such as
flexible solar panels [14], roof solar panels [15] and floating solar panels
on the water with water cooling effect [16] have been invented to
resolve the space issues encountered by the solar energy. The solar
power systems exhibit some advantages as compared to the wind power
system, the required ESS would be less for wind power because of the
high availability of wind even during nighttime. The manufacturing of
wind turbines can be more environmentally friendly than solar panels.
However, the wind turbines require substantial foundations, in some
cases building the extra roads for the construction and also oil to keep
smoothly running the rotating parts and gearboxes. It is to be noted that
the wind turbine blades are still not easily recyclable and can create
piling up waste, which create environmental issues. A wind farm can
generate electricity on a massive scale which can be built offshore, and
its generated electricity is much higher than solar panels but requires
high land availability for the turbines. The choice of solar over wind
power is due to the geolocation of BEV CS, which exhibits lesser wind
and consists of a roof. The solar array is more feasible to be installed in
BEV CS than wind turbine or hydropower, which requires larger space.
A bidirectional EV charging system with a multi-controller is
required for EV CS. The revolution of electric vehicle (EV) [17] and also
[18] and vehicle-to-grid (V2G) [19] systems are trending and sprouting
in recent years due to technological maturity and policy changes. A
survey has been conducted to assess the car-buyers willingness to buy
product-bundles of solar power and EV in Germany [20]. The study
showed that there is a higher willingness to buy a bundle of an EV and
solar, despite the additional cost compared to a standalone EV CS. Solar
energy charging for EVs is also deployed in two Scandinavian cities with
scenario-based modelling [21]. EVs include the commercial and private
usage types, namely private electric vehicles (PREVs) and electric taxis
(ETs), which are very common in developing and developed cities [22].
The recent researches of EV improvements include battery fault
K.Y. Yap et al.
diagnosis [23], V2G [24] and power stability [25].
In recent research publications, the paper in Ref. [26] focuses on the
control and safety aspects of the solar EV CS, available technologies,
economic and environmental aspects, as well as proposing future tech­
nologies from a macro perspective. While this current manuscript pro­
vides more comprehensive details in terms of the detailed technical
electrical components study and modelling for the technology, and also
reviewed several industrial implementations of the solar EV CS tech­
nologies. This paper mainly is to point out the technical limitations of EV
CS, focusing mainly on the battery EV ranging from macro to micro
aspects. On the other hand, another review paper emphasizes the
technical and feasibility aspects of the charging system in EV CS, with
brief reviews of the application and technology description. This paper
specifies in more detail the technologies in terms of their practical usage
and limitations, as well as outlines more recent industrial applications
[27]. A review paper in Ref. [28] discusses the electric vehicle (EV) with
energy management system and sources, instead of the electric vehicle
charging station (EV CS). It is focused on the EV components and solar
for the EV itself, instead of solar energy for the charging station (CS).
The motivations of this review are driven by the lack of technical
review of practical implementation in terms of solar energy-powered
BEV CS. Plus, the recent BEV CS is mainly powered by conventional
power systems generated from non-renewable sources such as coal, oil
and gas, and the implementations of solar energy into BEV CS are still
limited in the real world. A proper identification for real world design
constraints and technical limitations that restrict the advancing of solar
BEV CS are yet to be defined. A more proper energy trading system
considering solar BEV CS needs to be studied as well. Based on the
research gaps analysed, this review article intends to:
(i) Provide the most recent implementations of solar-powered EV CS
with the latest features and capabilities to envision future zero-
carbon EV CS using RES.
(ii) Identify the research gaps, hardware limitations and technical
difficulties of the existing solar-powered EV CS for future
research direction.
(iii) Provide future prospects and recommendations for the next-
generation solar-powered EV CS to further accelerate the high
efficiency and net-zero emission for the EV charging process.
This paper is organised as follows. The technical overview of the
solar energy-powered EV CS has been discussed in Section II. It follows
section III with the recent implementations, improvements and prac­
tical, real-world usages. Section IV presents the technical difficulties,
limitations and research gaps of the existing solution. Eventually, the
paper ends with future recommendations in Section V and a conclusion
in Section VI.
2. Overview of Solar Energy-powered BEV CS
This chapter reviews the technical aspects of a solar energy-powered
EV CS. In the past, the adoption of EVs didn’t look promising. However,
in recent years, the EV including plug-in electric vehicles (PEVs) [29],
plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) [30] and full EV have been
tremendously developed and adopted. The trend of EV is accelerated by
the Government’s policy, sustainability development goals (SDG) and
net-zero emission initiative. A solar energy-powered EV CS is simply a
conventional EV CS that uses the electricity generated by the solar
power systems with ESS and power grid support. Typically, the solar
panel produces DC output which is further optimised by a DC-DC con­
verter with MPPT capability [31]. The DC bus is used to universally
interface the optimised output of solar and DC chargers for EV. It is
advantageous that solar power produces DC, which requires no further
power conversion, unlike the conventional AC grid, which requires
AC-DC conversion. It leads to unwanted power losses, slower charging
speed and lesser energy efficiency. The grid is also connected to the DC
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 169 (2022) 112862
bus via a rectifier to support the solar energy EV CS whenever the solar
energy is not available. The energy storage system (ESS) is also appli­
cable to be connected at the DC bus for the energy storage purposes of
solar energy. The solar energy-powered EV CS can be on-grid (grid-­
connected) or off-grid (standalone) [32]. For on-grid type, the existing
grid can support the solar energy-powered EV CS when there is a lack of
solar power or whenever there is excessive generated electricity from
solar energy, and it can be sent back to the grid via an inverter. For
off-grid type, it is typically located at remote area, house area or
standalone usage for individual type. It also can be a hybrid generation,
supported by fuel cell, existing conventional power generation,
hydrogen generation, energy storage, diesel generator and others energy
sources. The hybrid type usually deals with the uncertainties of solar
energy under dynamic weather, PSC and nighttime.
2.1. Solar power system for BEV
By definition, a solar power system for BEV is the utilisation of solar
energy for electricity generation to charge the BEV at BEV CS. As
depicted in Fig. 1, the typical circuit topology of a solar energy-powered
BEV CS has been presented with the grid and ESS support. This type of
system is a three-phase grid-connected solar power BEV CS with ESS
support. The solar array converts the solar irradiance (EE) to DC elec­
tricity and is connected to the DC link at the point of common coupling
(PCC). There are generally two types of solar charging stations for BEV,
which consist of on-grid BEV CS and off-grid BEV CS. As the name
suggests, on-grid means the BEV CS is connected to the grid to support
the solar power system. If there is excessive generated electricity, the
user can sell back the electricity to the utility company. On the contrary,
off-grid implies that the BEV CS is not connected to the power grid but
rather dependent on the standalone solar energy system, which requires
ESS and other hybrid RES to mitigate its lack of electricity during
nighttime.
The inductor-capacitor (LC) filter is used to attenuate the current and
voltage ripples, which are produced by the electronic switching process
of converters [33]. The ripple filter is also used to reduce and minimise
the switching harmonics and smoothen the current and voltage. Fig. 2
depicts the typical block diagram of a RES-powered BEV CS with ESS
support. ESS is used to provide additional power whenever there is a
shortage of electricity from RES [34]. In general, a solar power-enabled
BES CS commonly consists of these components:
(i) Solar array or panel: solar panels consist of PV cells that convert
sunlight to DC outputs.
(ii) Inverter: Converts DC to AC for charging EV.
(iii) Electric vehicle supply equipment (EVSE): Includes interface,
software, electrical conductors and protocols to safely manage
the charging process into EV battery.
(iv) ESS: Store excessive electricity from solar during daylight and
support the solar power system during nighttime.
Compared to the conventional on-grid EV CS without solar energy,
solar-enabled BEV CS exhibits the following advantages:
a) True net carbon zero as the conventional power grid is still gener­
ating electricity from oil, gas and coal.
b) Reliability: The hybrid combination of solar energy and battery
storage leads to higher reliability even under power outages or low
sunlight.
c) Cost-saving: Efficient electricity conversion from RES ensures lower
energy losses and carbon emission.
d) P2P energy trading: Blockchain may enable P2P energy trading with
secured transactions between EV CS and EV.
e) Clean energy: The usage of RES for EV reduces carbon emission by
eliminating conventional power generation and fossil fuel-powered
vehicles.
K.Y. Yap et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 169 (2022) 112862

Fig. 1. The circuit topology of an on-grid solar energy-powered BEV CS with grid and ESS support.

