Archives of Computational Methods in Engineering

https://doi.org/10.1007/s11831-020-09511-4

ORIGINAL PAPER

Measurement and Mitigation of Residual Stress in Wire‑Arc Additive

Manufacturing: A Review of Macro‑Scale Continuum Modelling
Approach
Shekhar Srivastava1   · Rajiv Kumar Garg1 · Vishal S. Sharma2 · Anish Sachdeva1

Received: 26 March 2020 / Accepted: 12 October 2020

© CIMNE, Barcelona, Spain 2020

Abstract
Wire-arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) has recently attracted researchers to produce metal components with a high-
deposition rate. Many researchers are trying to establish the WAAM process as a high-deposition metal additive manufactur-
ing (AM) process. A computationally efficient mathematical model used for the metal-AM process yields a framework for
component qualification as per international standards. Since heat transaction in the AM process can control the thermal-field
generated through continuous heat deposition. Therefore, the present study focuses on the critical review of multi-physics con-
tinuum modelling of WAAM at a macro-scale level. Thermo-mechanical model for WAAM has been discussed extensively,
i.e., heat-source models, materials models, meshing strategy, and boundary conditions. Further, a review of the simulation
results discussed as thermal fields, residual stress and distortion, and experimental validation to provide a critique of real-
life experiments. Also, various residual stress/distortion mitigation techniques used in the WAAM have been compiled to
provide a framework for future directions.

Abbreviations DWF–PAM Double wire feed–plasma additive

WAAM Wire arc additive manufacturing manufacturing
PBF Powder bed fusion ALM Additive layer manufacturing
AM Additive manufacturing CGEF Complete grown equiaxed ferrite
DED Directed energy deposition CNC Computer numerical control
CAD Computer aided design BEM Boundary element method
GMAW Gas metal arc welding FDM Finite difference method
GTAW​ Gas tungsten arc welding SPH Smoothed particle hydrodynamics
PAW Plasma arc welding FEA Finite element analysis
EB Electron beam CFD Computational fluid dynamics
LENS Laser engineered net shaping AMR Adaptive mesh refining
DMD Direct metal deposition EBF3 Electron beam free form fabrication
EBM Electron beam melting EDM Electro-discharge machining
3D 3 dimensional SS Stainless steel
FEM Finite element method IN Inconel
UTS Ultimate tensile strength BTF Buy-to-fly
YS Yield strength KPIs Key performance indicators
SLM Selective laser melting

* Shekhar Srivastava
shekhars.ip.17@nitj.ac.in 1 Introduction
1
Industrial and Production Engineering, Dr B R Ambedkar
National Institute of Technology, Jalandhar, India Recently, Directed Energy Deposition (DED) processes are
2 widely adopted by manufacturing industries for its ability
School of Mechanical, Industrial and Aeronautical
Engineering, University of Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, to produce comparatively larger mechanical and structural
South Africa components through its CAD model directly. The DED

13
Vol.:(0123456789)

process holds higher deposition rates and non-restraint
build volumes over PBF processes. Also, it has a substan-
tial raw material saving as compared to conventional and
non-conventional manufacturing techniques. Besides the
blown powder variant of DED process, WAAM processes
are capturing the manufacturing industries due to its capabil-
ity of producing large and slightly less complex geometry
components. The WAAM process uses a wire and an arc
source continuously fed into the melt pool. This arrange-
ment makes it relatively cheaper concerning other metal
additive manufacturing processes with a laser or an electron
beam power source. The manufacturing of low and medium
complex geometry components through WAAM process is
highly recommended due to various reasons viz., high depo-
sition rate [1, 2], low material and equipment cost [3, 4],
ability to fabricate thermolabile components in out-chamber
processing [2], rapid production speed results in reduced
development time [5], and multiple axes and multiple mate-
rial operation [6]. DED AM processes are of two types viz.,
blown powder technology [7–10] and wire-based technol-
ogy [11–14]. Also, WAAM process uses energy input from
a laser power [15–17], electron beam power [18–20], and
electric arc (GMAW source [21, 22], GTAW source [23,
24], PAW source [25, 26] and hybrid power source [27, 28]).
Figure 1 shows a pictorial classification of DED based metal
AM processes.
Wire
EB freeform
Fabrication
WAAM
LENS
GMAW GTAW PAW
Hybrid
based based based
WAAM
AM AM AM
Fig. 1  Classification of directed energy deposition (DED) AM processes
13
S. Srivastava et al.
2 Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing
Processes
As explained, wire arc AM processes use welding power
source, i.e., GMAW, GTAW, and PAW. An exhaustive detail
about the different WAAM processes and its working proce-
dures can be referred from [29]. Also, Table 1 lists out a few
current research and other information about WAAM pro-
cess (an improvement in the process understanding [30–33],
an increase in the capability of hardware [27, 32, 34], an
improvement in the deposited material properties [35–37]).
The basic setup of the WAAM process is quite similar in its
variants. The difference is its power source (GTAW, GMAW
(or CMT), and PAW) and precision motion control with the
help of industrial robots or multi-axes CNC gantry. Fig-
ure 2a shows a demonstration for its typical motion system,
which employs a 6-axis robot system to provide a controlled
deposition of wire according to path planning programs of
a 3D component. Whereas, multi-axis CNC gantry system
equipped with customized DOF (3 or 4 or 5 or 6 axis) for
motion control is a choice among researchers as shown in
Fig. 2b.
3 WAAM Process Aspect
WAAM process is very similar to fusion welding process
thus including complex physical phenomena, i.e., heat trans-
fer and fluid flow, phase change (solid to liquid, liquid to
solid, solid-state phase transformation, and diffusion), com-
plex process parameters interaction for moving heat source,
DED AM
Processes
(Metal)
Blown
Laser Wire Powder
Deposition
Selective Laser
DMD Laser EBM Metal
Cladding Fusion
Measurement and Mitigation of Residual Stress in Wire-Arc Additive Manufacturing: A Review…
Table 1  Current researches in development of WAAM processes
Types Current trends/Applications
GMAW based AM Study of abnormity at start and end of the weld
Multi-sensor framework for process monitoring
Open source GMAW Metal 3D printing
GTAW based AM Grain refinement by adjusting the pulse frequency • Grain refinement is maximum between 5–10 Hz pulse
SLM-WAAM hybrid fabrication of Ti–6Al–4V
PAW based AM Double wire feed–Plasma arc AM process
Grain refinement using silicon
Effect of ­CaF2 addition
Inter-pass rolling for microstructure refinement • The rolling process has been incorporated after every
metal addition in the molten state, and scanning paths.
These parameters affect the part quality in an effective way
which leads to its control in the design and process phase.
The processing challenge in WAAM comprises of material
properties, part geometry, and control of defects. Melt pool
Explanation/Results References
• A 3D transient fluid flow and thermal model has been [30]
done using a FEM approach
• Backward fluid flow and metal swelling in the weld pool
have been found out to be the most critical reason for
bead abnormity at start and end
• The initial bulky region results in successful deposition
and stagger ramp pattern with continuous path produces
a smooth and consistent surface
• Authors suggested a novel integrated monitoring solution [31]
viz., iMUST, comprised of a multi-sensor system that
can monitor the WAAM system
• A laser interferometer is suitable for the measurement of
layer height and profiles with an accuracy of 0.1 mm
• A low-cost open-source GMAW based metal AM [32]
machine has been fabricated
[35]
frequency more beautiful equiaxed grains of 21 μm
• It also produces UTS of 260 MPa and YS of 102 MPa,
which is similar to forged AZ31 alloy
• The elongation of samples is above 23%
• Horizontal and vertical SLM samples had been used as a [27]
substrate for the WAAM process
• When compared with horizontal SLM, vertical SLM pro-
duces higher values of YS, UTS and elongation concern-
ing horizontal SLM, i.e., 1050, 1163 MPa, and 14.1%
• The deposition rate of DWF-PAM increased by 1.06 [34]
times
• A complete grown equiaxed ferrite (CGEF) was devel-
oped in the interface area for SWF-PAM
• CGEF is responsible for improved ultimate tensile stress
(10.2%) and elongation rates (176%)
• Silicon addition decreases prior-β grain size in wire arc [36]
Additive Layer Manufactured (ALM) titanium
• Cast alloys have smaller grains compared to the same
alloys produced by ALM
• Cyclical re-melting during ALM destroys some equiaxed
grains and favours epitaxial columnar growth
• Activating effect of C
­ aF2 causes a decrease in component [37]
width from 9.9 to 7.2 mm due to change in the Maran-
goni convection movement
• Increment of β volume fraction by 85%
• ­CaF2 addition improves the UTS by 12%, whereas the
elongation limit reduces due to the occurrence of residual
pores
[33]
layer of welding to refine the large columnar grains in
titanium alloy
• The larger rolling forces produced more refined grains,
whereas increasing the roller diameter increased the
extent of the recrystallized area
• EBSD strain maps show that the majority of strain gener-
ated at the edges and 3 mm below the rolled surface
solidification is vital because of large columnar grain in
WAAM process. These large columnar grains yield a high
temperature creep resistance [38], exhibit lower strength and
toughness, and corrosion resistance compared to a fine equi-
axed grain [39]. Moreover, unnecessary solute exclusion in
13

