A Study On Trends and Developments in El

Journal of Energy Storage 52 (2022) 105013
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Journal of Energy Storage

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/est
Review article
A study on trends and developments in electric vehicle

charging technologies
S. Hemavathi a, b, *, A. Shinisha a
a
CSIR-Central Electrochemical Research Institute (CECRI), CSIR-Madras Complex, Chennai 600 113, Tamil Nadu, India
b
Academy of Scientific & Innovative Research, Ghaziabad 201 002, Uttar Pradesh, India
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: The involvement of electric vehicles (EVs) is increasing over the past few years due to several factors including
Electric vehicle the increasing emission of carbon dioxide (CO2), depletion of fossil fuels, and promotion of renewable
Charging station deployment. The growth of charging stations is essential to support the transition of conventional vehicles to
Charging architecture
electric vehicles. This research paper reviews the current and future trends in EV battery charging methodologies
Smart charging
and the roadmap for EV adoption in India. The various conventional and advanced battery charging methods and
Wireless charging
Fast charging power topologies are discussed based on their mode of operation and comparative analysis. The various levels of
Battery swapping EV charging stations are reviewed based on their charging location, charging time, type of connectors used,
Renewable energy architecture portfolio, and comparative performance analysis of different power converters used in EV chargers.
Furthermore, advanced charging architectures for electric vehicles are discussed intensely, including fast
charging, smart charging, wireless charging, and battery swapping and this paper emphasizes the use of inte-
grated renewable energy (RE) with EV charging architecture and optimized energy management algorithms to
mitigate the uncertainties caused by transmission power grids. Finally, this paper concludes with the future
roadmap for EV adoption in India and put forth various research roadmaps for power electronics-based solutions
related to RE integration, energy storage, and smart grid technologies.
range present, the trend goes on with electric vehicles as people in the
1. Introduction 21st century have technological advancement and concern for the
environment to achieve zero-emission, low cost, higher range, and high-
The Transport sector is considered one of the fastest-growing sectors speed EV's. But it is a crucial challenge to penetrate EVs in India due to
in India and has a major contribution to economic success over the past the lack of charging architecture [3,5]. The timeline of EV development
two decades. This world is more concerned about environmental in India the over last decade is discussed below [4]
pollution due to the automobile pollution exhaust. According to the
Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation, India is the ❖ Scooters India Pvt. Ltd., Lucknow, developed the first electric vehicle
second-largest populated country with 1.39 * 109 crore people as of July VIKRAM in 1996. Nearly 400 vehicles were manufactured and sold.
1, 2021, which is equivalent to 17.7 % of the total world population. The ❖ In 1999, Mahindra Ltd. launched the first three-wheeled electric
World Health Organization (WHO) reported in 2018 [1], among nine vehicle named Bijlee. In 2004, it stopped production due to a lack of
out of ten people worldwide breathe polluted air which causes 7 million desire.
deaths every year. The automobile sector is the major contributor to air ❖ In 2000, BHEL has developed an electric bus with 18 seaters powered
pollutants. Vehicles with Internal Combustion (IC) engines produce by a 96 lead-acid battery. Later, it was confronted with the issue of
direct emissions like sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide, performance reliability.
particulate matter, and hydrocarbons due to the evaporation of fueling ❖ In 2001, REVA sold 1500 electric cars in Bangalore city that was
systems. The electrification of mobility concept plays an essential role in developed by a US company.
the growth of zero-emission vehicles [2]. ❖ In 2007, Hero cycles launched 2 bikes, in partnership with UK-based
EVs came into existence in the 19th century, and it was not well in ULTRA Motor. These electric bikes became popular and
the market at their initial stage due to less speed, high cost, and short-
* Corresponding author at: CSIR-Central Electrochemical Research Institute (CECRI), CSIR-Madras Complex, Chennai 600 113, Tamil Nadu, India.
E-mail address: hemavathi@cecri.res.in (S. Hemavathi).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2022.105013
Received 31 January 2022; Received in revised form 7 May 2022; Accepted 28 May 2022
Available online 15 June 2022
2352-152X/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
S. Hemavathi and A. Shinisha Journal of Energy Storage 52 (2022) 105013
Nomenclature kHz kilohertz

kW kilowatt
2W two-wheeler MPC Model Predictive Control
AI Artificial Intelligence MPPT Maximum Power Point Tracking
ANN Artificial Neural Network PFC power factor correction
APP Application PLI Production Linked Incentive Scheme
BMS Battery Management System PMGWC Permanent Magnet Gear Wireless Charging
BSS Battery Swapping Solutions PMP Phased Manufacturing Programme
CC constant current PRA Piecewise Recursive Approach
CO2 carbon dioxide PSO Particle Swarm Optimization Algorithm
COVID Coronavirus disease PWM pulse-width modulation
CT-CV constant current constant voltage RFID Radio Frequency Identification
CWC capacitive wireless charging RWC Resonant Wireless Charging
DE differential evolution SAE Society of Automotive Engineers
DP Dynamic Programming SC switched-capacitor
EMI Electromagnetic Interference SCADA Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition
ESI electrochemical impedance spectroscopy SCU Smart Control Unit
EV electric vehicle SEI Solid Electrolyte Interphase
FAME Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of Electric and Hybrid SOH state of health
Vehicles in India SRC Sinusoidal Ripple Current Charging
FC flash charger TCO total cost of ownership
FCS fast charging station UVP Universal Voltage Profile
FET field-effect transistor V2G Vehicle to Grid
GA Genetic Algorithm V2I Vehicle-to-Infrastructure
GDP gross domestic product V2V Vehicle-to-Vehicle
HOMER Hybrid Optimization Model for Electric Renewables VCD Varying Decay Current
IC Internal Combustion VDC Varying Decay Current
IEC International Electrotechnical Commission VI voltage current
IMCC Intelligent Master Charge Controller VSC Voltage Source Converters
IOT Internet of Things ZVS zero voltage switching
IWC Wireless Charging
manufactured by companies like TVS motor, Hero Electric, Electro globally in the manufacturing of EV and Hybrid Electric Vehicle (HEV)
therm India, etc. [89]. Though Li-ion batteries have more advantages than other types of
❖ From 2008 to 2012, many companies like TATA Motors, Toyota, batteries, problems like high production cost and challenging recycling
Maruti Suzuki, Hyundai, Ashok Leyland, etc. came into the Indian techniques are focused a major problem in the penetration of EVs in
market for increasing EV production and sale. India. Many optimization algorithms were introduced for battery safety
❖ EVs are to be promoted as part of the “National Electric Mobility and better life performance. The Deep Deterministic Policy Gradient
Mission Plan (NEMMP) 2020” from 2013 to 2020 to ensure the se- (DDPG) algorithm proposed in [115] focuses on thermal degradation
curity of national fuel. and lithium-ion battery safety. It also compares the state of art Model
❖ In 2015, the FAME (Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of EV) in Predictive Controller (MPC) and rules-based strategies to highlight the
India plan was established to achieve rapid growth in EV adoption. performance of the DDPG algorithm that improves the life of the battery
and ensures safety. [116] discusses the Dynamic Programming (DP)
The problem with the adoption of EV is referred to as the egg or algorithm for optimal energy management of plug-in HEV. The power
chicken theory [6]. EV investors are waiting for more EVs on road to split of EV is obtained by using this algorithm which leads to reduced
develop charging infrastructure. On the other hand, People are waiting energy cost. [117] also proposed a DP algorithm for battery aging and
for more charging infrastructure to buy EVs. At present, In India, the cost battery thermal management system. It also indicates that the proposed
of electricity needed to charge an EV is one-tenth the cost of petrol for DP algorithm is feasible only for one power source in a battery EV [10].
the same km per hour [87]. A huge number of EVs charging around the According to Indian Energy Outlook 2021, the magnitude of India's
same time by using a traditional power grid is more complex, so renewable energy market and its global share will increase on the global
restructured power system with the integration of power storage is scale by 2040 as shown in Fig. 1. Here, the Indian market size will be 21
required for satisfying power demand [7]. The key features of energy % of the battery market by 2040 from 0 % in 2019 and is targeted to
storage integrated with electrical systems such as reliability of energy achieve the global share of 12 % of clean energy by 2040.
source to the public community, stored energy can be retrieved later, Charging EVs are even cheaper and healthier with a renewable-based
efficiency improvement, increasing the capacity factor of power gener- charging system [4,114]. RE that is connected to the grid makes use of
ations, improved power quality with minimum fluctuations. Though EVs the EV charging to enable green energy for economic development.
do not produce any direct emission, plugin hybrid electric vehicle pro- Solar & Wind energy are the primary Renewable Energy sources with
duces evaporative emission but, in less amount, compared to conven- better efficiency that contribute to clean power excessively [10]. Fig. 1
tional vehicles. Battery Electric Vehicle (BEV) has fewer moving parts corresponds to the objective for 2040 by increasing the overall share of
than a traditional ICE vehicle which results in less complex and low photovoltaic from 10 to 30 %, and Wind energy targets as 5–15 %. To
maintenance costs [8,9,14]. meet the projection and reached by extending the size of the solar and
When compared to other battery types, due to increased energy wind market from 2 to 10 % [3]. Various energy converter configura-
density and power mass per unit, Lithium-ion battery is used nowadays tions, designs, and operation levels have been proposed for various
2
Fig. 1. The magnitude of India's renewable energy market and its global share, 2019 and the Stated Policies Scenario, 2040 [10].
applications. When charging an electric vehicle, selecting a power stations also includes the DC-DC converter topologies used for charging
converter, and integrating RE is important [11,12,90]. In terms of power lithium-ion batteries, EV interfaced with grid, Renewable based
converter selection and grid integration, the following should be charging technology, and its comparison. In addition to Section 5
considered. covered, the advanced charging station includes fast charging, wireless
In a grid-to-vehicle-connected infrastructure, non-isolated inverters charging, and battery swapping, and the smart charging station includes
may inject DC and also leak current. a Smart grid or Microgrid integrating with solar PV and EV techniques
have been discussed briefly, and in energy management techniques with
- Galvanic Isolation should be done at input-output of the system optimization is also deliberated. Section 6 also gives some key reasons
- Grid-connected EV chargers must have a good quality of power for limited EV adoption in India and detailed the future roadmap to
- Interfacing EVs to the power grid and Renewable power sources can achieve mass adoption of EVs in India. Finally, presents various points of
cause harmonic distortion paper regarding power electronics and power system technology that
- Optimization algorithm is required for the maximum power. helps improve electric transportation with efficient charging stations.
- Due to high switching frequencies, the converter cause voltage
ripples 2. Charging techniques
- Protection system for the flawless operation of the battery
The battery pack is considered the heart of Electric Vehicles. Many
Artificial Intelligence (AI) based autonomous vehicles, Block-chain reviews focused on EV battery charging and highlighted the relation
for vehicle security, Big Data for better benefits, Internet of Things between battery life, charging time, and cell temperature. A higher
(IoT) based efficient vehicles, Smart Sensors for reliability, Vehicle-to- charging current leads to a rapid charge of the batteries but degrades the
Vehicle (V2V) and Vehicle-to-Infrastructure (V2I) can influence the battery's life [14]. The operating temperature of the battery should
communication networks and helps to improve safety, Augmented Re- overcome lithium plating and SEI layer growth [15,16]. Lithium-ion
ality for the optimized vehicles, etc., a few of the brand-new innovations batteries' implemented charging techniques are discussed based on
that drive the contemporary modification in the vehicle manufacturing their charging current, charging voltage, charging time, and cell
industry. Several countries require the use of zero-emission vehicles and temperature.
publish a timeline for Electric Vehicle sales [13]. The States in India like
Delhi, Maharashtra, Telangana, and Tamil Nadu are designed EV pol- 2.1. Conventional charging technique
icies and advertised incentives for two-wheeled, and three-wheeled
electric vehicles to inspire the involvement of Electric Vehicle growth. 2.1.1. Constant current
Fig. 2 shows the detailed Indian state-wise energy policy 2021 that was The constant current is maintained throughout the charging process.
put forth for the next five years of EV development in India. Central The predefined value is set here, whenever the charging reaches the
Government initiated the various plans for EV adoption in India by value, it stops as shown in Fig. 3(a). The fast charging of the battery can
providing the green board with permit-free options for EV vehicles and be done by maintaining a high constant current, but it affects the life of
no license needed for charging station startups. the battery, whereas the low charging current can improve the battery
The research article is structured as follows: Section 2 explains the life, but it provides a slow charge [17,91]. Thus, the state of battery
procedure for the various traditional and advanced methods of charging health depends on the charging current. Choosing the suitable charging
techniques. Also, charging lithium-ion batteries with its operational current value to balance battery life and charging time is a big challenge
flowchart included the aspect of battery modeling and its classification of CC charging.
in ECM, empirical model, Equivalent circuit model and finally data-
driven approaches with high-level discussion of future battery 2.1.2. Constant voltage
modeling. In Section 3, topologies based on chargers commonly used for The pre-defined constant voltage is maintained throughout the
EV charging are briefly explained with a block diagram and its sche- charging process. Once the voltage is reached, the charger will only
matic working representation. In Section 4, EV charging architecture provide enough current to maintain the battery's voltage as shown in
with levels of charging focused on the current and trends in charging Fig. 3(a) and the flow process of both CC-CV charging is outlined in
3
Fig. 2. Government policies for EV adoption in India [13].
4
(a) CC-CV Charging (b) Trickle-CC-CV Charging
(c) Five-Step Charging