Fig. 3. The types of interactions between BEV CS, solar power, ESS and
power grid.

time and BEV driven distances.

( )
Es − dd −η drb ηinv
(1)
v
PV2G =
tdisp

Fig. 2. The typical block diagram of a RES-powered BEV CS.
2.2. B. EV CS architecture and main considerations
In this subchapter, the architecture of a BEV CS and its main design
considerations have been discussed. The operation of solar energy-
powered BEV CS can be four modes, but not limited to, namely unidi­
rectional PV-to-vehicle (PV2V), PV-to-grid (PV2G), bidirectional V2G
and vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V). For battery modes, it includes unidirec­
tional PV-to-battery (PV2B), battery-to-vehicle (B2V) and bidirectional
grid-to-battery (G2B), as illustrated in Fig. 3. V2G equation is typically
expressed in Equation (1), where the power generated by V2G is
dependent on the inverter and vehicle efficiency, stored energy, dispatch
where PV2G is the power from V2G in kW, Es is the stored energy
available for inverter, dd is the distance driven in km from the fully
charged battery, drb is the distance in km, which is the minimum
remaining range required by the driver before charging is required at the
nearest EV CS, ηv is the vehicle driving efficiency, ηinv is the inverter
efficiency and tdisp is the dispatch time of the vehicle’s stored energy in
hours. On the other hand, the changing time of an EV is dependent on
the division of battery capacitor by charging power of an EV CS, as
shown in Equation (2).
Battery Capacity (kWh)
Charging time (h) = (2)
Charging Power (kW)
To charge a BEV, the EV CS can provide AC or DC power. For AC

4
K.Y. Yap et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 169 (2022) 112862

power from EV CS, the EV should come with a built-in onboard charger to power 21,000 km of electric driving each year. The estimation of
that converts power from AC to DC, then feeds it into a car DC battery. calculation is based on the current average values with the latest
AC power is the more common charging method for BEV. On the con­ standards.
trary, DC charging in BEV CS is equipped with an AC-DC converter or As compared to the total generated solar electricity in the UK was
rectifier in the charger itself. It is generally faster, bigger and better as approximately 549 MWh on December 28, 2021, the needed electricity
compared to AC charging, in terms of energy conversion, charging speed to charge the BEV and PHEV is around 107 MWh, given the BEVs have
and energy efficiency [35]. The most common AC charging capacities approximately 365,000 units and PHEVs have 705,000 units, as of
are rated at 3.7 kW and 22 kW [36]. November 2021 [48] and assuming the battery of each BEV is around
There are three types of DC chargers, namely combined charging 100 kW. The solar electricity needed is around 20% of the total gener­
systems (CCS), CHAdeMO and Tesla Supercharger [37]. CCS is the open ated solar for all BEV and PHEV, given that the whole solar power sys­
and universal standard for EV, combining single-phase, three-phase AC tem in the UK is optimally operating under sunlight and the needed
and DC in Europe and US. On the contrary, CHAdeMO is the DC charging electricity is for a single charge only. The power grid and ESS are still
standard for EV, developed by CHAdeMO Association, while Tesla Su­ needed to contribute most of the needed electricity for BEV charging.
percharger is Tesla’s own proprietary DC charger. For Tesla Super­ Overall, the limitations of solar energy-powered BEV CS include the
charger, it takes only 20–30 min to charge up to 80% of the battery from need for the power grid, large capacity of ESS, e.g. 51,660 kW of lithium
0%, and takes around 1 h for a full charge, depending on the state of the battery and required huge land size with more than 334 m2. These
battery, operating temperature, charging rate variation, environmental limitations are preventing the BEV CS from going towards full zero
factors and power conversion efficiency [38]. Although the efficiency is carbon emission electricity generation. Obviously, more research and
relatively high for EV CS, it demands a huge current drawing and ca­ breakthroughs in technology development should be conducted to
pacity of high kWh due to the nature of the battery EV. In solar power mitigate the research gaps.
systems, the output is DC [39], and assuming the DC output of solar is For the BEV CS application, the operating output voltage (VO) of the
directly connected to EV CS, the typical solar power system output is solar panel is expected to be approximately 200–500 VDC. The solar
around 500 to 800 VDC. If it is used to charge a Tesla model, the adapter irradiance (EE) and operating temperature (T) are the components of the
used is rated as 200 A and 100–800 VDC. The BEV CS can be categorised main input that will affect the power from solar. Due to the non-
into four categories, i.e. slow (3–5 kW), fast (7–22 kW), rapid (25–99 linearities of I–V and P–V of solar panels, varying temperature and
kW), and ultra-rapid (100 kW+) power rating. In general, a standard irradiance will affect the output power from the solar panel. It would
polycrystalline solar panel i s sized at 1.75 m2 and produces 275 W–350 eventually reduce the optimised power output of solar, resulting in low
W, ideally at a 20% efficiency rate under the full sun [40]. power conversion efficiency. As shown in Fig. 4 (a) and (b), there are
For instance, assuming the BEV is a Tesla 3 Standard Range model, visible temperature and irradiance effects on the current and power
its onboard charger is rated as 7.7 kW (32 A) [41]. Given the BEV CS is output of solar panels. When the temperature is higher, the output is
the most powerful 3-phase AC 400 V with 32 A, the charging speed limited. Similarly, when the irradiance is lower, i.e. shady, the power
would be 49.1 km/h, and the charging time would be 4 h and 20 min.
The socket output is rated as 22.2 kW; however, the charging speed is
limited by the car’s onboard charger, which can only run at 7.7 kW. The
average charging efficiency is approximately 90%, 10% is lost in elec­
trical conductors, heat and conversion by converters [42].
Assuming it is nighttime or bad weather without sunlight, the ESS
needed to be designed to accommodate the charging of 500 EVs, given
the BEV CS is a large-scale charging station. Given that the 500 EVs are
Tesla Model 3 with 82 kWh battery [43], and the total required power
would be 41,000 kWh, assuming these EVs are empty charged. The ESS
efficiency is approximately rated as 80% for a lead-acid battery and 95%
for a lithium battery [44]. The size of the lead-acid battery would be 41,
000 kWh*2*1.2 = 98,400 kWh. Noted that multiply by 2 is for 50%
depth of discharge, and 1.2 is the 1/0.8 of inefficiency factor. On the
contrary, for lithium batteries, the required size would be 41,000
kWh*1.2*1.05 = 51,660 kWh. Noted that multiply by 1.22 is for 80%
depth of discharge, and 1.05 is the 1/0.95 of inefficiency factor. It is
observed that the required capacity of a lithium battery is much smaller
than the lead-acid battery due to the compact sizing, technology and
high energy efficiency of the lithium battery [45]. It is observed that a
huge capacity of the lead-acid battery or lithium battery is required for
BEV CS to backup the unavailability of solar energy during nighttime.
The costing, maintenance and service of ESS are not feasible for the
long-time operation of BEV CS. The battery sizing is also subject to the
ambient temperature, seasonal factor and budget. The weather with too
cold or hot operating temperature could affect the battery efficiency and
stored capacitor as well [46]. During winter or any challenging weather
due to storm or rainy days, the days are shorter, and the peak sun hours
are further reduced to 1–2 h; the solar panels are only available to
produce 200 Wh to 700 Wh per panel. Solar power is undeniably
insufficient to charge BEV efficient, and ESS and power grid should be
standing by to provide a major part of the power of BEV CS. In reality,
the solar power system is only able to support the BEV CS with a smaller
amount of contribution by using energy management systems (EMS) Fig. 4. The I–V and P–V characteristics of the solar array under the variation of
[47]. In general, 10 solar panels can provide roughly enough electricity (a) solar irradiance (Ee) and (b) operating temperature (T).