Fig. 2  WAAM setup a 6-axis
welding robot motion system b
CNC gantry motion system [4]
the presence of high residual stresses and enlarged grain size
promotes solidification cracking [40, 41]. The high residual
stress [42] can cause a bending and other distortions [43] in
WAAM components leading to geometrical and dimensional
failure, increased fatigue failure [44] and stress corrosion
cracking [45].
4 Review of Modelling Approaches
Metal AM processes have been facing various challenges
in terms of quality-wise component production [46]. These
challenges primarily include the framing of defect remedies
and its in situ/post-process minimization/mitigation. There
are multiple defects observed in WAAM components, i.e.,
porosity, high residual stress, cracking, poor surface texture,
dimensional inaccuracy. To address the physical phenomena
involved in the occurrence and correction and prevention of
these defects, one needs two approaches viz., hit and trial
experiments and numerical modelling. Since the arc weld-
ing, used in the WAAM process, are very complicated due to
the interaction of process parameters, therefore hit and trial
approach attracts a lot of time and money. Accordingly, the
analytical and numerical modelling approach is needed to
avoid such a situation, which provides a suitable set of pro-
cess parameters for component fabrication with minimum
possible defects.
Numerical modelling methods can be classified into
two types viz., mesh-based methods (Finite element meth-
ods (FEMs), Boundary element methods (BEMs), and
Finite difference methods (FDMs)) and mesh-free methods
(Smoothed particle hydrodynamics (SPH)) [47]. The finite
element method (FEM) is a mesh-based technique and intro-
duced by Turner et al. [48]. FEM based numerical analysis
13
S. Srivastava et al.
has been a proven critical method to solve boundary prob-
lems, initial and eigenvalue problems in every domain of
engineering practically [49, 50]. Therefore, the use of FEM
has been extended for the modelling of WAAM processes
and its parametric optimization to avoid the loss of time
and money in hit and trial experimentation [50–53]. Accord-
ingly, FEM has become the most common modelling tech-
nique to predict defects, i.e., porosity, residual stress and
distortion in WAAM components. A few notable reviews in
the fields of technologies, development and future interests
[11] and properties, defect, materials processing challenges
and quality improvement [54, 55] for WAAM processes are
already published. This study investigates and presents a
systematic review of the multi-physics continuum modelling
approach adopted in WAAM processes at the macro-scale
level. It serves a better understanding of the physical phe-
nomena involved in the process for its adoption to indus-
tries. The paper starts by investigating the WAAM process,
the applicability of its variants at an industrial scale and
its multi-physics continuum modelling approach at macro-
scale, i.e., thermo-mechanical model to quantify the residual
stress and distortion in the components produced through
the WAAM process.
4.1 Need‑Based Modelling Approaches
WAAM processes are not only state-of-the-art but also an
efficient AM technology which can replace established con-
ventional and non-conventional manufacturing techniques.
It can produce comparatively large and less complex com-
ponents for aerospace industry [56, 57], automotive sector
[54, 58], marine and ship sectors [59], corrosive resistance
and high-temperature environment [59–62], and tools and
moulds [63].
Measurement and Mitigation of Residual Stress in Wire-Arc Additive Manufacturing: A Review…
Manufacturing defects in the WAAM process are one
the major setback in its worldwide adoption for mainstream
production. Since arc welding power source has been used
in WAAM process, components produced through it expe-
rience similar challenges in the form of defects as in the
arc welding process. Residual stress and distortion are such
defects, which can be found in WAAM components lead to
dimensional inaccuracies, mismatch, and operational fail-
ures. Inaccurate robot programming (due to lack of con-
trolled and precise motion of welding torch), significantly
inferior process parameters, thermal distortion due to heat
accumulation are the significant cause of various defects
observed in WAAM process [64]. These complications and
defects being a source of inspiration for concerned individu-
als to adopt numerical modelling practices. The numerical
modelling serves an understanding of physics involved in
the WAAM process so that the process can be improved and
adapted in production.
4.2 Thermo‑Mechanical Modelling
In the WAAM process, 3D metal components are fabricated
by depositing weld bead in a layer-wise fashion. Typical
Fig. 3  FEM process flow for thermomechanical analysis
low-cost arc welding power source (Gas Metal Arc Welding
(GMAW) and Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)) provides
a high deposition rate by using high energy input [65]. How-
ever, high heat input causes a significant amount of undesira-
ble residual stress and its effects on the component. So, FEA
based thermo-mechanical models are used to quantify the
values of residual stress, and distortion [64–69] occurred in
the WAAM builds. It can also provide a platform to develop
the distortion mitigation techniques for the components as
per operating conditions and material properties [68–75].
Figure 3 illustrates a FEM process-flow for the simulation
of bead geometry, temperature fields, and residual stress and
distortion in the manufactured component.
As mentioned, the thermal behaviour during the WAAM
process is causing a mechanical response, as the two sets
of theory require a solution of different sets of nonlinear
equations. Thermal model and mechanical model are the
fundamental bifurcations of the thermo-mechanical model.
Based on the interaction between two models, it is further
classified as coupled and decoupled or weakly coupled or
uncoupled model [76, 77].
13
 S. Srivastava et al.