(d) Pulse Charging
(e) SRC Charging (f) VCD Charging
(g) CT-CV Charging (h) Boost Charging
Fig. 3. VI characteristics of charging techniques.
5
(b) Trickle-CC-CV Charging

(a) CC-CV Charging
(c) Five-Step Charging
(d) Pulse Charging
Fig. 4. Flowchart of different charging techniques.
6
(e) SRC Charging (f) VCD Charging
(g) CT-CV Charging
(h) Boost Charging
Fig. 4. (continued).
7
Fig. 4(a). If the setpoint voltage is too high, battery life gets affected, sequence begins a charging cycle again and charges the battery. This
whereas the low voltage will not charge the battery completely. When voltage threshold for a Li-ion battery is 4.03 V. This process keeps the
the battery voltage is below the setpoint, a constant current charge is battery fully charges every time and prevents self-discharging.
maintained. The standard setpoint voltage of lithium-ion cells is 4.2 V
[18]. 2.2.2. Five-step charging method
The five-step charging is suitable for the faster and safer operation of
the battery [24]. It contains five steps based on the battery's charging
2.2. Advanced charging technique
current. In Fig. 3(c), the constant threshold value is set for all the five
steps of charging. In the first step, when the charging voltage reaches the
2.2.1. Trickle charge - constant current – constant voltage method (CC-CV)
threshold voltage, the second step will be initiated and the charging
A CC-CV charging method is a hybrid approach that controls either
current also changes accordingly. After the second step, the third step
output current or output voltage at a time. While charging the battery, at
will be initiated and a new charging current updated. The process will
first it uses CC charging, and when the battery's voltage hits up to the
end once it reaches step five as outlined in Fig. 4(c). The optimal
required threshold value, the charging step shifts from CC charging to
charging algorithm is used in this method for obtaining the charging
the CV charging method as shown in Fig. 3(b) [19,20]. The charging
current value of each step. The design of the algorithm for the five-step
process of Trickle-CC-CV is outlined in Fig. 4(b) and the process is
charging method is complex and time ineffective [25].
completed when the current flowing through the regulator is very small
or the capacity of the battery is reached. The CC-CV charging method is
2.2.3. Pulse charging method
mainly used to charge Li-ion batteries [21].
In this method, the charging current is given to the battery in pulse
The analogy of controlling the water tap to fill the cup is compared
width form as shown in Fig. 3(d) and the flow process of pulse charging
with the CC-CV battery charging method [22]. Here the cup is the bat-
is explained in Fig. 4(d). By altering the duty cycle, the charging rate of
tery, and the water reservoir is the reservoir of electrical energy. Filling
the lithium-ion batteries can be controlled and higher efficiency can be
up the cup with water is analogous to charging the battery. The tap of
achieved [26]. This pulse charging method is suitable for obtaining an
the water container is a battery charger and the person who controls the
even the ion distribution in the battery electrolyte, slows down the po-
tap is the charger controller. In the initial phase, the battery is charged
larization of the battery, and speeds the charging operation [25]. This
with a constant current just like opening the water tap. The charging
method can operate in both fixed and variable duty cycles. When
current of the regulator should be limited just like controlling the
comparing the fixed duty cycle method, fast charging and efficiency can
pressure of the water so the high supply current that damages the battery
be achieved in the variable duty cycle method [27]. As the flow process
internally can be avoided. When the battery is charged up to a certain
of pulse charging is outlined in Fig. 4(d), when the charging current
value, the terminal voltage of the battery increases, and the charge
becomes less than cut-off current the operation ends otherwise it
controller senses the change in voltage. This time, it immediately shifts
continues.
from constant current supply to constant voltage charging, which limits
the supply of current to maintain constant voltage just like the analogy
2.2.4. Sinusoidal Ripple Current Charging Method
of tightening the water tap. Once the battery is fully charged the charger
SRC method is proposed for fast-charging batteries with low energy
turns off the charging and the CC-CV regulator works as a battery
loss. [28] discussed Li-ion battery charging with ac impedance model
charger. The charging time of the battery is decided by the constant
consists of Warburg impedance. To attain high energy transfer, mini-
current mode (CC mode). The suitable current value provides an equi-
mum impedance frequency should be calculated for the SOC range.
librium between charging performance and battery safety. If the current
Many pieces of research are in progress for the optimal charging method
is too high or too low, it can cause negative effects on the battery.
algorithm for impedance frequency calculation. The proposed SRC
Initially, when the charger is powered up and the input voltage is
method is compared to CC-CV and pulse charging in [29] for different
provided, the charger measures the cell voltage. If the voltage value is
frequencies. The result shows that SRC has the advantages of fast
fewer than the pre-charge threshold value, the charger understands the
charging, enhanced battery life, and temperature control.
battery is deep discharged. In this state, the charger enables trickle
In Fig. 3(e), the average charging current is maintained for various
charging in which it charges the battery with 10 % of the full charging
frequency ranges. Fig. 4(e) outlined the flow process of the Sinusoidal
rate. That means if the charging rate of the cell is 2 Ah then the trickle
Ripple Current Charging Method. Electrochemical impedance spectros-
charging is done with a 200 mAh rate. This slow charging prevents the
copy (ESI) is used for selecting ripple current frequency. Compared to
battery from being damaged by high surge currents. The battery voltage
CC-CV charging, 18 % increase in temperature rise due to the impedance
should be trickle charged up to its minimum charging voltage, when it
of the battery [29]. Some research contradicts that the maximum
comes to Li-ion batteries it is 2.8 V or 3 V which depends upon the
impedance frequency of the battery depends only on temperature and
chemistry. If it doesn't reach this voltage level, that means the battery is
discharging current not on SOC.
possibly shorted or damaged. So the charger stops charging. But, once
the cell voltage crosses the pre-charge threshold, the charger will shift to
2.2.5. Varying Decay Current charging method
normal charging at 100 % of the full rate charge current. The charger
Varying Decay Current (VDC) protocol designed in [30] results in
charges the battery with CC mode, in this cycle the cell voltage rises until
fast charging compared to conventional charging techniques. At average
it reaches the constant voltage threshold, for Li-ion batteries, this is
current, both conventional CC-CV method and VDC are compared. It is
around 4.2 or 4.242 V. If the battery is charging with a 1C rate, from a
observed that VDC achieved higher utilization capacity than CC-CV at
fully discharged state, it normally takes about 1 h to reach this point.
early cycles. The main design consideration of VDC is cell resistance and
Now, the battery is charged up to approximately 70–80 %. Then, the
Universal Voltage Profile and the flow process of VDC is shown in Fig. 4
charger shifts to constant voltage mode. During this state, the current
(f). The Universal Voltage Profile (UVP) [31] is derived from the opti-
gradually decreases to maintain the constant voltage as the battery ap-
mized CC-CV charging method at a specified voltage and time. During 0
proaches the full charge state [23]. Finally, the charge current falls to a
% SOC, maximum current is reached and drops rapidly due to high cell
very low value. Once the charger reaches the end-of-charge stage, the
resistance. The temperature rise produces heat which leads to lithium
charger stops charging. If the battery voltage drops below the recharge
plating, Solid Electrolyte Interphase (SEI) layer growth, and electrolyte
threshold, which may occur if the load is connected to the battery or the
oxidation [30]. This temperature can be controlled using the heat rate
battery is kept idle for a long time. Then the charger starts the charging
8
protocol [32]. The VI characteristics curve of VDC in Fig. 3(f), shows the 2.3. Battery modeling
high charging current initially and once it reaches the cut-off point that
depends on internal resistance, it drops rapidly. For developing a battery charger, battery modeling is very impor-
tant. But the decision to choose a battery model depends on how much
2.2.6. Constant temperature – constant voltage charging accuracy and Complexity needed. Complex models will have higher
In CC-CV charging techniques, due to the constant charging current, parameterization complication as to obtain higher order of non-
the maximum temperature is reached at the CC phase end. But in CT-CV linearities since many parameters are required. Some of the techniques
charging technique, due to a higher current at the initial stage, the of battery modeling are discussed in Fig. 5 [118–122].
maximum temperature is also reached at the initial stage as shown in
Fig. 3(g). To control the charging current, the temperature should be 2.3.1. Electrochemical model
constant throughout the CT phase as outlined in Fig. 4(g). The CT-CV The electrochemical models are based upon the chemical reactions
results were evident a 20 % improvement in charging time compared that occur within the battery cells. Consequently, because they simulate
to CC-CV charging. Furthermore, researches are in progress related to cells on a microscopic scale, they are the most accurate models. Most of
different temperature with different cells and also their aging effects them consist of higher order non-linear differential equations. The
[33]. simulations therefore take hours or even days that makes them not a
good choice for vehicle applications, since the control systems usually
2.2.7. Boost charging method requires real-time data [118].
The boost charging method is referred to as the fast-charging
method, used nowadays for charging Li-ion batteries. This method is 2.3.2. Empirical model
suitable for charging the completely drained batteries with a high cur- Behavioral models make use of this empirical data and then neglect
rent in a short duration of time followed by CC-CV charging to avoid the battery's underlying physical or electrochemical behavior. They
overcharging of the battery. The VI characteristics of the boost charging have been classified as tabular models because of their reliance on data
method are shown in Fig. 3(h) and the flow process of boost charging is and look-up tables. To illustrate basic characteristics of battery
also outlined in Fig. 4(h). The experimental results shown in [34] behavior, empirical models use very simple empirical equations. The
showed that the completely drained battery can be recharged without Shepherd model [119] is another well-established Behavioral model.
degradation effects. It took only 5 min to recharge to one-third of battery The terminal voltage can be predicted using the equation below at
rated capacity. charging/discharging conditions:
During period Tb, constant maximum voltage Vmax b is applied to the
E(t) = E0 + Ra i(t) + (K1 /qS (t) ) (1)
battery, high varying current helps the battery to charge quickly. After
the current reaches a low value, CC-CV charging gets started and the life
where, E0 represents the initial cell voltage, Ra is the cell's internal
cycle of the battery is good when compared to conventional charging resistance, qs(t) is the stored charge at that instant and k1 is a constant.
methods (Table 1).
To capture higher order nonlinearities further changes have been made
for this equation, which introduced more K12 constants, resulting in the
Table 1
Comparative discussion of charging methods.
Modes Type of batteries Advantages Disadvantages Key parameters
Constant Current NiCd or NiMH, -Simple and easy to implement -Low-Capacity Utilization -Charging current rate
Charging [17] Lithium-ion -Higher charging efficiency -Charging time is high.
-Good battery life -Protection is needed
-High Cost
Constant Voltage Lead-acid, -Simple and easy to implement -Lower charging competence -Charging voltage rate
Charging [18] Lithium-ion -High-Capacity Utilization -Battery life impacted
-Charging time is low -Protection is necessary
-Low Cost
Trickle – CC-CV NiCd or NiMH, -No Protection is needed -Challenge to balance charging speed, energy loss, -Charging current rate in CC mode
Charging [18] Lithium-ion -Higher Charging efficiency temperature variation -Charging voltage rate in CV mode
-High Capacity Utilization -High Cost
-Low Cost
Five-Step Charging NiCd or NiMH -Low charging time -Challenge to balance charging speed, energy loss, -CC stage numbers
[24] -Good battery life temperature variation -Charging current rate per stage
-Higher Charging efficiency -Complex charging pattern algorithm
Pulse Charging Lithium-ion -Low Charging time -Complexity is high in identifying a suitable duty cycle -Charging Pulse frequency
[26,27] -Good battery life for the battery to get a fast charge
-Higher Charging efficiency
VDC Charging [31] -Low Charging time -Protection is needed -Varying current rate concerning
-Good Battery life -Low charging efficiency time t.
-Complex optimization algorithm
SRC Charging -Low Charging time -Low capacity utilization -Optimal ripple current frequency
[28,29] -Higher Charging Efficiency -Battery life affected due to the SEI layer rate.
-Power quality problems can be -Complexity is high -AC impedance analysis
eliminated
CT-CV Charging [16] -Low Charging time -Challenge to balance charging speed, temperature -Constant temperature rate in CT
-Good Battery life variation, and energy loss mode
-Simple and Easy to implement -Constant voltage in CV mode
-Low cost
Boost Charging -Low Charging time -Protection is needed -Charging time and charging speed
[18] -Capacity Utilization depends on -Complexity is medium for a boost interval
the speed of charge -Battery life affected -Charging current rate at CC mode
-Charging voltage rate at CV mode