5
K.Y. Yap et al.
output of solar is also limited. Partial shading condition (PSC) is also
affecting the output of solar, and maximum power point tracking
(MPPT) and electronically controlled mechanical tilting of solar panels
are used to maximise the power output of solar, regardless of tempera­
ture and irradiance inputs. A typical solar power system is defined as
Equation (3) in terms of its solar power and voltage, where P is the active
power, V is the voltage, and I is the current.
dP d(IV) dI ΔI
= =I +V =I + V (3)
dV dV dV ΔV
The main parameters and considerations needed to be taken before
the design of solar energy-powered BEV CS include the following:
(i) Solar panel sizing, connections and rated power output.
(ii) Weather consideration and placement of solar panel (i.e. on
rooftop, awning, land and etc.).
(iii) BEV charging demand response and types of BEV battery.
(iv) Charging topology (DC charging or AC charging).
(v) ESS support for solar power systems.
(vi) Stand-alone or grid-connected mode.
There is either unidirectional or bidirectional power flow for the
charging. Power conditioning and load management unit are crucial to
condition and manage the power flow to the load of BEV. The BEV
Charging Unit is placed at the parking bay for BEV to charge [49]. The
parking area is designated beside the BEV Charging Unit for easier
accessibility. The solar PV arrays are recommended to be placed above
the roof of the parking area/lot [50] or any designated areas such as
shopping mall rooftop, awning [51] or rooftop [52]. Assuming a stan­
dard polycrystalline solar panel produces around 275 W–350 W, with a
20% efficiency rate. Its size is approximately 1.75 m2. Given that there is
only 1 h of peak sun hours with maximum irradiance, assuming the
worst-case scenario of winter short days or thunderstorms, one solar
panel will generate around 300 Wh. Assuming that to charge a Tesla
Model 3 for 65 km range in daily drive, we have 9.6 kWh/300 Wh = 32
of the solar panels required. The total size of 32 solar panels will be 56
m2 in land size. If a BEV CS has 20 charging ports and stations which are
used to serve 20 BEV every hour, the solar panels should be at least 640
panels of 1,120 m2 in land size, in extreme weather with short days
during thunderstorms or winter.
3. Technological advancements of solar EV CS
This section presents the most recent implementations and research
on the solar energy-based BEV CS. In general, most of the solar energy-
powered BEV CS is dependent on ESS or the power grid for the continued
availability of electricity to overcome the unavailability of solar during
nighttime.
3.1. Recent implementations
Solar energy can be utilised to charge the BEV. It can be implemented
either in the household (home), outdoor shopping malls, charging sta­
tions (CS), parking lots and other places which are applicable to put the
BEV charger. For household usage, solar energy can even support other
loads as the surplus of excessive solar energy can be used in the
household. Usually, the design of solar energy-powered BEV CS includes
the consideration of grid involvement (Off-grid/On-grid), charging
strategy (Model types), local energy storage (ESS), other power sources
(e.g. wind power or power grid), V2G capability and other features.
Table 1 shows the most recent implementations of solar energy-powered
BEV CS. Typically, the BEV CS is designed and proposed with the grid
integration of solar power system in terms of optimal scheduling for
charging, energy trading, hybrid operation of wind and solar, V2G and
ESS management. Typically, a solar-enabled BEV CS includes the
following:
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 169 (2022) 112862
(i) Conventional EV charger
(ii) Solar panel array, which can be installed on roof, ground or
canopy
(iii) Battery energy storage system in case of night time or off-grid
solar-enabled BEV CS
(iv) A solid foundation for the parking of EV
(v) Intelligent software or energy management system (EMS) with
smart charging and payment gateway
From Table 1, it is observed that the solar energy-powered BEV CS
typically lacks MPPT optimisation, which can lead to power instability
by PSC and shading conditions. Plus, the current research on EV CS
needs more AI integration for its optimisation of algorithms. The V2G is
emerging because of its ability to exchange energy in both ways between
BEV and the power grid. It is a good indicator that peer to peer (P2P)
energy trading will be soon available to enable V2G with blockchain
security. The BEV users can enjoy transparent and faster transactions of
energy exchange between their BEV cars and power grids.
In [53], solar power systems have been implemented with battery
and diesel generators for BEV CS. The diesel generator is used to back up
the unavailability of solar power during the nighttime. However, it is not
in line with sustainability and will cause an environmental impact. In
Ref. [50], the parking lots have been intelligently utilised to charge BEV
via solar panels. It is effectively utilising the space given by the parking
lots while installing the solar panel in available space in the parking lot
to charge BEV CS. The power grid is also connected to support solar
panels during nighttime. On the contrary, the dynamic charging
scheduling has been deployed for BEV parking lots using solar power
systems [54]. The difference is there is a dynamic charging scheduling
scheme (DCSS) to manage the BEV charging process based on model
predictive control (MPC). The power grid is used as a backup whenever
the solar is unable to generate clean energy. It is notable that the un­
availability of solar during nighttime will be a challenging technical
issue, but it can be resolved by using hybrid power systems integrating
wind power or non-RES and ESS support. In contrast, the stability issues
of a single-area load frequency control (LFC) system have been discussed
in investigated in Ref. [55], particularly in electric vehicle (EV)
aggregators.
In [54], BEV parking lots are powered by a photovoltaic power
system with a dynamic charging scheduling feature. The scheduling
ensures the efficient and economical operation of parking lot CS due to
the uncertainty and fluctuation of solar energy. The system design for
solar-powered BEV CS has been proposed in Ref. [71]. Another chal­
lenge of solar energy-powered BEV CS is that solar energy is available
during day time, but the BEV is not in the building for charging. On the
contrary, at nighttime, solar energy is unavailable, but the BEV is ready
to be charged. An adaptable charging and discharging pattern are
designed in Ref. [72] to charge BEV efficiently while handling the un­
availability of solar during nighttime. On the other hand, the optimal
scheduling strategy is designed to enable emission trading for energy
hubs with energy storage and BEV [73]. It is to improve the emission
reduction and optimise the energy system. The energy management
strategy of aggregator for solar power systems and BEV is applicable to
manage the real-time operation of solar and BEV simultaneously [74].
The aggregator can be used for stability enhancement in load frequency
control systems as well [55].
A fast-charging station for BEV can also be powered by the combi­
nation of solar and battery based on Queueing theory and genetic al­
gorithm with optimised charging management [75]. Two-stage
stochastic mixed-integer non-linear programming is used to optimise the
location and sizing of EV CS and solar PV plants by taking solar gener­
ation and EV traffic flows into design criteria. On the other hand, a
probabilistic methodology can be deployed to optimise the EV loads at
solar-powered EV CS in terms of power loss, voltage profile, average
voltage deviation index and voltage stability index [76]. In Ref. [77], it
was found out that the combination of solar PV, wind and batteries is the
K.Y. Yap et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 169 (2022) 112862

Table 1
The Selected Implementations of Solar energy-powered BEV CS from the year 2016–2022.
Ref. Model Design PV Array Harmonic ESS Support Application Finding
MPPT Mitigation