4.2.1 Thermal Modelling explain the heat transfer phenomena in this case while con-
sidering a continuum in the system.
In the WAAM process, the components are fabricated by ( ) ( )
depositing material (wire) layer by layer in a specific region 𝜕 𝜕T 𝜕 𝜕T 𝜕 𝜕T 𝜕T
( )
k + k + k + q̇ = 𝜌Cp (2)
as per the CAD model of the part. The heat added through 𝜕x 𝜕x 𝜕y 𝜕y 𝜕z 𝜕z 𝜕t
the welding arc melts the wire into the molten pool. Convec-
where k is thermal conductivity, T is temperature, ρ is the
tion and radiation are the heat loss modes through the free
density of the material, q̇ is the rate of heat input to the sys-
surface of the part to the surroundings. The physical phe-
tem, Cp is the specific heat capacity at constant pressure, t
nomena responsible for the control of the process in WAAM
is the time of interaction of the arc. The change in enthalpy
is very similar to arc/laser/electron beam-based welding pro-
should be introduced in the system to capture the solid–liq-
cesses [78]. Modelling of residual stress and distortion in the
uid–solid transformation in the melting and solidification
welded components had gained much attraction in the early
process. The change in enthalpy in the system is given as
1970s across academia [77–81]. Furthermore, numerical
models to quantify residual stresses have been developed by dH = Cp dT (3)
Argyris et al. [82] and Papazoglou et al. [83] in early 1980.
Also, double ellipsoidal heat input model by Goldak et al. Thus, Eq. (2) is transformed as
[84], phase transformation models in weld zone [83–87], ( ) ( )
𝜕 𝜕T 𝜕 𝜕T 𝜕 𝜕T 𝜕H
( )
achieved a substantial up-gradation for the challenges faced k + k + k + q̇ = 𝜌 (4)
𝜕x 𝜕x 𝜕y 𝜕y 𝜕z 𝜕z 𝜕t
due to distortion in welded components. Models quoted in
the above references are the domain of 2D scale, the 1990s The initial condition of the system can be considered as
and 2000s have witnessed the development of 3D model-
ling for welding processes [86–91] like the prediction of T(x, y, z, 0) = Ta (5)
thermal stresses and distortion [90–94] to its minimization
Whereas, the initial temperature of the system can be con-
and mitigation [95, 96]. Figure 4 shows the heat loss modes
sidered equal to the ambient temperature Ta . In a general
as conduction, convection, and radiation in WAAM process.
case, heat supplied to the molten pool can be considered
Therefore, the general energy balance equation as per the
as the heat flux in the model, and the losses from the free
first law of thermodynamics is:
surface of the system are due to convection and radiation.
QL = QC + QCv + QR (1) Therefore, the boundary condition for the free surface in the
continuum is
where, QL , QC , QCv , and QR are the quantities of heat loss,
conduction loss, convection loss, and radiation loss, respec- 𝜕T
− q̇ s + h T − Ta + 𝜎𝜀 T 4 − Ta4 = 0 (6)
( ) ( )
k
tively. Fourier’s law of heat conduction can be used to 𝜕 n̂
where n̂ is the vector normal to the surface, q̇ s is the rate heat
input to the molten pool from the electric arc, h is the heat
transfer coefficient, σ is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant, and
ε is the emissivity.
Micro-scale modelling gives insight to the melt pool
physical phenomena. It includes the interaction of heat with
wire and base metal, heat transfer, phase change, the sur-
face tension of melt pool and thermal gradients which leads
to the Marangoni force [97]. These modelling practices are
based on computational fluid dynamics (CFD) algorithms by
solving the Navier–Stokes equations [98]. These equations
consist of the conservation equation of mass, momentum,
and energy considering gravitational body force, recoil pres-
sure, and surface tension in momentum conservation equa-
tion and latent heat released/required during melting and
solidification, the effect of evaporation and condensation,
and the effect of radiation in energy conservation equation.
Therefore, the generalized form of conservation equations
in [97]:
Fig. 4  Physical phenomena—WAAM process

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Measurement and Mitigation of Residual Stress in Wire-Arc Additive Manufacturing: A Review…

1. Mass conservation equation where 𝛼L is the liquid volume fraction and mL and mV are
𝜕𝜌 liquid and vapour mass sources due to phase change, respec-
+ ∇ ⋅ 𝜌⃗v = 0 (7) tively and 𝜌L is the density in the liquid state of the mate-
𝜕t
rial. The numerical methods adopted for solving conserva-
ρ is fluid mixture density, t is time, v⃗ is the mass-averaged tion equation(s) stated in (7)–(11) is the lattice Boltzmann
velocity vector. method [97–101] and the finite-volume method [100–104].

2. Momentum conservation equation

( )2
𝜕𝜌⃗v C1 1 − fL d𝜎 ( (8)
[ ( ))]
+ ∇ ⋅ 𝜌⃗vv⃗ = −∇p + ∇ ⋅ 𝜏 − 3 v⃗ + 𝛾𝜅⃗n + ∇T − n⃗ n⃗ ⋅ ∇T ⋅ n⃗ + PR ⋅ n⃗ + 𝜌⃗g
𝜕t fL + 10−10 dT

Where p is hydrodynamic pressure, τ is deviatoric stress
tensor (calculated using the mixture-effect dynamic viscos-
ity), C1 is constant, fL is the liquid fraction, γ is surface ten-
sion, κ is surface curvature, n⃗ is the surface normal, T is the
temperature, PR is the recoil pressure, and g⃗ is the accelera-
tion due to the gravity vector. The third term is added for
the accountability of momentum losses in the mushy zone
(porous medium). The fourth term is considered for surface
tension forces and the Marangoni effect due to temperature-
dependent surface tension at the molten material surface.
3. Energy conservation equation
4.2.1.1  Modelling of  Heat Source The effect of the heat
source used in the WAAM process can be modelled, con-
sidering it as the heat flux or the temperature load. The heat
source based on Gaussian intensity distribution is a sig-
nificant choice among the researchers wherever a heat flux
load is used. An illustration of Gaussian heat intensity dis-
tribution is shown in Fig. 5, and the mathematical relation
between the heat flux intensity qarc of a heat flux [105] and
the radial distance from the arc centre rQ is given as:
−3r2
3Qarc r2
qarc = e Q
(12)
𝜋rQ2

( ) ( )
𝜕𝜌H 𝜕p 𝜕𝜌fL Lf ) 𝜌𝜕 1 − fv Lv
hi j�⃗i + S���R⃗ ⋅ n⃗ (9)
∑ (
+ ∇ ⋅ 𝜌⃗vH = ∇ ⋅ k∇T + + + 𝜏 ⋅ ∇⃗v − − ∇ 𝜌⃗vfL Lf −
𝜕t i
𝜕t 𝜕t 𝜕t

where H is total enthalpy, k is thermal conductivity, hi is the

specific enthalpy of species i, ⃗j is the species mass flux, Lf
and Lv are the latent heat of fusion and vaporization, fL and
fv are the liquid and vapour fraction in the mushy zone, and
S���R⃗ is the source term for the accountability of radiation in
the energy equation.