9
Fig. 5. Battery modeling techniques.
following models: needed for these models is low. This aspect of performance makes them
Unnewehr, Nernst and Plett who combined several approaches to more appropriate, with good accuracy, for fast calculations. Making
derive a self-correcting model which further accounted for the battery's them suitable for use and implementation in a battery management
hysteresis effects. This model gives less accuracy and is used only in scheme (BMS) [119]. Here is the summary of common characteristics
some applications, e.g., under constant current and constant tempera- among ECMs.
ture conditions. Real time parameters are implemented and achieved
due to their low complexity. A. Open circuit voltage (OCV) and the battery voltage are the important
A ‘black box’ model is represented in terms of its inputs and outputs values used to measure the state of charge.
or transfer characteristics, using certain analytical methodologies to B. By using electrical components, the electrical and/or chemical
describe battery behavior without any need to consider the actual behavior of the battery is expressed.
electrochemical processes that occur in the battery. A black box system's
analysis was based on the “explanatory principle,” the theory is the Many types of Equivalent circuit models exist. The complexity of
relation between the input and the output. The black box approach for a designing ECM varies depending on the output accuracy desired. To
battery is derived from battery voltage, current and temperature mea- identify higher order of nonlinearities many parameters are required
surements [120]. This shows that the model can be done without thus higher parameterization complexity is there in Complex models
necessary knowledge on the material and internal structure of the bat- [118] (Fig. 6).
tery and only by looking at the input and output of the battery. This
model reliability completely depends on the training data and process. A 2.3.4. Data driven model
huge number of parameters are needed to obtain required accuracy. The battery models based on this technique are closely related to the
measurement data [120] after collecting enough training samples from
2.3.3. Equivalent circuit models the applications. A data driven model is created during the training
Equivalent Circuit Model is based on electrical components to process of the machine learning algorithm. Fig. 7 shows the direct
represent the behavior of a battery for example ideal voltage sources, relationship between the input (current I, SoC, and temperature T) and
resistors, capacitors, and so on [122]. The majority of ECM's are semi- the terminal voltage U using a data-driven model.
empirical models in which the calculation of final performance mea- If the chosen hidden neurons are same, the Extreme Learning Ma-
surement is based on a previously derived parameter curve based on the chine (ELM) has greater accuracy and also needs only some training time
SOC of the battery. The ECM model is relatively simple and can signif- compared to other NNs. And hence, ELM is used by implementing a two-
icantly differ depending on the desired performance [123]. Moreover, in level ELM for battery modeling and the sigmoid function is selected as
comparison to other models, computational power and simulation time the activation function. When a sufficient dataset is given, this model
Fig. 6. 1RC and 2RC circuit models.
10
Fig. 7. Data driven model process.
power. The other classifications are direct mode and dual-mode chargers
Table 2
that consider as fast and multi-port chargers. The major difference in
Comparison table of all the battery models listed above.
these modes of power supply is performance, cost, and size which vary
Battery model Advantages Disadvantages according to the application.
Electrochemical More accurate for voltage Previous data of the battery
model calculation is needed, time consuming. 3.1. Linear mode charger
Empirical model Simple form of expressions, Limited capability of
less complex expressing terminal
voltage. Linear Mode Charger is simple to design and reduce the size of the
Black box model Medium complexity Large number of charger as it does not use any switching components. It uses a transistor
parameters is required. to reduce the input voltage to battery voltage. Bypass capacitors and
Equivalent circuit Easily understood and widely Complex parameter resistors are used to limit current and set voltage values. The only
model used in SOC estimation identification process.
Data driven model Voltage calculation accuracy Data collecting process is
problem associated with this linear charger is power dissipation, so the
is high, prior knowledge is not very laborious exact required voltage is not achieved. Due to the high-power dissipa-
needed. tion problem, the load connected to this charger becomes hot and leads
to poor performance. This can be eliminated by reducing the charging
current, which also could increase the charging time. Though it has a
can predict terminal voltage.
power dissipation problem, it is suitable for the wireless method. The
Below is the comparison Table 2 for the above-mentioned battery
reduced noise adds the advantage of a linear charger [35].
modeling techniques and their advantages and disadvantages.
Vout
Efficiency = (2)
2.3.5. Future trends of battery modeling methods Vin
Once the battery model machine is determined, the way to discover The block diagram and schematic representation of the linear mode
the maximum dependable parameters for every model is vital for model charger are shown in Fig. 8(a) and (b). The adaptor circuit act as AC-DC
accuracy. However, the significance of the parameters to the outcomes converter which delivers regulated DC output from primary harmonic
of the SOC estimation isn't continually the equal. I do not need every AC input through a transformer, rectifier, and then filtered it. The
parameter to be up to date as regularly as the parameters circulate on regulated DC given input to the linear charging circuit is shown in Fig. 8
distinct time scales. For example, overall performance slows down with (b), which contains two bidirectional blocking switches (Q1 and Q2) to
battery life, however on the equal time alternates RC parameters in the isolate the input and output terminals. The middle point or pinout be-
discharge process. Further portray required figuring out vital parame- tween these two switches, often called PMID, can power the system.
ters in battery mode for SOC estimation and organizing a cost-powerful Therefore, the system voltage can range from the input voltage (when
replace frequency for every parameter. Temperature impacts the general present) down to the battery voltage once the input is removed. This
overall performance of lithium-ion batteries, however the battery mode separation of system voltage and battery voltage is called power-path
of the most SOC estimation method does not consider temperature. As management and is a common feature among battery chargers. During
stated earlier, battery model accuracy is critical for a whole model- normal operation with an input present, the first switch turns on and
primarily totally based SOC estimation method. To enhance the accu- shorts the input to PMID, while the second switch modulates its resis-
racy of modeling, hybrid fashions that make use of the benefits of all tance for the current and voltage regulation at the battery output. A
modeling eras were proposed. In, the Thevenin model suggests the equal linear charger is most useful because of its simple design in applications
anxiety because the current profile, however the non-linear a part of the requiring the smallest printed-circuit-board (PCB) footprint (12 mm2)
model is proven thru the shepherd model. Similarly, the Nernst model and lowest quiescent current. This type of charger can also achieve high
can replace ECM's nonlinear OCVSOC courting to enhance modeling regulation accuracy at low charge currents and has no high frequency
accuracy. Since the kinetic battery model can emit non-linear purposeful switching loops, which minimizes Electromagnetic Interference (EMI)
effects, along with the effect of recuperation and the effect of charge concerns. The main drawback associated with this device is the low
features, a hybrid battery model is proposed alongside the ECM and efficiency (η), which is dictated only by the ratio of input and battery
kinetic battery variations to version the battery. The electrochemical voltages,
model can also be combined with ECM the use of an electrical analogy of
electrode and electrolyte mass ejection equations. The Butler-Volmer η = VBAT /VIN (3)
equation has been simplified and transferred to Thevenin's model to For this reason, its use is typically limited to applications requiring
expect that the parameter deviation and polarization voltage drop can <1 A of charge current, such as wearable fitness trackers or wireless
be beneath the state-of-the-art conversion. earbuds.
3. Topologies based charging techniques 3.2. Switched-mode charger
There are two broad types of classification in DC Power supply: A switched-mode charger differs from a linear-mode charger as
linear mode supply and switched-mode supply. In both classifications of depicted in Fig. 9(a), in which a switching circuit delivers a high-
power supply, the objective is to convert input AC power to DC output frequency voltage and then provides controlled DC output power
11
Fig. 8. (a) Block diagram of Linear Charger, (b) Schematic representation of linear charger.
through a small transformer and filter circuit. The switched-mode efficiency at higher charge currents. The versatility of this design makes
charger has low power dissipation and does not require a sink. This the buck switch-mode charger a popular choice when charge currents
type of charger used a controller for controlling the desired output exceed about 1 A [36]. Applications include gaming controllers, hand-
voltage. Due to the usage of excess components like MOSFET switching, held devices, and portable power-bank solutions. The buck converter
and an LC filter, it has some disadvantages. Electrical noise and Elec- employs high frequency switching to achieve voltage conversion, which
tromagnetic Interference (EMI) occurred by switching the operation of also generates noise and potential EMI concerns. The typical boost
the charger. Radiation occurred by the output filter circuit. But electrical charger is shown in Fig. 9(c), which operates as a buck converter in
noise can be eliminated by fixing the switching frequency using a reverse, thereby generating an output voltage for the system that is
controller. The charger controller sets the desired charging current of higher than the input voltage. This enables the powering of loads that
the battery [25,36]. require high voltage and/or high peak currents for correct operation,
such as motors, printers, or speakers. It is available on the market and
Pout
Efficiency = (4) can charge a two-cell lithium-ion battery from a standard 5-V USB
Pin
source. Cell balancing is recommended to ensure maximum battery-pack
The switched-mode charging circuit is shown in Fig. 9(b) and (c). A capacity and lifetime when employing greater than two batteries in se-
typical buck switch-mode charger (Fig. 9(b)) consists of four switches: ries. Some chargers may include cell-balancing functionality.
((Q1, Q2, Q3, and Q4) the reverse blocking field-effect transistor (FET) is
used to prevent battery discharge into the input, two switching FETs are
employed as a DC-DC buck converter, and a battery FET used to achieve 3.3. Direct mode charger
the power-path management feature. In this architecture, the system is
powered by either the buck converter output (when input is present) or Direct charger provides extremely high efficiency and develops for
the battery (when output is removed or overloaded) [92]. Buck switch- fast charging technique [37]. It consists of a bidirectional blocking
mode chargers address the efficiency limitations of linear chargers. switch that acts as shorting resistance during normal operation, located
Typically, these devices can maintain efficiencies on the order of 91 % at between input and battery. The block diagram representation of the
the optimal point of operation, which is scalable by changing the silicon direct mode charger is shown in Fig. 10(a), in which the charging de-
and external components area. A larger circuit area translates to higher pends on the adaptor regulator voltage. To perform regulation, a direct
charger requires an additional adjustable voltage regulator with a
12
Fig. 9. (a) Block diagram of switched-mode charger, (b) Schematic representation of buck charger, (c) Schematic representation of boost charger.
13
Fig. 10. (a) Block diagram of direct charger, (b) Flash charger, (c) Switched-capacitor charger.
communication interface. The communication host processor always charger and switched-capacitor charger. Fig. 10(b) shows the flash
monitors the battery voltage and current, so it controls the adaptor charger schematic that uses two shoring FETs Q1 and Q2 and the battery
accordingly. By this instantaneous control, losses can be reduced, and voltage can be controlled by a protection circuit. This charger provides a
better efficiency can be achieved by >96 %. In this type of charger, the fast charge with higher efficiencies and low losses. As the battery current
input current is equal to the charging current, and it requires a low equals input current, it requires an expensive cable with high current
resistance cable for a large charging current. This drawback can be capabilities. Switched capacitor (SC) charger consists of an unregulated
overcome by using a special e-marked cable which is highly costly. The converter that doubles the input current and halves the input voltage.
complexity of developing a direct charger with an adjustable voltage This charger provides efficient charging with reduced losses. But the
adaptor and communication interface is high. design of an adaptor to regulate voltage is very complex. Fig. 10(c)
Two types of direct chargers are shown in Fig. 10(b) and (c), flash shows the schematic representation of the SC charger that uses four
14
Fig. 11. (a) Block diagram of dual mode charger (b) Schematic representation of dual charger - Parallel configuration (c) Schematic representation of dual charger -
Cascade configuration.
switches for switching operation to achieve current doubles and halved