[53] Solar PV and Diesel With Less than 5% Battery energy storage EV CS Optimal operation of EV CS under dynamic
Generator EV CS (BES) weathers, solar irradiance level, changes in the EV
charging current and change in the loading
[56] Solar Assisted EV CS – – – Urban area Optimised model for planning the locations and
sizes of solar energy-powered EV CS in a city area
[57] Energy management Perturb and 3.1% (THD of Electric vehicle battery Support distribution grid To reduce the unexpected peak power demand and
for solar EV CS Observe grid current) (EVB) as an energy via EV CS assist in vehicle-to-grid (V2G) for the stability of the
(P&O) MPPT storage system (ESS) grid during peak load
[58] P2P operation for – – – P2P energy transaction To enable P2P energy trading between EV CS and
solar EV CS solar generation
[59] Optimal scheduling – – Energy storage system Optimal scheduling Optimally schedule the EV charging at solar energy-
of solar charging (ESS) powered CS for lower pricing, lesser computational
time and better accommodation of EV charging
[60] Solar and diesel With Less than 5% Storage battery Multimode operation of Enable the integration of solar energy, power grid,
generator for EV CS solar, grid, battery and battery and diesel generator for the operation of EV
diesel generator for EV CS CS even under varying conditions
[61] Batter for EV CS and – – – V2G Support power grid with V2G functionality by
V2G utilising the available EV battery
[62] Real-time EV CS – – Building energy EV Charging management A real-time EV charging management is designed
charging management system for commercial building by for the BEMS in a commercial building with solar
management (BEMS) on-site solar generation on-site power generation and EV CS
[63] Off-grid solar EV CS – – – Off-grid EV at a long-term Off-grid solar photovoltaic (PV) system to charge EV
parking location at a long-term parking lot
[64] Solar EV CS – – – Coordination between solar Matched the temporal nature of PV generation and
PV generation and EV EV charging for better PV and EV integration level
charging
[65] Solar EV CS With – EV battery as energy EV Charging at the Charge EV at the workplace by using solar panel
storage workplace using rooftop which is placed on the rooftop of the workplace
solar buildings
[66] Solar EV CS with With – Li-ion battery V2G EV CS with V2G technology by grid-connected solar
V2G power system
[50] A parking lot for EV With – Battery A parking lot for solar- Utilised parking lots with a solar panel to charge EV.
CS charge EV V2G enables the EV to support the grid back with
ancillary service
[67] Solar-wind EV CS With – Battery V2G by solar and wind- Combination of solar and wind power for EV CS
powered EV CS with V2G technology
[68] Solar-wind hybrid – – Battery Optimisation of wind and To optimise and design hybrid wind and solar
EV CS solar power for EV CS using energy EV CS for better performance and stability
HOMER Software under dynamic weather
[69] A multi-objective – – ESS An optimisation model for Hybrid optimisation algorithms consist of Multi-
optimisation model fast EV CS by using wind Objective Particle Swarm Optimisation (MOPSO)
for EV CS and solar energy with ESS algorithm and Technique for Order Preference by
Similarity to Ideal Solution (TOPSIS) method are
used to optimise EV CS by wind and solar power
with ESS. It improves the demand response, the
performance on optimisation objectives and
computational speed
[70] Dynamic energy Perturb and – ESS Energy management EV CS is designed by using a solar power system and
management for Observe strategy (EMS) for an EVCS EMS at a residential level. The ESS is used to support
solar EV CS (P&O) MPPT at a residential level the solar energy-powered EV CS for standalone
mode and satisfying the requirements of EV
charging.

most optimal for EV CS in off-grid configuration. A fuzzy logic controller
(FLC) is also applicable in the modelling of EV CS using a solar PV system
to achieve maximum power point (MPP) in the maximum power point
tracking (MPPT) controller [78]. Hydrogen, biogas and fuel cells are also
feasible solutions to support the limitations of solar PV in BEV CS,
especially the hydrogen can be used as energy storage for BEV CS [79]. A
solar-driven and hydrogen-integrated charging station are possible to
improve the efficiency of the existing solar-enabled BEV CS.
Solar energy has been utilised for a level-2 BEV CS, which is
controlled by a Type-1 vehicle connector. Both experimental [65] and
simulation results [80] validated that solar energy is a feasible way for
EV CS during daytime for affordable energy conversion from solar. The
installation of a solar array for BEV CS globally will accelerate the
adoption of BEV and RES while increasing the location of BEV CS and
extending the driving range of BEVs in different areas. There are various
types of optimisations available for solar-powered BEV CS, namely
Markov decision process [81], Joint capacity optimisation [82],
quantitative optimisation model [83], linear programming (LP)-based
optimisation [84], Asynchronous Q-learning [85] and others. The main
features of solar energy-powered BEV CS include the following:
1. Electrical ancillary services: The harmonics are mitigated, and the
reactive power (Q) is supported by using the CS. The power quality of
the voltage and current are maintained by maintaining the total
harmonic distortion (THD) within 5% as required by the IEEE 1547
standard.
2. Low carbon emission, sustainability and environmentally friendly: The
integration of solar energy for charging makes the solar energy-
powered BEV more environmentally friendly. Instead of depending
on conventional power generation from coal, oil and gas, the EV is
supposed to be environmentally friendly. The carbon dioxide emis­
sion is reduced significantly for BEV charging by using solar energy.
3. Optimum utilisation of DG and RES: Solar energy is able to be fully
utilised for EV CS instead of wasting it during daytime due to

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K.Y. Yap et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 169 (2022) 112862