4. Species conservation
𝜕𝜌Yi
+ ∇ ⋅ v⃗Yi = ∇ ⋅ j�⃗i (10)
𝜕t
where Yi is the species mass fraction. Here, Eq. (10) is used
to track vapour emission during component building. It fur-
nishes detail of gas extraction as well as it tracks the alloy
elements evaporated during the melting process. A scalar
function is used to track the free surface of the molten pool.
This scalar function has a scalar quantity as the fluid volume
fraction of the liquid state (or any other material states):
𝜕𝛼L m m Fig. 5  Gaussian heat source
+ ∇ ⋅ 𝛼L v⃗ = L − V (11)
𝜕t 𝜌L 𝜌L

13
 S. Srivastava et al.

where Q is the amount of heat transfer to the base, r is the

centre radius of the arc. According to Pavelic et al. [106],
the thermal flux has a Gaussian or normal distribution in the
z–z plane and as given:
q(r) = q(0)e −C2 r2
(13)
where q(r) is the surface flux at the radius r, q(0) is the maxi-
mum heat flux at the centre of heat source, C2 is the concen-
tration coefficient and r is the radial distance from the centre
of the heat source. Further, Friedman [107] and Krutz and
Segerlind [108] recommended a substitute for the Pavelic’s
disc model, stated in a coordinate system moving along with
the heat source. It is expressed in the mathematical form as:
3Q −3x2 2 −3𝜉 2
q(x, 𝜉) = e c ⋅ e c2 (14)
𝜋c2
where Q is the energy input rate, and c is the characteristic
radius of flux distribution and;
𝜉 = z + 𝜈(𝜏 − t) (15)
where ν is the welding speed. Welding with a smaller depth
of penetration is acceptable for the surface heat source
model given by Pavelic, Friedman, and Krutz and Segerlind.
However, these models are not competent for high energy
density sources like laser and electron beam power. These
sources have a considerably larger depth of penetration, as
it ignores the digging action of the beams. As an alternative
to this shortcoming, Goldak et al. [84] suggested a double
ellipsoidal power density distribution which is accountable
for digging action of high-power density beams as well.
While calculating the temperature gradient experimentally,
in the front and back of the heat source, it was found that the
gradient is not equal for both sides. Therefore, two separate
formulas suggested by Goldak for the front and rear side of
the molten pool.
√
6 3ff Q −3x2 −3y2 −3[z+𝜈(𝜏−t)]2
q(x, y, z, t) = √ e a2 e b2 e c2 (16)
abc𝜋 𝜋
√
6 3fr Q −3x2 2 −3y2 2 −3[z+𝜈(𝜏−t)] 2
q(x, y, z, t) = √ e a e b e c2 (17)
abc𝜋 𝜋
In this model, Q is the actual amount of heat deposited (in
case of WAAM, Q = 𝜂VI where η is arc efficiency, V is arc
voltage, and I is arc current amperage), a, b, c are the three
lengths of bead, x y z is the cartesian co-ordinates, the frac-
tion of the heat deposited ff and fr in front and rear quadrant
can be considered as ff + fr = 2 . Although the Gaussian heat
source models are mostly used in welding and metal AM
processes. A few studies have been published consisting of
heat flux loads that do not follow the Gaussian intensity dis-
tribution (refer to Table 2).
Apart from that, various studies [114–119] adopted
Goldak’s [84] double ellipsoidal heat source model based
on Gaussian intensity distribution for the WAAM process.
However, Ref. [118] proposed a novel heat source model-
ling approach considering actual power distribution between
filler and base material. As per [120], the amount of total
heat deposition, 50% is utilized by filler material.
4.2.1.2  Meshing  The quality of finite element analysis (FEA)
has a strong influence on the features of meshing of the part
being modelled for the computational efficiency, computa-
tional time and the precision of the computational results [119–
123]. Wherever uniform meshing (Fig. 6a) is considered, they
are easily implemented and furnish accurate results. However,
to obtain better results, fine meshing and more elements are
required in this category which incurs high computational
cost [109, 110]. Whereas, a well-known adopted technique of
meshing uses variation in mesh density (biased mesh) across
different regions in part. Those regions which are compara-

Table 2  Heat source models (non-Gaussian)

Author(s) Model description References

M Matsumoto et al. (2002) A constant power input assumed to irradiate five elements in the model [109]
L Ma et al. (2007) A temperature load is applied to individual elements [110]
N Contuzzi et al. (2011) Although the Gaussian heat source is used for experimental validation but in simulations power [111]
density was constant due to the small size of finite elements
L VAN BELLE et al. (2012) They have used a heat source having a beam diameter equal to the surface of a single element and [112]
claimed a minor effect on the results due to the small size of finite elements
J Schilp et al. (2014) The authors use fixed temperature loading for a laser beam of 2*2 mm at 1740 K [113]
M Chiumenti et al. (2017) Based on the outcome of the searching algorithm, the authors summed up the volume of all the ele- [114]
ments on the molten pool and deduced the density distribution of heat source per unit volume
M Chiumenti et al. (2017) -same as above- [115]

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Measurement and Mitigation of Residual Stress in Wire-Arc Additive Manufacturing: A Review…

Fig. 6  Meshing schemes [135,

136, 142]