voltage. When Q1 and Q3 turn on, the current is delivered to the battery 3.4. Dual-mode charger
through charging of the flying capacitor (Cfly). When Q2 and Q4 turn on,
the current is delivered to the battery through discharging of the flying The Block diagram of a dual-mode charger is depicted in Fig. 11(a)
capacitor (Cfly). consists of two chargers, the main charger, and an auxiliary charger,
connected in parallel to achieve a high charge current. The main charger
(5) provides a charge current and supports the device load. The auxiliary
/
Vbat = Vfly = 1 2 Vin
charger supports the main charger by providing a charging current with
Ibat = Ifly = 2Iin (6) high efficiency. A dual charger is possible with the same or different
types of switching topologies connected in parallel. There are no
15
Fig. 11. (continued).
stability issues when connecting batteries output in parallel. The block 4. EV charging station architecture
diagram in Fig. 11(a) shows that the dual charger is located inside the
device and the variable input voltage is provided to the dual charger by In the development of Electric Vehicle technology, battery charger
an adjustable voltage adaptor. The connection of the dual charger can plays a vital role. An optimized battery charger must be reliable,
either be in a parallel or cascaded configuration as shown in Fig. 11(b) affordable, and efficient with all advantages of power density, cost, size,
and (c). The standard dual charger follows a parallel configuration, and and health. Its operation depends on the charge control algorithm and
a cascaded configuration is applicable for low current requirements only charging converter topologies. It is essential to ensure the level of
[38]. charging and the location of the charger while designing the EV charger.
Fig. 11(b), and (c) shows charger-1 (main) configured for both The conventional charging station design includes an on-board and off-
charging and discharging, the charger-2 (auxiliary) configured for board charging station. The advanced charging station design includes a
charging alone and separated from device load. For smooth termination fast-charging station, smart charging station, wireless charging station,
of both chargers, the charging current limit of charger-1 should be set to and battery swapping station.
a higher value than the charging current limit of charger-2. Each charger
current limit feature should be set to half of the adaptor's maximum 4.1. Charging levels
output current for better stability. The thermal distribution of dual
chargers is also good when compared to other charging topologies. There are 4 levels of charging that can be done to charge electric
Therefore, the dual-mode charger is considered a fast-cool charger. The vehicles [44].
host control of the dual charger should balance the charging current and
voltage of the two chargers to attain maximum power output with better 4.1.1. Level – 1 charging
thermal distribution [39] (Table 3). On-board type ac charging is used here for charging EVs. The stan-
dard voltage outlet of 120 V, 15A is suitable for Level – 1 charging. It
takes up to 20 h to recharge the battery. It is called residential charging,
but it does not apply to India as it has the standard grid voltage of 230 V,
16
Table 3
Comparative discussion of charger topologies.
Parameters Linear mode charger Switched-mode charger Direct mode charger Dual mode charger
Principle It converts stepping down AC It converts AC to DC and then steps Output is regulated by the adaptor of It contains two chargers to achieve high
to DC [35]. down [36]. the charger [37] charge currents [38].
Voltage control Voltage control is done by a Voltage control is done by a feedback Host controlled charge profile using Variable voltage for dual charger is given by
regulator [35] circuit [36] adjusting adaptor [40] adjustable voltage adaptor [39]
Complexity Less compared to switched More compared to linear mode [42] More compared to switched and More compared to all other charger types
mode [41] linear mode [37]. [38]
Reliability More reliable compared to Reliability depends on switching More reliable compared to both More reliable compared to all other types
switched mode [35,42] operations [36]. switched and a linear model [37]. [38,39].
Efficiency Low efficiency is about 20 to High efficiency of about 60–65 % [36] High efficiency of about 95 % [40] High efficiency of about 95 % [38]
25 % [35]
Thermal Better [41] Low [43] Better [43] Best [39]
distribution
Other issues Bulky compared to switched- RF interference and noise occurred, so The selection of adaptor cable makes The communication interface of dual
mode [35] an EMI filter is needed [36]. the direct charger costly [37] chargers is difficult [38].
Table 4
Comparative discussion on levels of charging.
Levels of charging Types of charger Charging place Charging time EV battery energy capacity (kWh)
Level 1 (AC) Onboard charger Home or office 4–11 h 5–15

Level 2 (AC) Onboard charger Private or public outlets 1–4 h 5–15
Level 3 (DC) Off-board charger Commercial charging station 0.4–1 h 20–50
Level 4 (DC) (applicable for tesla EVs) Off-board charger Commercial charging station 0.5 h 20–50
50 Hz. It has a power level of 2 kW like an electric toaster [16]. It 4.2.1.1. Type 1. This type 1 is the SAE J1772 standard adopted by
provides a charge for 5 miles of distance/h. America and Asian countries. It can charge up to 7.4 kW. Nissan Leaf,
Mitsubishi, ENV200, and Peugeot iON are some of the EVs using these
4.1.2. Level – 2 charging type 1 connectors.
On-board type ac charging is used here for charging EVs. The stan-
dard voltage outlet of 240 V, 80A is suitable for Level – 2 charging. It 4.2.1.2. Type 2. This type is IEC 62196-2 standard adopted by Europe.
takes up to 7 h to recharge the battery. It is also called residential It can charge up to 43 kW and is used for public charging. Renault Zoe,
charging and is applicable in India. It has a power level of 22 kW similar BMWi3, i8, Volvo V60, and Tesla Model S are some of the EVs using
to a washing machine [45]. It provides a charge for 15 miles of distance/ these type 2 connectors.
h.
4.2.2. DC EV connectors
4.1.3. Level – 3 charging EV can charge up to 350 kW using DC EV connectors. It provides
Off-board type dc charging is used here for charging EVs. The stan- direct current with faster speed mainly used in public charging stations.
dard dc voltage outlet of 50 V to 1500 V, and 80A to 400A is suitable for It has 3 types.
Level – 3 charging. It takes up to 0.5 h to recharge the battery. It is also
known as DC fast charging and is applicable in India. It has a power level 4.2.2.1. CHAdeMO EV connector. This type of connector can charge up
of 48 kW to 400 kW like 15 air conditioning units [45]. It provides a to 100 kW designed by Japan and most Asian countries manufactured
charge for 80–100 miles of distance/0.5 h. this EV connector. EVs like Mitsubishi Outlander, KIA Soul, Nissan leaf,
iMiev use these types of charging connectors
4.1.4. Level – 4 charging
Off-board type dc charging is used here for charging Tesla EVs. The 4.2.2.2. CCS connector. The Combined Charging System is the combo of
standard voltage levels of 120 V, 240 V, and 400 V are suitable for Tesla a type 2 ac connector and dc connector. The charging power for AC is 43
EV charging. It takes up to 0.5 h to recharge the battery. It has a power kW and DC is 100 kW. It can range up to 350 kW. EVs manufacturers like
level of 120 kW to 250 kW. It is called Superfast charging and the design Ford, BMW, Hyundai, General Motors, Honda, Renault, Kia, Volkswa-
is applicable only for Tesla EVs [46] (Table 4). gen, and Tesla developing these types of connector.
4.2. EV connectors 4.2.3. Tesla supercharger

Tesla launched this type of charger for its recent electric vehicles.
EV connectors should ensure that it fits both the vehicle and EV 480 V fast charging technology is used here and it can charge the vehicle
charging station outlet. There are two EV connectors available in the battery within an hour. Tesla gives free charge option for Model S and
market, they are AC EV connectors and DC EV connectors as shown in Model X type EV.
Fig. 12 [86].
4.2.1. AC EV connectors 4.3. Architecture of charging station