excessive generation of electricity from solar energy. The ESS is Table 2

applicable to support the BEV CS during nighttime. The demand The practical implementations of solar-enabled BEV CS.
response (DR) is lower when solar energy is used to support BEV CS Industrial Location Modes Features and Limitations
instead of solely dependent on grid connection. Providers assumption
4. DC to DC without conversion loss and technical difficulties: Unlike Empower San Diego, On- EV with solar Solar energy
conventional AC grid, which is required to convert to DC before Solar United States grid power charging standard
charging the EV, the solar energy is produced in DC form under (US) and stations limitations,
MPPT DC-DC converter. It implies that the elimination of complex off- required
grid maintenance and
AC-DC rectification process and energy conversion loss is possible. ESS, highly
Plus, the DC charging from solar is proven to be faster than AC dependent on
charging or AC-DC converted charging. solar
5. Advanced energy trading platform: The purchase of electricity gener­ Sinovoltaics Hong Kong On- Solar charging Solar energy
and grid stations for EVs standard
ated from local solar energy is possible for BEV CS. Plus, the
Shanghai, and with on-grid and limitations,
emerging blockchain is also applicable for peer-to-peer (P2P) energy China off- off-grid required
trading with a secured transaction, decentralised platform and grid maintenance and
competitive energy trading. ESS, highly
dependent on
solar
3.2. real-world practical usage Envision California, On- Solar power for Solar energy
Solar United States grid EV CS standard
There are various real-world practical implementations of solar en­ (US) and limitations,
ergy for BEV CS around the world. Envision Solar has implemented off- required
grid maintenance and
solar-powered electric charging stations without the need for a power
ESS, highly
grid. Empower Solar has paired the BEV CS with a solar system to dependent on
maximise electricity saving and energy efficiency. It is intended to solar
charge the BEV within hours using the BEV CS powered by solar energy. Electrify California, Off- Rural Required ESS for
SunPower, another solar power specialist, utilises a mobile application America United States grid electrification of off-grid solar-
(US) solar-powered enabled CS
(app) to enable homeowners to assess and manage the energy usage, charging station
settings and generation. SunPower is also using solar energy to charge Solar Edge Israel, United On- With Solar energy
the BEV for a greener lifestyle. States (US), grid, smartphones standard
In Australia, as the amounts of BEVs increases, the charging infra­ France, Italy off- control limitations,
grid required
structure is also growing at the same pace. There is an industrial
maintenance and
collaboration between the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial ESS, highly
Research Organisation (CSIRO), Nissan Australia and Delta Electronics, dependent on
which focus on the integration of renewable energy for BEV CS. CSIRO is solar
an Australian Government agency responsible for scientific research. ELUM Energy France, On- Solar charging Required smart
Morocco, grid, station for charging and
The solar power has been assisted for BEV CS by installing on an existing South Africa V2G electric vehicles V2G algorithm
infrastructure of 1121 Petronas fuel stations [86]. PLUS North-South On- Highway Routine
HES PV provides solar charging stations for BEVs, including Nissan highway Expressway grid, application with maintenance of
Leaf, Tesla, Electric Smart Cars and MIEVS. Net metering is also enabled and Tenaga (NSE) off- solar-powered solar, downtime
Nasional Malaysia grid BEV CS during nighttime
to allow selling back excessive generated electricity from solar. A
Berhad
MicroBlox was invented to contain AC solar modules for easier instal­ (TNB)
lation with scalability. In Bangladesh, hybrid RES-based BEV CS has Paired Power California, On- Grid outage Solar energy
been deployed by using solar energy and biogas generator using the United States grid, proof standard
Hybrid Optimisation of Multiple Energy Renewables (HOMER) Pro (US) off- limitations
grid required
software [87]. It reduces CO2 emissions by at least 34.68% compared to maintenance and
a conventional grid-based charging station based on non-RES. In the ESS, highly
construction site located in Beijing, China, a fast-charging BEV CS based dependent on
on solar power has been deployed and installed to reduce the charging solar
time [88]. Table 2 shows the practical implementations of industrial
solar-enabled BEV CS.
integration of higher shares of residential solar power systems for BEV
CS [94]. A fast-charging station has been designed for distributed
3.3. Improvements on the solar power-based EV CS
photovoltaic (PV) power generation for BEV CS [88] to reduce the
charging time. Table 3 shows the main differences between the con­
MPPT with charging current protection is also applicable for solar
ventional BEV CS from the power grid and the solar energy-powered
PV-powered BEV applications to allow different types of BEV charging
BEV CS.
[89]. It is to ensure the charging is done within the rated values of BEV
while maintaining the optimal power output of solar PV. Short-term
4. Limitations and research gaps
solar forecasting is also used for BEV charge scheduling and optimisa­
tion [90]. The capacity of BEV CS is optimally determined by varying the
This section details and discusses the limitations of the solar energy-
charging speed and incorporating solar, battery and diesel hybrid gen­
powered BEV CS. In general, the solar energy-powered BEV CS faces
eration [91]. This is due to the uncertainty of the parameters involved in
some major limitations and gaps, such as the common problems of solar
stochastic programming and BEV CS. Smart charging is also deployed in
power systems, including the intermittency of solar energy and power
Ref. [92] to enable the generation of electricity from solar energy for the
quality issues.
usage of BEV charging. Low-voltage constraints have been considered to
optimally charge the BEV with solar energy [93]. By using the BEV with
controlled charging, it exhibits the potential to accelerate the

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K.Y. Yap et al.
Table 3
The Comparison between Conventional BEV CS with Solar energy-powered BEV
CS.
Parameters Conventional BEV CS Solar energy-powered
BEV CS
RES Depends Yes
Availability 99–100%, depends on the power grid Only during the
daytime without
battery
Stability High stability Low stability
Carbon emission Yes, during electricity generation Lower up to 90% [95]
from non-RES
The need for Depending on the design Yes
battery storage
Off-grid and on- Only on-grid because off-grid is not Both are applicable
grid capable of generating own electricity
Scalability Yes Yes
Blockchain- Yes Yes
enabled
4.1. The intermittency of solar energy
Solar energy typically is affected adversely by partial shading con­
ditions (PSC), dynamic weather, dirty solar panel glass and conversion
loss in power electronics. The dynamic weather is the main challenge for
solar energy as the conversion from solar energy to electrical energy is
highly dependent on the solar irradiance (EE) and operating temperature
(T). The non-linearities of P–V and I–V curves are due to the dynamic
weather and PSC. The MPPT is crucial to overcome the dynamic
weather, non-linearities and PSC by searching for global maximum
power point (GMPP) instead of local maximum power point (LMPP) in
the P–V curve. Although the development of MPPT is relatively mature,
there are still some concerns about the intermittency of solar energy.
Solar energy is not available all day long, especially during cloudy,
rainy, stormy and nighttime. However, the BEV CS is required to be
operatable 24/7 all day long to ensure the operatable mileage of the
BEV. Overall, the grid integration of renewable energy sources (RES)
and BEV introduces uncertainties and intermittency in the power sys­
tem, affecting its operating stability [96]. Plus, the solar panel instal­
lation and deployment require a huge space or area, which may
contribute to space constraint or deforestation, which is not in line with
SDG goals. Plus, the wastages and potential pollution caused by the
manufacturing, disposal and ageing of solar panels, ESS and other
relevant components are inevitably unavoidable. Life cycle assessment
(LCA) and technological breakthroughs should be implemented to
further reduce any pollution and wastages caused by the manufacturing,
disposal and ageing of solar energy-powered BEV CS components. The
heat exposed by the solar array from sunlight is also affecting the effi­
ciency of solar panel power output adversely.
B. The need for an energy storage system (ESS) during nighttime and
BEV charging energy trading transparency.
A solar power system is known for its lack of power generation
during nighttime without any presence of solar irradiance. However,
this limitation can be resolved by the support of an energy storage sys­
tem (ESS), which consists of a Li-ion battery, lead-acid battery, super­
capacitor and ultracapacitor. In the current trend, ESS has been grown
and developed tremendously to support solar energy. For instance
Ref. [97], introduces the reused EV batteries as an ESS in China for
distributed solar PV. The ESS is used to improve the performance of
distributed solar PV. Supercapacitor or ultracapacitor is also another
development aspect to be implemented alongside ESS as a hybrid solu­
tion for the improvement of solar vehicles [98]. ESS is proven to have
the capability to support the network operation, stability and power
quality whenever there is a shortage of electricity, especially for solar
power systems [99]. The sizing, scheduling, location, and connection
configuration of the ESS are the main design criteria to maximise its
efficiency and support for solar-enabled BEV CS.
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 169 (2022) 112862
ESS plays a crucial role in power systems to smoothen the intermit­
tency of RES while maintaining its operating stability, specifically for
solar power systems [100]. For instance, in Ref. [101], ESS has been
used for solar photovoltaic for rural electrification in Myanmar. It is a
standalone ESS which is working independently with solar power sys­
tems with the connection of the power grid. The ESS is also subject to
energy management and optimisation in a deregulated power market
[102]. The optimisation of ESS, including its control methods, algo­
rithms, ESS sizing, power quality, reliability, connection mode and other
relevant parameters, are required to be identified for low-carbon emis­
sion [103]. Nevertheless, more components imply more maintenance
required and ageing problem. The ESS is required to be replaced after
certain charging/discharging intervals. The transparency of BEV CS is
doubtful without the proper regulations and applicable laws. The price
transparency of a BEV CS is subject to the system and pricing mecha­
nism. It can be solved by using blockchain by decentralising the BEV
charging system. By removing the centralised system, the blockchain is
more transparent and accessible to all consumers and prosumers.
C. P.f. correction, harmonic mitigation, lack of VI and charging speed
& capabilities.
Power quality is greatly affected by RES, specifically solar energy.
This is due to the fast-interacting, intermittent, high fluctuation and
non-dispatchable natures of solar, which is highly dependent on solar
irradiance and temperature. The voltage and current stabilities of the
power grid are deteriorated by solar energy. When there is uncontrolled
charging without any intelligent controller, the BEV will be charged at
full power as soon as it has started charging. It will degrade the power
quality and stability by introducing frequency and voltage fluctuation.
Moreover, grid overload is possible, and demand response w be affected.
A bidirectional current-controlled BEV CS based on CHAdeMO 1.1
standard charging protocol and a master power factor controller is
applicable to correct the power factor in a solar power system [104].
Demand response is also crucial to managing the BEV CS with minimised
energy cost and maximised power efficiency [105]. It is to protect the
BEV CS from power outages. Voltage quality is also a major concern for
solar-powered BEV CS [106]. Voltage unbalances, undervoltage, or
overvoltage are the concerns for the use of solar power generation for
BEV CS. The charging speed of BEV CS can be slow due to a lack of high
voltage support and high demand response.
4.2. The lifespan of solar panels and their relevant maintenance
The electronics components and solar panels are subject to wear and
tear. The ageing of solar panels and other relevant components will
contribute to additional costs. Plus, the solar panel glass should be
cleaned occasionally or in a routine manner to ensure maximum power
extraction as the glass tends to be subject to dirt, dust or substances.
However, in recent research, such as [107], an antireflective,
self-cleaning solar panel is possible with superhydrophobic polymers to
reduce the cleaning maintenance. The thermal stability of the battery,
supercapacitor or ultracapacitor used in the BEV is also a concerning
element for the stability of a hybrid energy storage system [108]. The
lifespans of solar panels, BEV and batteries are subject to thermal, power
system stability and environmental factors. Due to its complexity and
high quantities of elements, the solar energy-powered BEV CS requires
higher maintenance costs, frequent service routines and additional care.
The typical lifetime of a solar panel is approximately 25–30 years or
more. It lacks any moving parts, and high winds, heavy snow, hail, or
flooding should not affect its performance and reliability considerably.
During extreme weather such as heavy snow, tropical cyclone or tor­
nado, the solar panel may not be able to withstand such a huge impact.
Heavy snow with a high thickness on the solar glass panel will block the
sunlight on the solar panel from directly generating electricity. The
routine maintenance of a solar panel is relatively easy. However, it still
demands labour, water and chemicals. It includes calibration of the
mechanical hinge of solar, cleaning the solar panel glass, checking
K.Y. Yap et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 169 (2022) 112862