13

tively near to the heat source have densely meshed because
it exhibits steep temperature gradients. The strategy in which
regions of importance have meshed with denser meshing is
also known as Adaptive Mesh Refinement (AMR) [124, 125].
AMR is classified into two types, i.e., static AMR (Fig. 6b)
and dynamic AMR (Fig.  6c). The only difference between
these two is the meshing strategy in dynamic AMR changes
for the values of thermal or strain gradient, or the fine mesh
follows the heat source [126, 127]. As per the available litera-
ture, ANSYS Fluent [128, 129], finite element code DEAL.
II [128–132], Pan computing FE software [76, 133, 134],
and 3DSIM [133–137] utilize dynamic AMR strategy for the
meshing of parts. Various methods have been adopted in metal
AM to reduce the computational time. It includes coarsening
of the substrate with larger element size [138, 139], coarsen-
ing of already solidified layers along with substrate [113, 140],
adaptive mesh moved along with the energy source [141].
4.2.1.3  Element Birth and Death  The solid or liquid state of
material does not contribute totally to the overall stiffness of the
model during deposition. The overall stiffness should consider
the physical phenomena involved in melting and solidification
process during material transformation (from solid to liquid to
solid) to compute the residual stress and distortion accurately.
To serve the purpose, various researchers used the ‘Element
Birth and Death’ technique as given in the ANSYS finite ele-
ment package [117, 118]. Since the elements are deactivated till
solidification excluding it from the analysis. It restricts deacti-
vated elements from adding to the overall stiffness matrix by
multiplying actual stiffness with a high reduction factor [143,
144]. A control loop used in any FEM package governs the re-
activation of an element according to its melting temperature
or the temperature after a load step has exceeded [145]. Post
solidification, elements have been re-allotted its stiffness.
4.2.1.4  Material Properties Material’s temperature-
dependent thermo-physical properties are an essential input
for accurate thermo-mechanical modelling [144–148]. The
change of the material properties with the change in tem-
perature for WAAM processes are significant. The process
experiences a variation of working temperature in the molten
zone from tens to thousands of degrees Celsius. Therefore,
the material properties which are critically subjected in the
modelling of the WAAM process are density, thermal con-
ductivity, and specific heat capacity [42, 119, 146].
Density can be considered as most important because it
can affect the other properties like thermal conductivity [149,
150]. As a temperature-dependent property, material density
changes during the deposition of the layer. Still, many studies
adopted constant density values in their modelling approach
[127, 149–157]. For more accurate results prediction, research-
ers considered density variation with time [158]. A linear
relation of density with temperature has been adopted by Yin
13
S. Srivastava et al.
et al. [159] in the simulation of the temperature distribution
of single-layer deposition in laser micro sintering. Whereas,
S. Jayanath and A. Achuthan [125] adopted linearly varying
thermo-physical properties against temperature in the com-
putationally efficient FEM simulation of the WAAM process.
Thermal conductivity of the material defines the rate
of heat transfer through it. It is a temperature-dependent
property of the material. Several studies performed on the
WAAM process used constant thermal conductivity [66,
67, 105, 117, 157]. In contrast, few studies considered vari-
able thermal conductivity with respect temperature [125,
146, 159]. Additionally, M. Graf et al. [147] modelled and
adopted variable thermophysical properties, including ther-
mal conductivity using ­JMatPro® software.
Heat Capacity is the numerical energy requirement of
a body to raise its unit temperature while the component
is being heated. Usually, specific heat capacity has a non-
linear relation with change in temperature and phase trans-
formation [160]. Some researchers adopted constant values
of specific heat capacity [66, 67, 151–157]. In contrast, few
others have adopted the different specific heat at different
temperature points as a linear interpolation function of tem-
perature [125, 146, 157, 160].
Mostly, researchers adopted either constant values or
the linearly varying thermophysical properties available at
another material-based article [161]. However, the multi-
physics involved is similar in the WAAM and the PBF AM
process. Therefore, review papers on macro-scale FE model-
ling of PBF AM processes given by Luo et al. [124] and Sch-
oinochoritis et al. [162] consist of an exhaustive explanation
of material’s model. These review papers with an emphasis
on density, thermal conductivity, specific heat, and latent heat
can be considered as a reference for the use of material prop-
erties in future numerical models for the WAAM process.
4.2.2 Thermal Boundary Conditions
4.2.2.1  Initial and  Boundary Conditions The heat transfer
mechanism during the WAAM process is very similar to
the multi-pass welding process, as shown in Fig. 4. Initial
condition to the physical phenomena involved in the AM
process is ambient temperature [141, 163] which is approxi-
mated between 20 °C (293 K) to 30 °C (303 K) in the stud-
ies. The initial condition with the uniform or non-uniform
temperature throughout the surface before the arc is exposed
can be expressed as;
T(x, y, z, 0) = T0 (x, y, z) for the whole domain at t = 0 (18)
where T0 is the initial ambient temperature applied to the
whole surface exposed to the atmosphere either during the
process or after the process. Whereas, the boundary condi-
tions applied on the component, i.e., conduction through the
Measurement and Mitigation of Residual Stress in Wire-Arc Additive Manufacturing: A Review…

substrate and already deposited layers, convection through

shielding gas and ambient air, and radiation to the thermal
models between the top and lateral surfaces and surrounding
air as given in Eq. (19).
𝜕T
= hc T − T0 + 𝜀𝜎 T 4 − T04 over exposed surfaces for all t
( ) ( )
−k
𝜕n
(19)
where k is thermal conductivity, hc is the heat transfer coef-
ficient, ε is the radiation coefficient, and σ is Stefan–Boltz-
mann constant. Many researchers for the modelling of
WAAM processes, used the value of boundary conditions
as a constant [66, 67, 164].

4.2.3 Mechanical Modelling

The FE modelling of the WAAM process is very similar to the

arc welding process. It consists of both the non-linear transient
thermal model and the quasi-static elastoplastic mechanical
model. Temperature history, as a result of the thermal model,
is considered as an input to the mechanical model for the quan-
tification of residual stress and distortion. As shown in Fig. 3,
thermo-mechanical simulations can be performed with two
approaches, i.e., coupled and uncoupled or weakly-coupled or
de-coupled approach [162]. In the coupled thermo-mechanical Fig. 7  Temperature variation for point A and B [173]
analysis, the temperature-induced expansion influences the
mechanical properties of the build, whereas, the distortion
observed due to thermal gradients influences thermal proper- 1[
𝜀 = 𝜀e + 𝜀p + 𝜀th = ∇u + (∇u)T (22)
]
ties as well. Consequently, the thermal and mechanical analysis 2
should be performed concurrently for each time step [165]. And, separately,
Instead, for weakly coupled analysis, the distortion induced
heat is much smaller than the thermal energy suggests the 1+𝜈 𝜈
𝜀e = 𝜎 − tr(𝜎)II (23)
interaction of thermal and stress fields are not coupled. There- E E
fore, the thermal and mechanical analysis can be performed
sequentially [125, 166] to incur a less computational cost. 𝜀p = f 𝜎 Y (24)
( )

4.2.3.1  Governing Equations The non-linear elastic–plas- ]T

tic mechanical analysis can be considered as a quasi-static
incremental analysis as well [144, 167, 168]. The governing
equation for the analysis is the stress equilibrium equation,
as stated by [42, 68, 125, 169]:
∇⋅S+F=0
where S is the 2nd order stress tensor associated with the
material behavioural law, F is the body forces [68, 169].
Since the elastic–plastic material is considered, the
stress–strain relation can be stated as:
e of nodal constraints [116, 125]. The nodes associated with
𝜎 = C3 𝜀
where C3 is the fourth-order material stiffness tensor, 𝜀e is
the 2nd order elastic strain tensor. However, total strain ten-
sor consists of elastic strain ( 𝜀e ), plastic strain ( 𝜀p ) and ther-
mal strain ( 𝜀th ) [76, 144, 165–169] and it is given as:
𝜀th = 𝜀th 𝜀th 𝜀th 0 0 0 = 𝛼 T − T0 (25)
[ ( )
where E, 𝜈, 𝛼, and u are Young’s modulus, Poisson’s ratio,
thermal expansion
( ) coefficient, and displacement vector respec-
tively, and f 𝜎Y is the function related to yield strength. T and
(20) To are the node and ambient temperatures, respectively. The
structural and thermal analysis is linked through 𝜀th.
4.2.4 Mechanical Boundary Conditions
The mechanical boundary conditions are mainly consisting
(21)
the bottom region of the substrate are rigidly constraint [42,
119, 170]. They are assumed to join the bottom of the build-
ing part such that no deformation should be experienced.
However, some spring constraints are also applied to the
substrate to model the elasticity of clamps and fixtures [171].