EV can charge up to 43 kV using AC EV connectors. One end should
be plugged into the car and the other end should be plugged into the 4.3.1. On-board charging station
standard grid voltage. There are two types of AC EV connectors shown in An on-board charger block diagram is shown in Fig. 13(a), where the
Fig. 12. standard AC supply voltage is given directly to the vehicle, and the
converter (charging circuit) present inside the vehicle converts AC to DC
and charges the battery. This type of charger is preferred nowadays for
17
SAE J1772 IEC 62196-2
Tesla Supercharger
CHAdeMO CCS
Fig. 12. EV charge connectors.
charging electric vehicles. The customer can charge the vehicle from the 4.3.2. Off-board charging station
house power outlet itself. The duration for charging the battery takes The off-board charger block diagram is shown in Fig. 14(a), where
long in an on-board charger [7]. the primary AC supply voltage is transformed to DC supply by using a
Though it has the advantage of flexibility in charging time and converter (charging circuit) present outside the vehicle. The converted
charging place, the whole setup is placed inside the vehicle chassis DC voltage is then given directly to the battery which is present inside
adding weight to the vehicle. The weight of the vehicle affects the speed, the vehicle. Level 3 charger is adopted for the off board charging sta-
hill-climbing ability, and acceleration. Onboard vehicles use Level 1 tions. The customer can charge the vehicle from the public DC charging
type charging that is commonly available in residential areas [9]. The station. The duration for charging the battery is quite quick in an off-
single-phase ac supply limits the power to 3.7 kW with a 230 V supply board charger [7]. According to IEC EN 61851-23 standard, it is
and the three-phase ac supply can increase the power to 20 kW for rapid mandatory to add galvanic isolation between dc output and ac supply
charging. The challenge of onboard chargers is to control the flow of circuit.
energy between the grid and the battery. It must control the power factor Fig. 14(b) shows the off-board unidirectional charging system (Level
that may inject reactive power back into the grid. Thermal management 3) and it is usually composed of two processes: an AC-DC converter that
is strictly required for both battery and vehicle health. connects to the grid followed by a DC-DC converter that connects to the
The architecture of the unidirectional on-board charger (Level 1 & 2) EV battery. Based on the power converter topologies, these processes
is explained in Fig. 13(b), where the primary AC supply is connected to can allow the bidirection of power flow, based on the converter topology
an EMI filter which aims to minimize the common-mode and the [66]. The standard AC voltage is given to the input filter directly before
differential-mode noise to adopt the EMC regulatory standards. It safe- it converts to DC. The PFC stage aligns the input current with the grid
guards downstream power electronics from surges and inrush currents. voltage, enhancing the total power factor of the grid. In most cases, a
It also reduces EMI, which can create problems in other devices. The multilevel AC-DC stage transforms poly-phase AC from the grid to a
suppressed AC is then linked to the AC-DC converter stage, in which the high-voltage DC. The next DC/DC stage, which bypasses the onboard
H-bridge diode rectifier converts AC voltage into DC voltage and an charger power stage, can generate a constant DC for EV charging. This
interleaved DC-DC boost PFC topology steps the voltage into a higher topology is a phase-shifted full-bridge (PSFB) DC-DC converter topology
value and is controlled to reach high power factor correction (PFC). The consisting of a full-bridge DC-DC converter on the primary side, a
interleaved PFC stages adjust the current and voltage to encourage resonant inductor, an isolated transformer, and a rectifier on the sec-
improvement in power factor, transient response, efficiency, and har- ondary side. The energy transformed from the primary side is rectified
monic distortion [28,29]. To improve power density and overall effi- on the secondary side as D for charging the battery.
ciency, the power converter should ensure its zero-voltage switching But modern EV off-board chargers contain a bidirectional AC/DC
(ZVS) operation conditions. The output of the AC-DC converter block is converter [26], in which a three-phase L-C-L active rectifier is widely
then linked to a DC-DC converter, in which phase-shifted full-bridge used as it has bidirectional power flow, low harmonic current, and high-
(PSFB) DC-DC converter topology is consisting of a full-bridge DC-DC power density. The power density of the converter relay on the ratio of
converter on the primary side, resonant inductor, isolated transformer, volume and power. Due to switching loss, the efficiency of the converter
and rectifier on the secondary side. The energy transformed from the gets affected. To reduce the switching loss, soft switching with added
primary side is rectified on the secondary side as DC is used to charge the snubber circuits has been proposed. IGBT has a high conduction loss
battery. PSFB converters have high efficiency and a wider conversion compared to MOSFET, so it is preferred for unipolar switching methods.
ratio. In a unidirectional AC-DC converter, the Vienna rectifier is most used as
But modern EV onboard chargers contain a bridgeless interleaved it has low switching loss and high efficiency. The problem here in uni-
boost PFC topology for solving the heat management issues and LLC DC/ directional AC-DC converter is dc-link voltage ripple and harmonic in-
DC converter topology for ZVS operations over a wide load range and jection due to reactive power. To eliminate such a problem, dc-link
highest conversion efficiency than PSFB topology. capacitors are added which increases system weight.
18
Fig. 13. (a) Block diagram of on-board charger, (b) Architecture of Onboard charger.
In a Unidirectional DC-DC converter [26], LLC is focused because it The input of EV battery charger of both on and off-board in India is a
can achieve zero current and zero voltage switching, a wide voltage standard voltage of single-phase 230 V, 50 Hz frequency. The standard
range. A phase-shifted full-bridge converter is also preferred for unidi- AC voltage converts to DC using a bridge rectifier. The rectification
rectional DC power flow as it has the advantage of low magnetic inter- process can be classified as a single-stage rectifier and multi-stage
ference, high density of power, and better efficiency. In a bidirectional rectifier, both operate only unidirectional. For low power applications,
DC-DC converter, the dual active bridge (DAB) is suitable for the single-stage rectifier is preferred whereas the multistage rectifier
increased power conversion with high efficiency. The smaller number of suits industrial applications [66]. EV charger requires a steady constant
passive components decreases the switching losses. The overall perfor- dc voltage for efficient charging. The switching operation of the rectifier
mance off-board charger depends on the bidirectional DC-DC converter affects the power quality and also produces unnecessary harmonics. This
topologies. may be eliminated by adding a PFC circuit to the output of the bridge
19
Fig. 14. (a) Schematic representation of Off-board charger, (b) Architecture of off-board charger.
rectifier for dc smoothening. PFC is classified as conventional boost, 4.4. DC-DC converters used in battery chargers
interleaved boost, dual boost, totem pole, full-bridge totem pole and
further classification depends on the type of application that also exists Fig. 15 represents the categorization of DC/DC power converters:
[93]. The regulated dc voltage from PFC is then converted to desired non-isolated and isolated converters. An isolated power converter iso-
constant voltage using DC-DC converters. lates the input from the output by electrically and physically isolating
the circuit into two portions, preventing direct current flow between the
input and output. The deciding factor to choose isolated and non-
20
Fig. 15. Classification of power topologies for battery chargers.
isolated converters depends on many factors like cost, size, safety, and of the fast charger contains the current control for VSC to control the
efficiency. Many recent types of research on power converter topology reactive power and active power of the grid. Deadbeat predictive control
used isolated converters like flyback, Forward, Push-pull, LLC Resonant, is needed to control dual active bridges from high transient currents
and Half and Full-Bridge topology for EV chargers (Table 5). [49]. The duty ratio and frequency of the bridge are controlled to ach-
ieve the required low voltage dc level [50]. On the charging side, the
5. Advanced EV charging station frequency depends on the current control needed to achieve the desired
charging current of an electric vehicle [101]. The incorporation of RE
5.1. Fast charging station (FCS) sources like solar, wind, and power storage devices can be done easily
with this mode of topology. [91] presents a power balancing strategy for
According to EV charging standards, DC Fast charging is the level-3 a fast-charging station to reduce the impact of rapid charging on the
charging type that requires voltage ranging from 50 V to 1500 V, the power grid, based on flywheel energy storage. And also, by using bidi-
capacity of current ranges from 80A to 400A or higher, and power level rectional converters, power grid to EV, and vice versa communication
varies from 48 to 400kWor higher. It is preferred as a community can be achieved easily.
charging station and nearly 0.5 h are needed for charging an EV.
5.1.1.2. Via common AC-link. This type of topology uses a grid directly
5.1.1. Topologies of FCS to charge the EV faster. The major problem that occurred with fast
The topologies of FCS can be classified into two categories as com- charging using the grid is power demand. To mitigate this problem,
mon dc-link and common ac-link. bidirectional topology is essential for the fast-charging station, so that it
should be able to inject the reactive power back into the grid to maintain
5.1.1.1. Via common DC-link. Topologies of this type use back-to-back the point of common coupling (PCC) voltage and prevent voltage
AC-DC converters and filters to achieve common dc-link voltage. instability [100]. The low-frequency transformer is used as an isolating
Power electronic converters provide rectification, power factor correc- device for isolating the EV from the grid. The power conversion of low-
tion (PFC), and voltage control. All DC-DC converters connected to it frequency 50 Hz AC voltage to DC and further the converted DC to high-
receive voltage from the dc-link voltage [101]. The Architecture of the frequency 25 kHz AC voltage. The multiple numbers of EV charging at
fast-charging station in Fig. 16 achieves good overall efficiency, reduced the same time need a control circuit to balance the power demand.
harmonics, low capital, and operational cost [47]. The control strategy Integration of renewable energy is possible with more complexity in
21
Table 5
Different DC-DC converters for battery chargers.
Topology Circuit diagram Design Features Pros and cons Application
calculation
Flyback -The buck-Boost chopper Pros -Mobile charger

V0 =
depends on input voltage -Multiple output -Power Source
and desired output voltage with a single (<250 W)
( )
D N2
Vs
1 − D N1 -No blocking voltage on control -Xenon flash lamps
ΔV0 D the output side -Low-cost converter -Lasers
=
V0 RCf -Fast transient response with fewer -Photocopies
components -CRT's
Cons -Isolated driver
-Large output circuits
capacitor is needed
due to the lack of a
second-order low pass
filter
Forward -The Buck-Boost chopper Pros -Unmanned aerial
( )
N2
V0 = Vs.D
N1 depends on input voltage -Multiple output vehicles, guns,
V0(1 − D) and desired output voltages with a single antennas, etc., are
ΔiLx =
Lx.f -No snubber circuit is control used in the military.
ΔV0 1−D needed in two-switch -Simple in operation -Cameras and
=
V0 8LxC(f)ˆ2 forward converters. -Wide range of power searchlights
Cons -Battery chargers
-High cost with more -Driver circuits
number of -Storage inverters
components -Laptops, Set-top
boxes, IP routers,
printers, etc.
Push-pull -The Buck-Boost Pros -Battery

V0 = 2Vs.
operation depends on the -Low ripple current Management System
winding ratio of the which makes overall -Onboard chargers
( )
N2
D
N1 transformer. efficiency good -Traction inverters
-No feedback circuit as it -High magnetizing -Driver circuits
ΔiLx =
works perfectly in an inductances with a -Military
V0(0.5 − D) open-loop configuration. low number of turns. applications
Lx.f Cons
ΔV0 -Design of the
=
V0 transformer as per the
1 − 2D specification standard
32LxC(f)ˆ2 is complex
Half- -The Buck-Boost chopper Pros -Power Supplies

V0 = 2Vs.
bridge depends on input voltage -Higher output power -Battery
and desired output than fly back and Management System
( )
N2
D
N1 -The primary side of the forward converter -Driver circuits
capacitor produces a -Overall cost of the
ΔiLx =
constant mid-point converter is low.
V0(0.5 − D) voltage across the Cons
Lx.f primary winding. -Complex design when
ΔV0 compared to fly back
=
V0 and forward converter
1 − 2D -Voltage swing occurs
32LxC(f)ˆ2 due to switching
operation
Full -The Buck-Boost chopper Pros -Fast charger