ageing wires and other relevant normal maintenances. Plus, the ESS and components [114], the solar energy-powered BEV CS has room for im­
other electrical components are more prone to maintenance and ageing. provements to reach the net-zero emission goal.
For instance, the lifetime of ESS is dependent on the charging/di­ V. Future Prospects, Commercialisation Potentials and Outlooks.
scharging cycle, depth of discharge, temperature and environmental In this section, future recommendations are pointed out for the solar
factors. It ranges from 7,300 to 22,000-lifetime cycles of charging and energy-based BEV CS. In general, several technological advancements
discharging. Different ESS technology exhibits different lifetimes, but such as blockchain, V2G, synchronverter and a new type of solar panel
usually, it ranges from 3 to 15 y [109]. are the future trend for solar energy-based BEV CS. To mitigate the
aforementioned research gaps, various ways and mitigation plans ought
to implement to ensure effective utilisation of solar energy-powered BEV
4.3. The operating temperature of solar energy CS. For instance, the condition partial shading conditions (PSC) can be
mitigated using maximum power point tracking (MPPT) based on the
The nominal operating temperature of a solar panel is at 25 ◦ C, and it latest artificial intelligence (AI) instead of conventional MPPT. The
is able to output power optimally in the range of 15–40 ◦ C. However, latest AI-based MPPT enables faster-tracking speed without the adverse
when it is getting too hot, the power efficiency would be affected effect of PSC [115]. In addition to the software MPPT, the physical
adversely due to extreme weather and temperature. Apart from the tracking of sunlight can be mechanically installed for each solar array to
aforementioned limitations, other considerations such as traffic, user ensure maximum power extraction. Internet of Things (IoT) and sensory
charging behaviours and power grid stability are the constraints faced systems can be deployed for the solar power systems to detect a fault in
by the BEV CS [110]. advance in preventing any further maintenance or repair that may cause
The summary of current opportunities, benefits versus its corre­ electricity disruption [116]. The manufacturing of solar panels can be
sponding challenges and limitations for solar energy-powered BEV CS is further improved to reduce carbon dioxide emissions by incorporating a
listed in Table 4. Realistically, by considering the ageing of hardware green approach in manufacturing plants. The instability issues intro­
ageing, technical limitations required routine maintenance of solar duced by grid-connected solar power systems can be resolved by using
power systems and end of the life treatment, the solar energy-powered virtual inertia (VI)-based inverters, AI optimisation and ESS [117]. PV
BEV CS is still no way near zero emission. For the manufacturing of waste should be treated properly using end-of-life (EOL) management to
solar panels, the emission of carbon dioxide is inevitably high, rated at prevent any further pollution [118].
about 40–50 g of CO2/kWh during the initial year of operation by
considering the initial manufacturing of solar panels [111]. Although it 4.4. Blockchain-enabled EV charging
is still relatively lower than the carbon output of coal-powered elec­
tricity sources by at least 20 times (coal co-produced 1,000 g of A disruptive technology called blockchain is a technology that en­
CO2/kWh), the manufacturing, installation and commissioning of solar ables peer-to-peer energy trading with shared, decentralised ledger and
power systems have room for improvements in terms of CO2 emission. transactions for BEV CS [119]. In Ref. [120], EV charging is coordinated
Life cycle assessments (LCA) has been conducted for both traditional by blockchain. The blockchain can be used to coordinate traditionally
coal-fired power plants and PV-based power plants [112] to investigate centralized data flows throughout the power systems. It stores the data
greenhouse gas (GHG) emission. The result is positive since the GHG with a secured hash address within each personnel’s block through a
emission rates of coal-fired power plants and PV-based power plants are complex network of transaction connections. If the data is to be hacked,
975.2 g CO2-eq./kWh and 36.75 g CO2-eq./kWh [113]. The solar power the connected neighbours’ hash address is to be known as well to
systems exhibit a lower CO2 emission rate profit. Nonetheless, consid­ retrieve the personnel’s information. This allows a secured and decen­
ering the manufacturing of solar panels, the usage of ESS and the tralised transaction with private hash addresses and could enforce the
inevitable carbon dioxide emission due to the manufacturing of data privacy protection.
The contracts for energy flows and instant P2P payments can be
Table 4 facilitated and recorded on the blockchain. The real-time customer-
The Benefits and Limitations of The Solar energy-powered BEV CS. prosumer-utility interactions enabled by blockchain facilitate faster and
Benefits Challenges and Limitations secured payments, efficient energy use, energy trading and streamlined
Charge BEV with clean energy from RES RES intermittency, uncertainty, account management. From P2P energy trading, smart meter, mobile
instead of non-RES unavailability and instabilities issues application to trade, selling of electricity in bidding, efficient energy
Further acceleration of adoption of BEV Coordination of solar and BEV with management, secured transaction records to the smart contract, block­
market rate power grid remains unstable chain coordinated the flowing of energy using cryptographically
Increase of BEV mileage range and The development, stability and
reduce the risk of the drained battery technological maturity of solar energy-
encrypted blockchain to record all the transactions and trading record.
of BEV due to more available BEV CS powered BEV are still in the early stage In general, blockchain can be utilised to coordinate and manage
Provide sunshade and sun protection by More maintenance required, cleaning of electric vehicle (EV) charging. For instance, blockchain facilitates en­
a sun awning solar panel and tilting of solar towards the ergy payments at EV CS, allowing EV drivers to view maps and select
sun
their choice of the EV CS with real-time pricing data. The blockchain can
Value-added BEV CS with blockchain, Assessment of revenue is required with
smart contract, P2P energy trading, optimum charging policies, and a proven also be deployed in the microgrid, the competitive power prices at each
smart grid, energy sell back, V2G and track record is required station can be established by the grid and residential power suppliers. To
others charge the EV, the drivers are able to pay securely and instantly using a
Net zero-emission and reduced Solar panel manufacturing is subject to blockchain wallet or even using cryptocurrencies. In short, blockchain
greenhouse effect environmental factors and pollution
No longer dependent on the power grid; During the nighttime, it could be a
accelerates the adoption of EV by managing payments, energy man­
instead, solar energy-powered BEV CS challenge to store and harvest solar agement systems and charging systems securely. On the other hand,
can be off-grid and installed in a rural energy, except ESS. However, ESS is blockchain can also be used to coordinate the EV CS automatically by
place subject to ageing, capability issue and managing the energy optimally. A smart contract enabled by blockchain
high costs
is useful to automate, secure and enable peer-to-peer (P2P) energy
Solar energy is highly accessible during A huge place is required for the
the daytime and energy efficient installation and deployment of solar payments.
panels. Plus, the ageing problems of solar Some researches utilised the blockchain for incentive system for BEV
panels and ESS are uncertain and may using proposed cryptocurrency, including using prioritisation ranking
contribute to unwanted wastage and algorithm [121], a permissioned energy blockchain with proof of local
pollution after their lifespan
reputation consensus protocol [122], and prioritise the users with better