13

Fig. 8  Temperature gradient in the direction of layer deposition [175]
4.3 Simulation Results
4.3.1 Thermal Fields
The thermal fields obtained as a result of the thermal mod-
elling of the WAAM process serve as a useful input for
the determination of residual stress and distortion in the
Fig. 9  Typical residual stress profile in WAAM deposition a clamped stress profile b out-of-plane distortion after unclamping c redistributed and
balanced residual stress profile after unclamping [180, 181]
13
S. Srivastava et al.
component [124, 162, 170]. In most of the studies [116,
170–174], temperature variation at every scanned region
experiences similar thermal cycles except the start and end
of the weld deposition [162, 168]. Point A and B in Fig. 7
can be seen as experiencing the same trend of temperature
variations.
Zhou et al. [166] investigated the deposition of single
and overlapping beads on a substrate. They suggested the
increase in the temperature is symmetric and the temperature
of the molten pool increases with time with a single peak
(maximum temperature 2450 K in 0.028 s). Whereas in the
overlapping bead model, one peak has been obtained in the
temperature profile, but a deviation in the peak from the cen-
tre of substrate (approx. 1 mm) has been observed. Further,
Zhao et al. [175] has given valuable information on tem-
perature field evolution in the weld-based rapid prototyping
process. Heat accumulation of successive layer deposition
causes a gradually larger area behind the molten pool, which
increases the peak temperature after every layer deposition.
They have also shown the variation of temperature gradient
in Fig. 8. A decrease in thermal gradient in the molten pool
can be noted because of heat accumulation due to successive
layer deposition causing more depth of the molten pool and
heat dissipation in the vertical direction. Yang et al. [174]
suggested a similar variation in the temperature during the
Measurement and Mitigation of Residual Stress in Wire-Arc Additive Manufacturing: A Review…

single pass multi-layer deposition through GMAW based
WAAM process. As the isotherms decreasing, thermal
gradients become small, and an increase in thermal gradi-
ent has been observed with the increase of the inter-layer
cooling time. Apart from these results, Mughal et al. [170,
176] modelled weld-based rapid prototyping, including
the modelling of the base plate. The result shows a similar
temperature profile across the weld deposition on the top
of the substrate and base plate as well. In both studies, the
base plate and the substrate has been used with dimensions
200*200*34 mm and 160*110*10 mm, respectively. There
is no constraint between the base plate and substrate, i.e.,
no movement of substrate is allowed into the base-plate. A
deviation in the comparison of results at the central portion
of the deposition but good agreement in the sections away
from the centre of deposition and a requirement of inter-pass
cooling between successive layer deposition to avoid prob-
lems like loss of dimensional tolerances due to warpage and
Fig. 10  Evolution of predicted thermal stress n different conditions
[42]
the inferior surface finish has been found out. The WAAM
process can achieve the desired mechanical properties in the
component. Still, selection of a correct welding process, pro-
cess parameters and its effect on the temperature evolution
draws considerable attention of researchers [177].
4.3.2 Residual Stress and Distortion
If the volume of the component is not allowed to expand
or contract to the temperature changes cause thermal stress
generation in part [164]. For the numerical prediction of
residual stress and distortion in the component produced
through WAAM, one has to perform mechanical simula-
tion as the second part of thermo-mechanical analysis con-
sidering temperature distribution history obtained from the
thermal simulation as an input. Warping, delamination, and
loss of edge tolerance are the undesirable consequential
effects of developed thermal stress [51, 52, 178, 179]. The
residual stress can range from 60% to approximately 100%
of the material’s yield strength [4, 56, 119]. Tensile residual
stresses are almost constant throughout the height but most
substantial in the longitudinal direction, i.e., 𝜎xx [180], as
shown in Fig. 9.
The heat accumulated through the current layer depo-
sition has a significant effect on the previously deposited
layers. It surprisingly weakens the effect of final residual
stress due to intermediate heat treatment [66, 67]. Mughal
et al. [170, 176] investigated the effect of distortion on base
plate and substrate in weld based rapid prototyping method
along with the studies on the deflection of the substrate in
bolted and unbolted conditions. They found that the effect of
bolting is dominant at the edges and the centre of deposition.
Although they performed 2D simulations, a requirement

Table 3  Important factors causing residual stress in WAAM builds

Important factors Effects due to variations References

Temperature Distribution
Substrate Preheating
Substrate Thickness
Deposition Direction and Pattern Reciprocating scan directions produce less thermally induced residual stress.
Power/Heat Input
Layer Thickness
An inter-layer deposition time
The maximum temperature attained in the process of heat addition in each layer [42, 119]
can affect the evolution of residual stress and distortion in the component
Preheating with suitable clamping can reduce the effect of residual stress and [5, 15, 66, 67, 117, 157]
distortion in a component. Corbin et al. [15] suggested that the substrate preheat-
ing can reduce distortion in the thin substrate, whereas it increased in the thick
substrate
A thick substrate causes more residual stress compared to that of a thin substrate. [15, 117]
It is due to isotherms expansion does not reach the bottom of a thick plate which
causes more heat accumulation
[116, 170, 175, 176, 182]
Whereas islands, fractal, spiral types of patterns reduces the residual stress gen-
eration compared to other lengthy patterns
High heat input results in severe distortions in order of material’s yield strength [1, 5, 169]
As the layer height increases, the number of the equivalent stress cycle is reduced [157]
As the substrate cools down during interlayer cooling, preheating also reduces, [117, 173, 174, 182, 183]
which results in larger temperature gradients across the substrate thickness and
hence the deformation increases