( )
N2
V0 = Vs.D
bridge N1 depends on input voltage -No voltage spike due -On-board and off-
and desired output to leakage inductance. board chargers
ΔiLx =
-Utilizes the full DC link -High power output -Energy storage
V0(0.5 − D) voltages than a half-bridge -PV applications
Lx.f converter.
ΔV0 Cons
=
V0 -Design of leakage
1 − 2D inductance decides the
32LxC(f)ˆ2 performance of the
converter
(continued on next page)
22
Table 5 (continued )
Topology Circuit diagram Design Features Pros and cons Application
calculation
LLC 1 -At the resonance Pros -Powering display

fr1 = √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
2π Lr Cr frequency, the input -Switching loss is panels
voltage is similar to the reduced using -Energy storage
fr2 =
output voltage. Schottky diodes. -PV inverter
1 -High efficiency at high -Lower voltage stress -Driver circuit
2π (Lr + Lm) Cr input voltage in the secondary side -On board and Off-
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
lr/Cr
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ Cons board chargers
Q = -Complicated design
R
Fig. 16. Architecture of fast charger.
achieving the efficiency of the system. power level charger is needed, and the cost varies from around Rs.
36,000 to Rs. 88,000, whereas in the case of community places, high-
5.1.1.3. Economic aspects. The total investment cost of a fast-charging power chargers are essential, and costs vary from around Rs.1,75,000
station includes operation costs, installation costs, and maintenance to Rs.2,62,000.
costs. The installation costs include equipment costs, civil work,
manpower costs, grounding costs, etc. The alteration of the existing grid 5.1.1.4. Future research and development. The EV's incorporation into
or the incorporation of RE can also alter the initial installation costs. It is the grid results in power fluctuations, congestion, and other conse-
essential to maintain the charging station after installation. In [102,103] quences for the distribution system. The power system operators face
charging cost of EV varies according to the place. In the case of partial- many challenges for fault analysis and clearance of the system. Future
private or partial-community places, a medium power level or low research focuses on the enhancement of charging infrastructure with
23
Fig. 17. Infrastructure of smart charging station.
included facilities like smart metering, power flow management, and data can be monitored, stored, and retrieved whenever needed. En-
communication between the grid and EVs. [48] discussed the factors to ergy management and demand estimation can be predicted using his-
be considered for the charging station. Some of them are the area of EV torical data [52,55].
parking in the charging station, demand estimation of charging station, The optimal design of a smart charging station should be smarter
permissible voltage and power level at PCC, and power allowable for with these inclusions. Large number of cars needing a charge at the same
charging EVs. Thus, the research should also focus on optimization time may meet power imbalances that could lead to a system blackout.
techniques, sizing calculation of charging stations, demand manage- To avoid such a situation, a universal smart charger controller will be
ment, and enhanced cost analysis. developed for all types of vehicles that determines the optimal charging
current based on grid voltage, battery state of health, and user's trip
requirements [53,94]. The Smart Control Unit (SCU) [51] serves as a
5.2. Smart charging station
communication interface between the electric vehicle (EV), the charging
and load management system, and the power electronics. The devel-
Many ongoing types of research focus on the smart charging station
opment of SCU decides the charging of electric vehicles based on the
that connects a large volume of electric vehicles that aims to obtain fast
results of user requirements as well as the availability of power in the
charging, reduce the risk of power outages, and enhance bi-directional
charging station. Access to the charging station can also be done through
communication. The scope of these research towards electric vehicle
RFID tags or smart cards for safe and secured charging [55]. The
technology incorporates the benefits of energy management, zero car-
implementation of a smart charging station helps for the next-generation
bon emission, quality charging at low cost, and long life. Some of the
smart city planning concept whereas the managing and controlling of
notable research on smart charging stations are discussed:
energy-based demand forecast will take the leading role [56].
• [51] necessitates the architecture of an EV smart charging system
that includes an Intelligent Master Charge Controller (IMCC) that 5.3. RE integration and energy storage
acts as a common server and also coordinates the overall vehicle's
cycle of charging. The integration of EVs with the utility grid faces many problems. It is
• In [52], the authors developed the charging management system for difficult to mitigate those problems and handle precautionary measures.
EVs that incorporates the charging time slot allocation system and Those impacts are based on the evaluation of different characteristics of
effective reservation management system. EV batteries, location of charging, driving distances, charging orders,
• [53] focuses on implementing an efficiency improvement program demand response, battery health, strategies of charging, and so on
that reduces the overall smart charging station's operational costs [104]. Therefore, the complexity of integrating utility with EV is more
and helps to minimize the power quality problem in the distribution when compared to EV integration with renewable energy sources.
power grid. The integration of RE sources with charging stations will also achieve
• [54] deals with the planning of a charging station that involves a PEV a sustainable environment for green energy [57]. Solar energy and wind
charging station, a service-based customer behavior study particu- energy are the primary renewable energy that can contribute to EV
larly focused on a low-cost charging scheme. charging technology. The RE also can collaborate with an energy storage
system to equal the power generation and distribution of the electrical
The infrastructure of the smart charging station shown in Fig. 17, system [58,95]. Hybrid energy sources such as solar wind, flywheel,
consists of power generation which includes renewable energy, a data hydrogen-pumped storage, and battery energy storage are some of the
management center, a user communication interface that includes a recent developing technologies that have been utilized [96]. [59,97] RE
mobile app, tariff calculation, billing, etc., and Backup energy storage. integrated with EV charging faces challenges like the non-availability of
All these features are communicated via the cloud internet. Real-time renewable sources, traffic in power demand during peak hours, and
24
power management for EV to power grid communication. Some of the The software called Hybrid Optimization Model for Electric Renewables
studies related to RE integration with EV charging and its proposed (HOMER) was developed to achieve optimal power-sharing and the
optimization techniques are tabulated. sizing of renewable energy. The optimization based on the differential
The proposed hybrid charging station is shown in Fig. 18 which evolution (DE) algorithm in the MATLAB environment helps to size EV
[106] includes solar, wind energy, and a battery for storage. DC bus charging stations and renewable energy sources.
presented here is considered the main part of the system. The AC/DC Control and energy management also added to the challenges of the
converter is connected to the grid and dc-bus; this achieves bidirectional hybrid EV charging station. In the case of several EVs charging, the
power flow to retrieve. The PV panels are linked to a DC-DC power charging behavior pattern of the EV needs to be fixed. It should ensure
converter with maximum power control. The wind turbines are con- maximum use of renewable sources and minimum use of the grid to
nected to AC/DC converter that converts the AC power from wind en- avoid power demand problems [111]. The power demand can also be
ergy to DC. Power converters play an important role in deciding the controlled by fixing the rate like a low price for charging EV during the
efficiency of the system. Many kinds of research suggested that solar off-peak time and a high price for charging EV at the on-peak time. So,
energy limits the wide range of EV charging whereas wind energy is an EV owners have a chance to charge their vehicles at a low price. Table 7
exact match for vehicle charging architecture. But the trend goes on with shows several studies on different modeling techniques for charging
hybrid charging stations incorporated with battery storage [112,113]. stations to achieve better performance.
The power generation of hybrid sources depends on the size of the
charging station. The RE integration with the grid is a challenging task
that includes power demand, source demand, design of location for 5.4. Wireless charging station
maximum power, and communication protocols..
Table 6 shows the energy management study of RE-based EV The architecture of the wireless charging stations is illustrated in
charging stations. The optimal sizing of the charging station helps to Fig. 19. The principle of electromagnetic induction is considered a vital
maintain the power demand of EV charging using the conventional grid. role in wireless charging. It consists of a transmitter coil outside the
vehicle and a receiver coil inside the vehicle [67]. The power transfer
Fig. 18. Hybrid charging station [106].
25
Table 6
Energy management study of RE based EV charging stations.
Study Configuration Objective Algorithm Remarks
[60] Solar-Wind-Grid To completely utilize the RE sources Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) It helps in meeting the energy demand of electrical
utility
[61] Solar-Grid To review the challenges faced on RE Discussed Genetic Algorithm and MPPT It admits the challenges and some solutions for RE
based fast charging techniques integrated with fast charging
[62] Solar-Battery-Grid To utilize the energy in both day and Particle Swarm Optimization Algorithm The results show the effectiveness of energy storage
night time by storing excess solar energy (PSO) and Dynamic Programming (DP) and the importance of hybrid grid renewable
during day time energy
[63] Solar-Wind-Thermal To reduce the CO2 emission and Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition The case study highlights sustainable energy
Storage-Battery Storage- sustainable environmental development (SCADA) for data forecast and Model building connected to the microgrid
Grid Predictive Control (MPC)
[64] Solar-Wind-Fuel Cell- To improve the performance and Genetic Algorithm (GA) This helps to schedule the parking lots of EVs in the
Grid minimize the overall system cost charging station
[65] Wind - Grid The incorporation of large-scale wind Piecewise Recursive Approach (PRA) The result shows the importance of using a wind
farms into the electric grid to charge source for direct powering the EVs
more EVs
[98] Solar-Grid To increase the overall energy Artificial Neural Network (ANN) based The maximum power was derived from PV and the
generation by tracking the maximum advanced algorithm soft based controls with boost configuration and
panel output. operating cycles were controlled
between the two coils depends on the efficient power converters. On the road can transfer data like weather conditions, traffic conditions, etc.,
roadside, the power supply from the main Alternating Current grid is with the electric vehicles on road.
converted to Direct Current using an AC-DC power converter. The ob- The passenger can view their bills based on their energy consump-
tained Direct Current is then transformed into a high-frequency Alter- tion. This technology also paves the way for automobile industries to
nating Current using DC/AC converter. This high-frequency AC in the reduce CO2 emissions. EUR 11 million projects developed a vehicle
roadside transmitter coil is compensated for battery efficiency [68]. The called ElectReon, dynamic wireless charging is successfully tested with
wireless power transferred to the receiver coil that is present inside the this vehicle under different weather conditions. The UK government
vehicle also should be compensated [68]. The AC-DC converter converts plans to develop dynamic wireless charging on residential streets and
the compensated AC to DC. The stable DC charges the onboard batteries highways. Fig. 20(b) shows the WiTricity's theoretical predictions and
and is also incorporated with a battery management system (BMS) for experimental results for power transfer efficiency vs distance between
better safety operation. Based on the application of wireless charging, is the coils.
categorized as dynamic charging and static charging. Based on the operation of wireless charging, is classified into
capacitive wireless charging, Resonant Wireless Charging, inductive
(i) Static wireless charging wireless charging, and permanent magnetic gear wireless charging
(Table 8).
In static wireless charging, the vehicle gets charged when it is in
static condition. This type of method is used at parking stations or ga- 5.4.1. Capacitive wireless charging (CWC)
rages. Here, the transmitter coil is fitted under the parking pads and the Due to the varying electric field, displacement current caused the
receiver coil is fitted in the charging vehicle [67]. The wireless charging transfer of power wirelessly between transmitting and receiving coils. In
time of an EV depends on high-frequency ac power, size of the trans- capacitive wireless charging, coupling capacitors are used for wireless
mitter, receiver coils, and distance between them as in Fig. 20(a). power transmission [68]. The efficiency of power transfer depends on
capacitor plate area and distance between two capacitor plates as shown
(ii) Dynamic wireless charging in Fig. 21(a) [71]. When compared to Inductive Wireless Charging
(IWC), capacitive wireless charging is low cost and low weight, and it
In dynamic charging, the vehicle gets charged when it is in moving does not create eddy current losses [72]. The high switching frequency
condition as shown in Fig. 20(a). This type of method is used on road- of the coupling capacitor can achieve long-distance and efficient power
ways or highways. So, the transmitter coil placed under the road charges transfer. The different topologies used for capacitive charging are dis-
the vehicle continuously [69]. The continuous charging vehicle can cussed in Table 7 [71].
eliminate the need for large energy storage which leads to reducing the
weight of EVs. Currently, many countries are invested in research and 5.4.2. Inductive wireless charging (IWC)
development for the new concept of smart road technology. The smart Due to the mutual inductance of the magnetic field, wireless power
transfer is achieved between the transmitter and receiver coils. In
Table 7 Inductive Wireless Charging (IWC), coupling inductors are used for
Planning of charging station. wireless power transmission. The efficiency of power transfer depends
on frequency, distance, and mutual inductance between the transmitter
Study Modeling methods Source Type of station
and receiver coil. The range of output frequency is between Hz and kHz.
[107] Stochastic Programming Solar, Battery Hybrid charging
Fig. 21(b) shows the schematic diagram of coupling inductors that can
Storage station
[108] Two-Step Stochastic Micro-Grid, Solar, Hybrid charging achieve long-distance and efficient power transfer. [76] highlighted the
Programming Wind station combination of different LC topologies that can be series or parallel and
[109] Stochastic Programming Micro-Grid, Solar, Hybrid charging it also decides the efficiency of inductive wireless charging. The uni-
Wind, Biomass, station versal method of IWC has high power transfer with a large air gap are
Battery
[110] Two-stage stochastic Grid, Solar Battery swapping
widely used in public transport like electric buses, electric trains, and
Mixed Integer Linear station & hybrid electric cars [77]. The primary side converter preferred for IWC is PWM
Programming charging station controlled AC-AC converter for better transmission. The secondary side
[111] Two-Step Stochastic Grid, V2G All types of charging converters are buck converter, boost converter, buck-boost converter,
Programming station
and different dc-dc converter topologies can be used (Table 9).
26
Fig. 19. Architecture of wireless charging station.
Fig. 20. (a) Static and Dynamic Wireless Charging, (b) WiTricity's theoretical predictions and experimental results for power transfer efficiency vs distance between
the coils [70].
5.4.3. Permanent Magnet Gear Wireless Charging (PMGWC) behaves as a motor mode. The input AC is given to the transmitter side, it
PMGWC is different from both inductive and capacitive wireless induces mechanical torque and makes a permanent magnet to rotate.
charging. In Fig. 21(c), the transmitter and receiver coils contain per- Due to the synchronization, the receiver side permanent magnet receives
manent magnets on their sides. The transmitter side permanent magnet power and behaves in generator mode. Thus, it converts mechanical
27
Table 8
Comparison of capacitive wireless charging topologies.
Classification Topology Circuit Feature Efficiency Advantage Disadvantage
-Switching -SEPIC, Buck- -Large value of 90.3 % -Performance is not -Soft switching
Converter based Boost, Cuk, Zeta, coupling capacitance [73] affected for cannot achieve for
capacitive and Push-Pull and switching different topologies all load conditions
wireless charging converters frequency needed -Low switching loss
-Amplifier based Class D and Class -Series inductors 92 % [74] -High frequency -Sensitive to
capacitor wireless E converters connected with the switching capability parameter
charging capacitor to form can be achieved variation
resonance
-Full-bridge Full bridge -The larger size of the 90 % [75] -Widely used for low -Efficiency affected
inverter-based inverter inductor is needed. and high power due to more
capacitive -AC excitation is circuits switching loss
wireless charging provided by the
inverter
power input to electrical output and stores energy in the battery. BMS on fr = resonant frequency
the receiver side takes the responsibility of protecting the battery's L = Self-inductance
health [78]. The coupling of permanent magnets on the transmitter and C = Resonant Capacitor
receiver sides is referred to as magnetic gear. [79] highlighted the
challenges of lost synchronization speed at 150 Hz which affected the Depending on the Quality factor (Q) of resonance wireless charging,
power transmission. An advanced control system is needed to control power transfer capability changes accordingly. The Quality factor (Q)
the speed of rotating magnets which has many challenges [80]. The can be calculated from,
synchronization of permanent magnets of the transmitter and receiver
ωL 2π f .L
coil affects which significantly affects the power transfer capability of Q= − (8)
R R
the system. So, this PMGWC has fewer challenges in implementing static
applications when compared to dynamic applications (Table 10).
5.5. Battery swapping
5.4.4. Resonant Wireless Charging (RWC)