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K.Y. Yap et al.
usage history [123]. Power management is also applicable for BEV using
the blockchain and cryptographic technology, as validated in various
researches and implementations, which include AI-enabled EV integra­
tion system [124] and energy trading using contract theory with user
reputation [125]. The energy can be traded in BEV CS using P2P feature
enabled by blockchain using the incentive contract model [126]. EV
data, EV CS coordination, energy trading and charging schedule can also
be regulated and implemented based on blockchain technology on the
internet of electric vehicles [127]. In Ref. [128], blockchain has been
used for edge-as-a-service framework in secure energy trading. On the
other hand, blockchain is also being used as the trading platform for EV
CS in smart cities with greater security and privacy [129]. For instance,
Byzantine-Based Blockchain Consensus is used for trading energy with
better security and transparency [130]. Blockchain with K-Anonymity
can be implemented for Vehicular Energy Network [131]. A smart
contract is a contract that is automated to self-execute with the terms of
the agreement between buyer and seller is met in the lines of code [132].
It can be used for faster energy trading for EV charging using the
blockchain-based smart contract.
Other areas of interest related to blockchain-enabled BEV CS include
the optimisation of charging and discharging for BEV [133], security
model [134], automation [135] and V2G [128]. It showed that the
blockchain is a significant technological advancement for BEV CS,
especially in the P2P energy trading, security, decentralised transaction,
transparency in energy trading and various improvements for BEV CS.
Smart charging is another important aspect for BEV CS to improve
charging power rate and adaption of user charging behaviour [136]. The
charging management for EVs can be further enhanced and improved by
artificial intelligence (AI), machine learning (ML) or deep learning (DL)
for reduced charging cost and charging time with optimised energy
management [137]. For instance, in Ref. [138], a long short-term
memory (LSTM) recurrent neural network (RNN) based machine
learning (ML) algorithm has been used to schedule and optimise the
charging and discharging of EVs in commercial-building prosumers.
Fig. 5 depicts the process of a blockchain-enabled BEV CS. For any
successful transaction made by the first miner (initiator), a new block
will be added with a timestamp and relevant data to the blockchain. The
Fig. 5. The typical process of BEV CS platform using blockchain.
11
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 169 (2022) 112862
other miners of BEV CS are used to verify the contract, transaction,
ledger and proof of work (PoW) only. The non-miner station of BEV CS is
used to only verify the PoW. The blockchain is used to prevent any
tampering of charging or discharging data of BEV CS. It ensures pricing
transparency, high security and peer-to-peer (P2P) energy trading.
4.5. V2G enabled by synchronverter
The synchronverter technology can be adopted for V2G to improve
the grid stability [139]. V2G sources are applicable to expand the BEV
CS with the integration of RES [140]. A smart V2G can be used to reduce
the distribution network expansion cost, which is subject to the un­
certainties of solar power [141]. Fig. 6 depicts the typical V2G termi­
nology, which enables the BEV to contribute back the charged energy to
the power grid via a bidirectional method.
The regulation of frequency is crucial as the penetration of BEV in­
creases [142]. Due to the nature of power electronics, the frequency will
be greatly affected due to the lack of rotating masses and inertial
response, unlike a conventional synchronous machine (SM) [143].
Battery degradation is also another concern to be improved by using
dynamic programming and minimised energy consumption in
vehicle-to-infrastructure (V2I) communication on energy savings [144].
Virtual inertia (VI) is able to mitigate the frequency instability issues
introduced by the grid integration of solar power systems [145]. Syn­
chronverter is a type of virtual inertia (VI)-based inverter that emulates
the dynamic behaviours of a synchronous machine (SM) to interface
solar power system with power grid [36]. It is applicable to be utilised in
solar energy-powered BEV for DC-AC conversion in the V2G setting.
Fig. 7 illustrates the single-line diagram of a grid-connected solar power
system with the ESS, BEV CS, and VI supports by synchronverter, where
Vabc is three-phase voltage, Iabc is three-phase current, PCC is the point of
common coupling, R is resistance, Xs is reactance component, Vg is grid
voltage, L is inductance, C is capacitor and Rabc is three-phase resistive
load. The synchronous static compensator (STATCOM), which is a type
of flexible alternating current transmission system (FACTS) device, can
also replace the ESS for better voltage regulation by adjusting the
reactive power (Q).
Apart from solar energy, wind energy [146] is also applicable to be
installed for BEV CS, provided the installed place exhibits higher wind
speed and is beside the sea with wider area accessibility. Wind energy
can support V2G integration [147]. Solar wireless road charging station
for BEVs is also a new trend to enable the BEV to charge while travelling
[148]. The solar-powered CS is also applicable for hydrogen BEV apart
from conventional BEV [149]. Excess generated electricity from solar
energy-based BEV CS is applicable for other usage and feedback to the
power grid to support additional loads [150]. A fuel cell system is used
to support the solar power for BEV CS [151]. Connected, automated,
shared, and electric (CASE) vehicles are also the future of BEVs to
improve the road network’s level of service and technological
advancement [152].
Assuming the average roof size of a conventional commercial lot is
160 m2, the size of a 320 W solar panel is approximately 1.6 m2, and
160/1.6 = 100 panels would be fitted on the roof. Ideally, these 100
solar panels could output 100*320 W = 32 kW. The average sunlight
would be around 5 h in an optimum situation; gives have 32 kW*5 h =
160 kWh daily, and in a year, it would be 160 kWh * 365 d = 58,400
kWh, which can charge 712 EVs, such as Tesla Model 3 with 82 kWh
battery from zero charges. However, these assumptions are based on
optimal settings, as the average number of sunshine per month maybe
vary and be far from the optimum values. For instance, in the UK, there
are only ranging from 42.5 to 229.8 h of sunshine monthly from January
2021 to September 2021 [153]. Some places like Glasgow only record 1,
203 h/y, which is equivalent to an average of 3.3 h/d. The average
number of sunshine per month in places varies, and solar
energy-powered BEV CS has the weather limitation to acquire a suffi­
cient amount of sunshine to generate electricity.
K.Y. Yap et al.
Fig. 6. The terminology of V2G in BEV CS. C. The support from ESS, STATCOM and synchronverter.
Fig. 7. The single-line diagram of a synchronverter-based solar power system with ESS, BEV CS and VI supports. D. Flexible thin-film solar panel on EV roof.
It is commendable that it has reduced the dependency on conven­
tional power grids with is generated by coal, oil and gas. It will further
reduce carbon emissions and utilize solar panels to generate clean en­
ergy. By this method, the BEV can be considered as clean transportation
since its fuel (electricity) is finally sourced from RES instead of coal, oil
and gas. Fig. 8 depicts the future trends of the solar energy-powered BEV
CS, while Fig. 9 presents the current research gaps of existing
technology.
A similar setup can be adopted for other electrified vehicles such as
bikes or motors. For instance, similar solar-powered CS can be installed
at the workspace to provide charging facilities for electric bikes [154],
electric buses [155], electric agricultural machinery [156] and other
relevant electric-powered vehicles. Table 5 shows the open issues and
mitigation plans of the existing solar energy-powered BEV CS.
To mitigate the slow charging speed of BEV, battery swapping is
another emerging technology to directly change the BEV battery [157].
The battery can be charged by using the electricity generated from solar
energy during the daytime. The depleted battery from the BEV car can
be changed or swapped at the BEV CS bay using the fully charged battery
12
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 169 (2022) 112862
by solar. When the BEV CS is used in weather with cold temperatures
like winter or rainy days, the charging speed will be slow due to extreme
weather. Slow charging is not an issue for overnight charging without
any time limitation. However, slow charging will delay the travelling
time of the BEV users. It can be mitigated by using several technologies,
including direct battery swapping without charging or preconditioning
of charging by heating up the battery and charger to reduce extreme
cold. For instance, Tesla’s Supercharging V3 heats up the battery and
charger while the driver is approaching a Supercharger in cold weather.
This heating function ensures the battery will be at the optimal tem­
perature for charging with a higher efficiency under cold temperature
upon arrival at a Tesla Supercharger.
Multi-objective optimisation is also applicable to optimise the
schedule of BEV load in a power system [158]. A wind power system is
also applicable to combine with a solar power system to support solar
during nighttime [159]. This kind of hybrid system is feasible for
large-scale BEV CS with higher availability of electricity. The solar
energy-powered BEV CS is also applicable to find any nearby large-scale
solar farm to collaborate. The solar farm can be used to provide clean
K.Y. Yap et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 169 (2022) 112862