13

of 3D simulations has been sought to capture the effect of
longitudinal shrinkage and rotational distortion precisely.
However, in terms of computational expenses, they chose
2D modelling, which yields an error in thermal stress not
more than 10% except the results at the central portion of the
deposition. To counter the error at the centre of deposition,
advice to perform 3D simulation has been suggested.
Furthermore, Ding et al. [42, 119] performed a computa-
tionally efficient steady-state modelling to quantify residual
stress in the 4-layer deposited WAAM component. This
model saves approximately 99.69 and 38.51% of computa-
tional time in thermo-mechanical modelling of the WAAM
process, which is an overall saving of 80.21% of total times
used in the analysis. It has been found that the highest lon-
gitudinal stress occurs in the deposited wall in the clamped
situation after deposition (Fig. 10). The predicted uniform
thermal stress showed a small annealing effect on the pre-
viously deposited layers, and this finding has also been
suggested by [66, 67]. Jayanath and Achuthan [125] pre-
sented a comparison of computational time estimation and
residual stress between a conventional thermo-mechanical
model and a computationally efficient FEA framework. The
developed efficient model utilized discretization of elements
and predicted the results in good agreement with experi-
mental values. The residual stress and plastic strain fields
Fig. 11  Comparison between numerical and experimental deforma-
tion a transverse b longitudinal [68]
13
S. Srivastava et al.
developed are in good agreement with the conventional
and newly developed model in all experimental conditions.
Furthermore, a saving of 50% time in the newly developed
framework has been reported for the thin wall component.
In contrast, the cylindrical component showed much more
considerable saving.
Table 3 provides a compiled data on the effect of pro-
cess parameters on residual stress and distortion for an
easy understanding. Chen et  al. [116] suggested a scan
current between 100 and 150 mA and a scanning speed
below 100 mm/s causing an increase in distortion along the
x-axis of the thin-walled workpiece around 77%. Whereas
adopting a dynamic current scheme in E ­ BF3 reduces the
distortion of approximately 35%. They also suggested less
residual stress in the reciprocating scan pattern compared
to a uni-directional scanning pattern. Further, the effect of
inter-pass cooling, heat sink characteristics and deposition
sequence on parts distortion has been investigated through
a computational model developed by Mughal et al. [182].
A requirement of suitable inter-pass cooling to avoid the
loss of dimensional accuracy and the inferior surface finish
has been suggested. Spencer et al. [1] stated that the com-
ponent’s geometry and high heat input also influence the
generation of residual stress and distortion. Results showed
that the vertical slab consists of more residual stress due to
higher interface contact of the horizontal slab facilitates it
for heat dissipation at a faster rate. A comparison between
numerical and experimental deformation of the transverse
section of a 10-layer deposited shaped metal deposition pro-
cess has been shown in Fig. 11 [68].
4.3.3 Experimental Validation
Some level of assumption/simplification is required while
performing simulations for metal AM processes for the
justification of feasible computational time and cost [184].
Therefore, a model validation with real-life experimental
data is highly recommended [185]. Temperature evolution
during continuous layer and heat deposition is the first out-
put of the thermo-mechanical model, needs to be experimen-
tally validated first. In-situ monitoring and measurement of
the temperature distribution of the melt pool are required to
understand the temperature field development and for vali-
dation of models. The temperature evolution patterns and
gradients have been discussed in the results section. There
are two methods for the measurement of the temperature
of the molten pool in the metal AM process viz., contact
method and non-contact methods. Thermocouples are the
primary contact method to measure the temperature at a
specific location. In contrast, non-contact methods include
infrared (IR) thermal cameras to capture the temperature dis-
tribution of the melt pool. In most of the cases, researchers
used thermocouples for the recording of temperature during
Measurement and Mitigation of Residual Stress in Wire-Arc Additive Manufacturing: A Review…
deposition [42, 68, 119, 170, 176, 182] and few cases used
thermal infrared cameras [174]. Zhao et al. used K-type
thermocouples [170, 175] and Rodrigues et al. [186] used a
Fluke TI400 IR camera (maximum temperature limitation
of 1200 °C, the measurement accuracy of ± 2%, an infrared
spectral band up to 14 μm, refresh rate of 9 Hz and a resolu-
tion of 320*240 pixels). A comparison between predicted
and experimental thermal distribution has been shown in
Fig. 7.
Moreover, the measurement of residual stress and distor-
tion is usually done as a part of post-processing. For the
measurement of residual stress and distortion in the compo-
nents, neutron diffraction [180, 183–187] method has been
used extensively by the researchers. Additionally, the con-
tour method [180] has been employed using a Fanuc Rob-
ocut α-C600i EDM machine to cut the samples in the deion-
ized water bath. Likewise, Martina et al. [188] employed
the contour method to measure residual stress using the
wire-EDM machine. The results have been compared with
neutron diffraction method (a monochromatic neutron beam
of wavelength equals to 1.83 Å and a detector angle of 85°).
Figure 11 shows a comparison of predicted and experimental
deformations performed by Chiumenti et al. [68] in the lon-
gitudinal and transverse directions both by the hole drilling
method.
In the literature available for the process scale FEM mod-
elling of WAAM processes, most cases of experimental vali-
dation only focused on single track thin wall deposition or
circular deposition or the simple geometries, i.e., T-joint,
deposition of a thin wall on the overhung substrate. These
simple geometries have been failed to address the intricacy
generated due to complex geometrical features of the valida-
tion samples. Therefore, it is recommended to use complex
geometries for the experimental validation. It can provide a
better understanding of the evolution of temperature, resid-
ual stress, and distortion in the real parts such as inclined
planes, overhanging beams, or intersecting cross-section.
4.4 Review of Distortion Control–Minimization/
Mitigation Techniques
Prediction of residual stresses having extreme importance
in the WAAM process and are generated due to complex
thermal behaviour of the process and thermo-physical prop-
erties of the work material [4, 56]. These thermal stresses
are defined as the stationary stresses developed in the work
material due to processing (melting and solidification) at
equilibrium in a portion of material after all constraints are
removed [189]. Usually, there are three categories of resid-
ual thermal stress based on its characteristic length. Type
I (macro-scale stress) and Type II (inter-granular stress)
stresses are generated at full length and granular level of the
Fig. 12  Different deposition strategies illustrating warpage reduction
[198]
component. Whereas, Type III stresses are generated at the
atomic scale [41, 79, 190, 191].
Distortion due to residual stress is the major concern for
the loss of tolerance in the parts. Hence, the best way to
limit or minimize distortion in the metal AM components
is to reduce the residual stress during deposition. Various
techniques have been developed to minimize the effect of
thermal residual stress and distortion in the welding pro-
cess, which are extended to the WAAM process. Based on
efforts required to minimize the effects of residual stress, two
categories have been framed. The techniques which require
extra manufacturing processes, i.e., proper clamping to the
base plate/substrate [42, 189, 192, 193], pre-bending of the
substrate [189], preheating of the substrate [66, 67, 72, 117].
It also includes global and local mechanical tensioning (suit-
able for single-line welding but not in WAAM process) [194,
195], inter-layer rolling [33, 188, 196, 197] and post-pro-
cessing [189]. Whereas, the second category is controlling
the residual stress by tailoring the weld process parameters
and choosing the optimal deposition sequence [182] does not
require extra manufacturing resources. However, the latter is
not capable of eliminating the residual stress but reduces it
to the maximum extent. J R Fessler et al. [198] investigated
the deposition of a series of small patches (“towers”) first.
They subsequently joined them by filling the gaps to form
a large patch. A combination of two deposition strategies,
as shown in Fig. 12, showed a warpage reduction of 90%
compared to standard deposition scheme with an increase
in deposition complexity.
Residual stress and distortion are associated with various
process parameters related to the power source and other
inputs such as voltage, current, gas flow rate, weld travel
speed, wire feed rate, and ambient temperature. The con-
trol of these parameters for the escalation of defects like
residual stresses through optimized values is inadequate in
the literature. Summary of various residual stress mitiga-
tion techniques has been given in Table 4 with their effects
on residual stress, distortion and other factors like micro-
structure and grain growth, morphology, micro-hardness.
Most of the studies used an inter-layer rolling method to
13


13
Table 4  Summary of various residual stress minimization/mitigation methods in WAAM builds
Method(s) Effect of the methods Remarks