It is the technology of replacing the used or completely drained
Resonant Wireless Charging is referred to as the updated version of
battery with a fully charged battery. The better place was the first
traditional Inductive Wireless Charging as shown in Fig. 21(d). The
company to employ the battery swapping service for electric vehicles.
working of RWC is similar to other wireless charging techniques, only it
The company faced financial losses because of lower market penetration
differs in the design of coils and converter topologies. Due to varying
[82]. Countries like Japan, China, South Korea, etc. are using this
magnetic fields, the converted high-frequency AC from the main input
battery-swapping technology for electric buses [83]. Based on the po-
source transmits power to the receiver side from the transmitter coil and
sition of the battery, Battery swap technology is classified as side
converts it to DC for battery charge. To reduce the traditional IWC los-
swapping, top swapping, bottom swapping, and rear swapping. Table 11
ses, an additional compensation network is added to RWC on both
shows the battery swapping position applicable to suitable electric ve-
transmitter and receiver sides. The resonance frequency of the wireless
hicles. The requirement of a battery-swapping station includes data
coil is tuned to achieve maximum power transfer. The resonance wire-
management, storage cloud, communication interface, and available
less charging can be divided into two, (i) controlled self-resonance by
range of batteries. For a successful battery-swapping station, there
self-capacitance and inductance of the coils, and (ii) external controlled
should be continuous communication between electric vehicles, infor-
resonance by self-inductance and external capacitance of the coil [81].
mation systems, and battery-swapping stations.
The operating frequency range of RWC ranges between 10 and 150 kHz.
The bidirectional communication takes place between the vehicle
The results in [70] observed that the energy transfer relay on the
and the information system using WAVE communication. Once the
operating frequency of coils. 96 % power transfer efficiency is achieved
battery in the vehicle gets discharged, it sends the battery charge request
at the calculated resonant frequency. The efficiency is affected when the
to the information system. The information system gathered vehicles'
frequency of the system drops from the resonance frequency. This RWC
locations and expected time to reach the swapping station. The gathered
is considered the most efficient method for wireless charging electric
information was shared with the swapping station via the local internet.
vehicles. The resonance frequency of the transmitter and receiver coil
The swapping station starts preparing the battery for replacement. Once,
can be calculated from,
the vehicle reaches the swapping station, the user card is verified with
1 battery specification and allowed the vehicle to battery swap. The
fr = √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ (7)
2π L.C swapping of the battery takes place with the help of a robotic arm
without any delay. The payment of the user, battery specification, state
where, of charge, and next scheduled time for the charge are stored in the cloud
for easy tracking [99]. The Battery Management System (BMS) monitors
28
Fig. 21. (a) Schematic diagram of Capacitive Wireless Charging, (b) Schematic diagram of Inductive Wireless Charging, (c) Schematic representation of Permanent
Magnet Gear Wireless Charging, (d) Resonant Wireless Charging.
29
Table 9 the overall function of the battery and notifies the user about the state of
Comparison of compensation network topologies. health (SOH), working voltage, and charging current [85]. The EV users
Configuration Circuit Performance can send a request via a mobile APP installed on smart mobile devices
developed by battery-swapping station owners. The users can also get
Series-Series -Preferred for low
voltage output information about the location of the charging station, and real-time
-Large VA at the prices through the app. Additionally, the swapping station can access
input the vehicle speed, vehicle location, availability, payment service, and
-Highly feedback collection can also be done.
Recommended for
vehicular application
Sujie Shao et al. [84] highlighted the structure of the battery swap-
-Highly capable of ping station employed by the van as shown in Fig. 22. The swapping
power transfer over station has a bidirectional power flow with the grid. Power-sharing can
long distance be done when the demand is high or low by injection of the power to the
-Low efficiency
grid. Power electronics devices like converters, battery chargers, con-
Series- -Low efficiency
Parallel -Preferred for high trollers, and robotic arms are the main components of the Battery Swap
voltage output system. The interfacing bidirectional AC/DC converter with the distri-
-Large VA at the bution transformer is quite challenging during the installation process.
input First-in-first-out service is employed in Battery Swapping Station for
-Highly
Recommended for
efficient working without congestion problems. This Battery Swapping
vehicular application Station is considered fast and efficient when compared to other types of
-Highly capable of charging stations. This reduces battery charging and improves battery
power transfer over life. The battery can be charged in off-demand hours and injected into
long distance
the power grid during demand hours for additional revenue generation.
Low- -Low efficiency
frequency -Preferred for low The scheduled time for charging the heavy vehicles helps to save time
voltage output rather dc fast charging is efficient, it takes time for charging. It has many
-Small VA at the merits for both public and private transportation, the only challenge is
input ensuring a communication interface. Some of the merits of a battery-
-Not Recommended
swapping station are listed below [105]
for vehicular
application
-Low capable of ➢ When compared to the other electric vehicle charging techniques,
power transfer over the battery swap station is a quick and efficient way that enables the
long distance
customer to continue driving without being distracted.
Parallel- -Low efficiency
Parallel -Preferred for high ➢ To connecting to the grid, BSSs have a bidirectional flow of power.
voltage output The load curve is enhanced by charging in off-demand hours and
-Small VA at the infusing electricity into the power grid during demand hours via
input stored batteries. The total efficiency of electricity systems improves
-Not Recommended
because of this procedure. When the BSS station owners have suffi-
for vehicular
application cient charged batteries in advance, they can also always satisfy the
-Low capable of customer's needs.
power transfer over ➢ In comparing the BSS with the fast-charging method, the battery
long distance
swapping station method minimizes the consumer waiting time by
extending the battery life as it can charge for a longer time at the
desired voltage
Table 10 ➢ Because of mutually advantageous cost reductions deriving from
Comparison of different wireless charging techniques. utilities by recharging batteries at times of low load and from better
Technology Performance efficiencies, the implementation of the battery swap approach will be
a cost-effective solution for both vehicle and station owners.
Efficiency Electromagnetic Frequency
Interference (EMI) (kHz)
In Table 12, the conventional charging station methods including
Inductive Wireless Medium Medium 10–50
onboard charging and off-board charging station are compared with
Charging
Capacitive Wireless Low Medium 100–500 advanced charging methods including fast-charging stations, smart
Charging charging stations, wireless charging stations, and battery swapping
Permanent Magnet Gear Low High 0.05–0.500 stations based on different parameters like energy transfer, battery
Wireless Charging
heating, weight, charging time, flexibility, BMS system, complexity, and
Resonant Wireless Medium Low 10–150
Charging
cost.
5.6. Energy management system
An EMS may have one objective or numerous goals which can be

specialized, financial, technoeconomic, natural, and social-economic.
Table 11 Various considers are done on EMS, but most of the investigate com-
Classification of battery swapping.
mitments are centered on financial targets. It's superior, more effective,
Battery swapping position Suitable electric vehicle more feasible, and more secure compared to the show framework, and
Sideways Vans, trucks can decrease the sum of power outages and other disappointments
Bottom Car happening in control era zones. Give operational reference signals for
Top Bus microgrid units, state observing and gadget communication innovation
Rear Car with large backspace
to build a bi-directional interaction system between the facility
30
Fig. 22. Architecture of battery swapping station [84].
Table 12
Comparison of charging station.
Parameters On-board charging Off-board charging station Fast charging station Smart charging station Wireless charging Battery swapping station
station station
Energy Less energy (kW) High transfer of energy Multiple ports for Bidirectional energy Energy transfer Bidirectional energy
transfer transfer (kW) different energy transfer due to RE depends on the transfer between grid
transfer levels integration distance between coils and swapping station
Battery Not serious issue Serious issue The temperature Real-time Sensors Not serious issue No Such Issues
heating controller controls the control the temperature
battery heating and notify the user
Weight Weight on EV is Weight on EV is removed Weight on EV is Weight on EV is Weight on EV is Weight on EV is constant
added removed removed moderate
Charging The more charging Charging time depends on Charging time depends Charging time depends Charging time Do delay in charging.
time time needed the EV controller on the EV controller on user control depends on power
transmission coils
Flexibility Recharge at any No flexibility to recharge Recharge at any place Recharge at any place More flexible than fast More flexible than other
place in various places charging types of charging
Complexity Less complex and low High complex and higher Low complex and high High complex and Medium complex and High complex and
& cost cost compared to off- cost cost highest cost high cost medium cost
board
BMS system Rectification is used Better BMS system, but The EV charge BMS is controlled by the Rectification is used to BMS control depends on
to manage the BMS identification of cell controller is used to Smart Control Unit manage the BMS the information system
system imbalance is not possible control the BMS system system
generation to be appropriately dispatched and so the client utilization. communities using renewable energy systems, thermal resources, and
Specialized goals of EMS incorporate control quality gear performance, energy storage. Energy consumption has grown at one of the fastest rates
and corruption of transformers and its thought gives superior execution since agriculture, domestic use, and industry all use energy to increase
of the framework, superior control quality, progress expectation, and productivity. At the same time, the need to meet energy demand has
decrease support and downtime. created huge capital requirements needed to build power plants and
Different form of EMS is considered as HEMS Home Energy Man- transmission networks. Among the most promising tools for addressing
agement System, BEMS (Building Energy Management System), FEMS these concerns is distributed power generation. The energy management
(Factory Energy Management System), CEMS (Cluster/Community En- network is the backbone of all infrastructures, from communications to
ergy Management System), IEMS (Fig. 23). the economy to society's transport. Due to an increasing number of
In this section, Performance in Energy Management algorithms are disruptions in the system, energy management system infrastructure has
provided to meet the electrical and thermal demands of residential been improved with technology and investment assistance; PEV RES ESS
31
Fig. 23. EMS.