Table 5
The open issues and mitigation plans.
Challenges and Limitations Mitigation

RES intermittency, uncertainty, Field testing, technological maturity of

unavailability and instabilities issues
Coordination of solar and BEV with
power grid remains unstable
The development, stability and
technological maturity of solar
energy-powered BEVs are still in the
early stage
More maintenance required, cleaning of
solar panel and tilting of solar
towards the sun
Assessment of revenue is required with
optimum charging policies, and a
proven track record is required
ESS, power converter and solar panel
ageing issues
Fig. 8. The future trends and advantages of a solar energy-powered BEV CS. Slow charging of BEV battery by solar
panel
solar energy, support from ESS and
synchronverter
Coordination between BEV and parking
lot operators
More research and data are required to
improve the existing technologies.
Electronic, mechanical tilting of solar
panels, collaboration with large-scale
solar power systems nearby, and auto
cleaning features can be added for a solar
panel.
Practical real-time implementations are
required to assess the revenue return and
profitability.
Research for long-lasting materials and
components to reduce maintenance
routine.
Battery swapping technology whereby
the battery is charged by solar power
system and is being used to replace the
depleted battery of incoming BEV car at
the BEV CS bay

advanced ESS, automatic maintenance with cleaning function, me­

chanical tilting of the solar array, flexible solar panel and MPPT for
enhanced efficiency.
2. Slow charging of solar-enabled BEV CS: Alternative DC fast charging is
used to improve the charging speed for the solar-enabled BEV CS.
The direct DC output from solar can be used to charge the EV for
faster-charging speed and less power conversion losses.
3. The placement of solar array: The solar array can be placed on the
rooftop of a building or awning of EV CS. The thin, flexible solar
array can be used to place on a non-flat surface and improve the
space constraint of the solar array.
4. Required routine maintenance, cleaning and ageing problems: To miti­
gate the ageing problems and required maintenance for the solar
array and ESS, research for long-lasting solar array materials and ESS
components are inevitable to reduce the maintenance routine.

Although the solar energy for BEV CS is still in an early stage of

Fig. 9. The technical gaps to replace conventional power grid by using solar
energy for BEV CS. E. Solar-powered CS for other vehicles.
development, it is inevitably a better choice to integrate RES with BEV
CS to achieve true net zero-emission. By combining RES sustainability
and BEV environmental friendliness, solar energy-powered BEV CS is an
aspiration to replace conventional power generation for BEV or con­
ventional combustion engine vehicles. It is in line with the Sustainable
Development Goal (SDG) 7: Clean and affordable energy.
5. Conclusion

energy from solar to BEV CS, apart from its main supply to the power
grid. The investors or operators require financial returns on the invest­
ment of solar energy-powered BEV CS. Limitations of solar
energy-powered BEV CS should be addressed with the future prospects
to increase the profitability and sustainability of maintaining solar
energy-powered BEV CS. Various mitigation plans should be deployed
and developed to overcome the limitations of the solar-powered BEV,
which include the following:
1. The advancements of solar energy: As solar energy is subject to the lack
of electricity generation during night time, intermittency of sunlight,
routine maintenance, the tilting angle of the solar array and effi­
ciency problems, advancements should be made to the solar power
system. It includes the inclusion of super or ultra-capacitors,
This review provides a detailed insight into the latest development of
solar energy for BEV CS. The original contributions include the inclusion
of real-world practical implementation, the identification of real-world
technical limitations and the future recommendations to accelerate
the adoption of solar-enabled BEV CS in line with the net-zero carbon
initiative and SDG Goal 7. As the BEV becomes more popular due to the
support for lower carbon emission, political policy change and envi­
ronmentally friendliness, the electricity provided for BEV charging
should be clean as well. Solar energy is the most feasible RES to replace
the conventional power generation for BEV CS. However, some limita­
tions and research gaps have been identified based on the recent
implementations and research results. The limitations include the ne­
cessity to install ESS in supporting the solar power system during night
time, the intermittency of solar energy, the required maintenance of

13
K.Y. Yap et al.
solar array and ESS and slow charging speed by solar energy. Despite
these limitations, there are various practical, real-world implementa­
tions to utilize solar energy for EV CS, including Empower Solar, Sino­
voltaics, Envision Solar, Electrify America and Solar Edge. The solar
energy-powered BEV CS has a bright future ahead, and various future
outcomes have been highlighted to further accelerate the adoption of
RES-based BEV CS. It included blockchain-enabled P2P energy trading,
faster-charging support and the integration of more RES such as wind
and hydro energy. The blockchain can be used to support the coordi­
nation of EV CS in terms of P2P energy trading, energy management and
secured transactional records. The advancements in solar energy,
including flexible solar, solar on the rooftop and improved efficiency,
also contribute to the acceleration of solar energy in EV CS. Hybrid
integration of RES, including biogas, hydropower and wind power, is
also another feasible solution to support solar-enabled EV CS.
Author contributions
Kah Yung Yap: Conceptualisation, Methodology, Writing-original
draft; Hon Huin Chin: Conceptualisation, Writing-review and editing;
Jiří Jaromír Klemeš: Supervision, Funding acquisition, Project man­
agement, Writing-review and editing;
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgement
This research has been supported by the EU project “Sustainable
Process Integration Laboratory – SPIL”, project No. CZ.020.1.01/0.0/
0.0/15_003/0000456 funded by EU “CZ Operational Programme
Research, Development and Education”, Priority 1: Strengthening ca­
pacity for quality research.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.rser.2022.112862.
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