Substrate Preheating Substrate preheating with clamping reduces the effect of residual It also enhances the regularity in wall thickness, smaller thermal gradi-
stress provided it can reduce distortion in the thin substrate, whereas ents, decrease the surface waviness and reduced cracking susceptibility
increases in the thick substrate [15, 66, 67, 117] [117]
Substrate clamping The effect of corner, longitudinal and transversal clamping on residual –
stress shows that the edge clamping has less distortion than the corner
clamping [199]
Inter-pass rolling High-pressure inter-pass rolling reduces the tensile residual stress up to Inter-pass rolling can also lead to equiaxed microstructure [33, 181, 201,
approximately 60% [188, 196, 197]. Significant modification of the 202] and texture control [180]
residual stress, particularly at the interface between deposit and base-
plate, where peak tensile stress was reduced significantly [200]
Deposition sequence Short raster produces approximately 50% less deflection compared to However, continuous deposition causes local accumulation of heat,
long raster patterns in a beam substrate. In contrast, spiral patterns resulting in high-temperature gradients, which causes dimensional inac-
scanned from outside to inside produces less and uniform deflections curacy and poor surface finish [1]
in the plate substrate [203]
Deposition strategy Continuous deposition without inter-pass cooling provides preheat- –
ing of the substrate causes a reduction in residual stress [176, 182].
Alternate layer deposition compared to continuous deposition results
in a remarkable reduction in distortion by 90% [198]
Laser Shock Peening This process modified the residual stress of tensile nature to compres- It can refine grains with an average size from 59.7 to 46.7 μm after LSP,
sive with a maximum value of approximately 100 MPa to the depth of an improvement in micro-hardness [204, 205]
0.75 m from the topmost surface [204]
Ultrasonic Impact Treatment Method (UIT) An ultrasonically treated sample has been reported with a reduction of There is an improvement in micro-hardness by 28% compared to as-
58% of surface residual stress in WAAM produced Ti–6Al–4V part fabricated samples with a significant grain refinement [206]
[206]
Inter-pass Cooling/Inter-layer Cooling Interpass cooling does not exhibit any significant residual stress reduc- Other effects are like good surface finish with less visible surface oxida-
tion effect on the WAAM deposited thin wall of Ti–6Al–4V. More tion, refined microstructure, improved hardness and strength [207]
detailed results on residual stress management through this method
can be expected in the future
S. Srivastava et al.
Measurement and Mitigation of Residual Stress in Wire-Arc Additive Manufacturing: A Review…
Fig. 13  Variation in residual stress after different rolling loads a substrate distortion due to vertical rolling b longitudinal residual stress in the
aluminium part after vertical rolling [186]
reduce the residual stress and distortion as well as to refine
the microstructure, improve the mechanical properties,
improved surface texture. However, Fig. 13a shows an effect
of inter-layer rolling on the development of residual stress in
the substrate with three different loads. Whereas, Fig. 13b
shows the effect of variation of residual stress considering
the same loading conditions on aluminium parts after rolling
in clamping and unclamping conditions.
If the residual stress exceeds the material’s yield strength,
plastic deformation occurs in the component causing dimen-
sional inaccuracy and decreased tolerances. Further, if it
increases the ultimate tensile strength, the fracture can be
expected. Considerable efforts have been made to find an
optimum deposition strategy that can be incorporated into
the path planning software to minimize the effect of residual
stress. However, a pattern that follows edge to centre depo-
sition causes less residual stress in the substrate has been
suggested as an efficient deposition yet.
5 Modelling Challenges in WAAM: A Future
Direction
FE Analysis can be considered as an essential engineering
tool for thermo-mechanical modelling at the process scale
to produce high quality fully functional parts. Industries can
adopt this tool as a part of the product and process develop-
ment phase. However, many important impediments can be
observed in the implementation of the FEA tool in industries
for the optimization of metal AM processes, including the
transient nature of the whole process of melting and solidi-
fication causing a higher computational cost. Thus, instigat-
ing a problem in the implementation of the FEA tool at an
industry level for online process optimization. Therefore,
attention has been given to computationally efficient models
and other smart approaches to develop a feasible time and
cost framework in the simulation practices without losing
accuracy. The simplest approach is to use a coarser mesh-
ing scheme as moving away from the heat source, which
reduces the total number of elements and computational
time. Another technique is to consider moving heat source as
a moving heat flux applied instantaneously to the whole area
of each deposition layer. Investigations on the applicability
of dynamic AMR meshing strategy is still not performed.
It needs to be considered in the WAAM process. Addition-
ally, Graf et al. [208] suggested a coupling of macro and
micro scale modelling approaches by incorporating phase
transformation strains.
A considerable amount of work has been done by Prof.
S. Williams and the team at Cranfield University, UK [209].
They are trying to establish the WAAM process as Ready to
Use Additive Manufacturing (RUAM) project comprising
the design of process and machine tool. They have deposited
various materials and alloys including aerospace-grade tita-
nium alloys, several aluminium alloys (2024, 2319, 4043),
steels (ER grades, Maraging steels, 17-4 PH, SS316L), invar,
IN 625 and 718, refractories (tungsten, molybdenum, and
tantalum), copper and magnesium alloys, bronze [209]. In a
comparison of buy-to-fly (BTF) reduction in the WAAMat
program at Cranfield University (UK), WAAM + machining
provides an 80–85% reduction when compared to machin-
ing processes. Long-Scale complex-shaped WAAM com-
ponents need to be modelled and experimentally validated
at an industrial scale (as in most of the simulation studies
performed on simple thin wall geometry). America Makes
and Additive Manufacturing Standardization Collaborative
13

(AMSC) [210] prepared a roadmap for the standardization of
additive manufacturing processes and advised a requirement
of benchmark models at the process scale. They insisted on
the research and development to develop a standard process-
specific benchmark model that facilitates complex shape and
geometry validation.
The continuous heat input from the arc source devel-
ops high residual stress in the component and distorts
after unclamping of the substrate. Considerable research
on thermal residual stress characterization and mitigation
has been conducted already. Still, residual stresses and its
effects are not dealt with in-depth and need proper attention.
Since metal AM processes use heat energy as the source for
the melting of feedstock materials [43]. Therefore, the key
performance indicators (KPIs) controlling the heat addition
process and material characteristics should be taken care
precisely to control the effect of residual stress. Those KPIs
should be monitored to produce defect-free WAAM com-
ponents. Further, the effect of heat accumulation from the
previously deposited layer causing residual heat on the cur-
rently depositing layer should be considered in the macro-
scale process modelling for the prediction of residual stress.
Indeed, it changes the convection state of the melt-pool, thus
changes the boundary conditions [66, 67].
6 Conclusion
The attributes of WAAM process make it apt for the fabrica-
tion of large-sized components with medium complexity and
vast feedstock material library. Therefore, it is recommended
as a suitable candidate for the manufacturing of components
in the aerospace, automobile, defence, moulds and dies,
naval and ship, nuclear power production industries. In this
article, a review has been done on the continuum model-
ling approach adopted for the process scale modelling of the
WAAM process. The article starts with the detailing of vari-
ous arc welding power sources used in the WAAM process,
along with its process aspect. Further, an extensive review of
thermo-mechanical modelling with its constituents has been
illustrated. Also, its results and experimental validation.
Based on predicted results, various residual stress reduction
techniques are compiled and presented in tabular form. It
provides a benchmark for further research on residual stress
and distortion mitigation techniques. Following points can
be concluded:
• Most of the experimental validations have been per-
formed on steel specimens. The models need to be vali-
dated on other alloys systems.
• Thin wall deposits and less complex structures had been
deposited so far. Thus, complex geometries are recom-
mended for model validation.
13
S. Srivastava et al.
• Very few cases have been reported to date on the mod-
elling of long scale components or components which
require long scanning paths.
• Benchmarking standards of process-scale modelling of
WAAM process is scarcely available in the literature.
• Very few cases have been reported on efficient computa-
tional models applied to WAAM processes. Application
of computational efficient FE models, including use to
dynamic AMC, is not available in the literature.
• Characterization of Type II and Type III residual stresses
is not available in the literature.
• Deposition strategies and inter-layer rolling are the most
adopted distortion mitigation techniques on WAAM
build to date. Still, optimum deposition strategies need
to be developed.
Process-scale modelling using the FEM approach has
been a useful tool for developing various metal additive
manufacturing processes. The efficient FEM approaches
can be used for the optimization of the process parameter to
produce fully functional parts through metal AM processes.
Still, few bottlenecks need to be addressed, i.e., high com-
putational cost and time are not allowing the integration of
FEM at industrial scale to produce the components through
online optimization. Some WAAM printed components are
already in its respective application field, and integration
of FEM and industries plays an essential role in its further
expansion. WAAM can be expected as the most used metal
AM process in the future with a combined development of
macro-scale models and in situ monitoring/mitigation of
defects.
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