➢Demand: - To coordinate the conveyed vitality supply frameworks to facilitated the scattered essentialness supply systems - Control sources consolidate warm
imperativeness, ordinary control of Power sources include thermal energy, renewable energy (such as solar, wind, biomass, hydropower, etc.), and traditional power.
➢Supply: - Transmission advantage suppliers, transportation advantage suppliers, DER proprietors, aggregators, advance setting and inquire, diffusing compose
chiefs, multi-utility executives, little and medium-sized clients, clearing and medium-sized buyers, as well as industry, and producers, are set to develop EV charging
stations within the long run. Businesses are anticipated to develop electric vehicle charging stations.
➢Storage: - Energy storage technology, such as electrical and thermal energy storage, can be used to buffer changes in demand and power supply. The scheduling as
well as the control system can be improved. Vitality capacity technology, such as power capacity and warm vitality, can occasionally be used to govern changes in
request and yield of control. The control framework and plan can both be improved.
➢Control: By coordinating grid stabilization control, generation control, DSM control, and power supply control, you can automate the energy demand control
through data transaction in Monitoring, control, and monitoring. There are also converters (AC/DC, DC/DC, AC/AC, and DC/AC), optimal control modules, pre-
diction, and actual load/supply/flow, chargers, and a variety of control units (MPPT, boost, boost buck, buck converter), as well as environmental dispatch, and
security control.
Behavior, Power Flow - Primary and Secondary Load Sensitive Analysis, now desire to possess a premium, well-designed, feature-rich vehicle
Signal Flow. when they pay a premium. Customers are becoming more interested in
A variety of hardware, safety, charge control, thermal management, new-age technologies, which are appealing both in terms of style and
communication, and software values are examined, as well as status, functions. Ola Electric scooters have a top speed of 115 km/h., a range of
energy balance, power, errors, user interface, and communication flow >150 km, phone sensing unlocking through a digital key, voice control,
and information analysis based on economics, data acquisition, fault remote vehicle control, and safety features including geofencing and
analysis, stability analysis, security assessment, and estimation analysis tamper warning. Ather also has high-tech capabilities like reverse assist
methods for optimizing the system. The purpose of this analysis is to and the ability to control the vehicle from a smartphone, including
identify the sources of waste energy, to study the concepts of energy accepting/rejecting calls and playing music. Based on Ola Electric's sales
conservation, and to estimate the effect of implementing the concepts of data, it's plausible to assume that buyers are now willing to pay a pre-
energy conservation. Energy-efficiency measures are verified with data mium for these vehicles.
on energy use after they have been implemented.
6.2. Full stack approach
6. Future roadmap of EV adoption
Traditionally, the automotive industry has followed a vertically
It's been 20 years, and one would think that electric vehicles would focused business model. It only includes manufacturing and marketing,
have been the standard and a way of life in the country. However, the but no servicing, retailing, or fuel infrastructure was included. Nowa-
reality appears to be rather different. Around one out of 125 vehicles days, in addition to production and distribution, companies are
were found to be electric in the Indian scenario with the majority of two- increasingly selling directly to consumers, putting up charging infra-
wheelers and three-wheelers. The elements influencing EV performance structure, and offering financing choices. This is key to accelerating the
appear to have remained unchanged over the last two decades. Some of initial adoption of EVs as customers are assured of financing support and
the key reasons for limited EV adoption in India are the lack of product charging infrastructure support. The full-stack approach will be vital in
innovation, cost concerns, and the poor density of charging infrastruc- assisting EVs in reaching critical mass on Indian roads.
ture [88]. Ola Electric sold 1100 crores worth of e-scooters in India in
only two days in September 2021. This translates to approximately
6.3. Promoting total cost of ownership (TOC)
85,000 e-scooters sold at a cost of around 1.3 lakh per scooter. It is an
indicator of a fundamental shift in consumer behavior, with a growing
The total cost of ownership (TCO) is the lifetime cost of operating a
preference for electric vehicles. Here are a few significant innovations
vehicle, which is the sum of the upfront cost to buy the vehicle and
that are accelerating the adoption of electric vehicles.
running costs that include fuel/charging costs, and maintenance costs.
The TCO comparison of EV and IC vehicles shows that two-wheeler EVs
6.1. Progress in product innovation turn out to be 50 % cheaper than an IC vehicle. In the case of four-
wheelers, the TCO of an EV is 20 % lower than that of an IC at 1.5
The cost and range of the vehicle are considered while determining lakh km driven over the vehicle's lifetime. Table 13 shows that for EVs,
practicality. Due to substantial advancements in battery chemistry, customers would pay a little higher upfront cost while saving money
vehicle range has significantly increased. Furthermore, lithium-ion pri- over the vehicle's lifetime.
ces have dropped by 98 % in the last three decades, with a 90 % drop in
the last decade alone. As a result, the cost of producing batteries has 6.4. Positive regulatory tailwinds
dropped dramatically. Furthermore, because the battery accounts for 25
% to 40 % of a vehicle's cost, the cost of EVs has decreased. Consumers The automotive industry is contributing 7 % to the Indian GDP and is
32
a rather important sector of the economy. The existing subsidies from battery swapping stations. To date, the challenges faced in the fast-
the government of India mainly focused on manufacturing and pro- charging station are to achieve good overall efficiency, reduced
moting EVs in India. Positive regulatory intervention through schemes harmonics, low capital operational cost, and an efficient control al-
like Production Linked Incentive Scheme (PLI) and FAME aims to make gorithm to control the charging current. The challenges faced in the
India a global hub for EV manufacturing. The government is also sup- wireless charging station are the design of coils, selecting an
porting many local industries via the Phased Manufacturing Programme appropriate compensation network, and high-power transfer capa-
(PMP) to achieve the mass adoption of EVs. bility over a large distance. Battery swapping station is in trend
among researchers to develop battery-swapping management sys-
7. Conclusion tems and it is the best time management charging station among all
others and can be easily applicable for both private and public
Electric Mobility is undoubtedly one of the most effective strategies transportation. Smart charging architecture is an additional superior
for addressing climate change. The charging capability is a crucial feature in all charging stations and has focused more research op-
design feature for electric vehicle battery packs to address range anxiety portunities on the integrated Renewable Energy with EV charging
and meet customer expectations. Even though significant research stations and efficient energy management systems which reduce the
attention has been focused on EV charging in modern years, there are utilization of power demand.
still a lot of knowledge gaps. • Finally, the present key reasons for limited EV adoption and gov-
ernment policies in India are addressed and novel approaches to
• There are different charging techniques, and their operational making intelligent EV charging stations have been put forth as a
flowchart has been discussed based on charging current, charging roadmap to accelerate the adoption of electric vehicles in India.
voltage, charging time, and cell temperature. The merit of low
charging time is achieved by CV, Five-step, Pulse, VCD, CT-CV, and CSIR-CECRI manuscript communication number
boost charging methods. Higher charging efficiency is achieved by
CC, Trickle–CC-CV, five-step, pulse, and SRC charging methods. CECRI/PESVC/Pubs/2022-069.
Good Battery life is achieved by CC, five-step, pulse, VCD, and CT-CV
charging methods. To date, the challenges faced in the charging
Declaration of competing interest
techniques are to balance the charging time and battery life and,
most of the charging technique needs additional protection to bal-
We declare that there are no conflicts of interest associated with this
ance the temperature of the battery.
manuscript and as corresponding author, I have gone through the
• The different topologies-based charging techniques have been dis-
manuscript thoroughly towards the submission.
cussed and classified based on their performance, cost, and size
which vary according to the application. In comparison with other
chargers, the dual-mode charger has the advantage of high reli- Acknowledgement
ability, high efficiency, and the best thermal distribution, but also
has a more complex design and a higher cost. To date, the challenges The author wishes to express her thanks to the CSIR - Centre for
faced in the charging techniques are the selection of an EMI filter, Electrochemical Research Institute for its extensive support. A portion of
communication interface, and adaptor cable. The switched-mode the work is involved in battery division and the paper presented in this
chargers are largely used in Electric Vehicles and the present and Fast-Track Translation (FTT) Project “Design and Development of
future research can focus on the dual-mode charger to achieve high Indigenous Smart Battery Management System for Energy Storage and
reliability. E-vehicle applications” (MLP0304). ‘Council of Scientific and Industrial
• The various EV charging station levels have been discussed based on Research, India’ provides financial support for this project.
location and charging time. The difference between on-board and
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A Study On Trends and Developments in El

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Journal of Energy Storage 52 (2022) 105013

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Journal of Energy Storage

A study on trends and developments in electric vehicle

Nomenclature kHz kilohertz

Fig. 2. Government policies for EV adoption in India [13].

(a) CC-CV Charging (b) Trickle-CC-CV Charging

(c) Five-Step Charging

(e) SRC Charging (f) VCD Charging

(g) CT-CV Charging (h) Boost Charging

Fig. 3. VI characteristics of charging techniques.

(b) Trickle-CC-CV Charging

(c) Five-Step Charging

(d) Pulse Charging

Fig. 4. Flowchart of different charging techniques.

(e) SRC Charging (f) VCD Charging

(g) CT-CV Charging

(h) Boost Charging

Fig. 5. Battery modeling techniques.

Fig. 6. 1RC and 2RC circuit models.

Fig. 7. Data driven model process.

3. Topologies based charging techniques 3.2. Switched-mode charger

switches for switching operation to achieve current doubles and halved

Fig. 11. (continued).

Level 1 (AC) Onboard charger Home or office 4–11 h 5–15

4.2. EV connectors 4.2.3. Tesla supercharger

4.2.1. AC EV connectors 4.3. Architecture of charging station

SAE J1772 IEC 62196-2

Fig. 15. Classification of power topologies for battery chargers.

Flyback -The buck-Boost chopper Pros -Mobile charger

Push-pull -The Buck-Boost Pros -Battery

Half- -The Buck-Boost chopper Pros -Power Supplies

Full -The Buck-Boost chopper Pros -Fast charger

(continued on next page)

LLC 1 -At the resonance Pros -Powering display

Fig. 16. Architecture of fast charger.

Fig. 17. Infrastructure of smart charging station.

Fig. 18. Hybrid charging station [106].

Fig. 19. Architecture of wireless charging station.

5.4.4. Resonant Wireless Charging (RWC)

5.6. Energy management system

An EMS may have one objective or numerous goals which can be

Fig. 22. Architecture of battery swapping station [84].

Fig. 23. EMS.

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