SGM2: STUDY GUIDE FOR MODULE 2
Research Tools
INTRODUCTION
Today businesses and organizations are connected to their
clients, customers, users, employees, vendors, and sometimes
even their competitors. Data can tell a story about any of these
relationships, and with this information, organizations can
improve almost any aspect of their operations.
Although data can be valuable, too much information is
unwieldy, and the wrong data is useless. The right data
collection method can mean the difference between useful
insights and time-wasting misdirection.
DATA COLLECTION METHODS
1. Interviews
2. Questions and Surveys
3. Observations
4. Document and Records
5. Focus Groups
6. Oral Histories
STATISTICAL METHODS
Statistical methods are mathematical formulas, models, and
techniques that are used in statistical analysis of raw research
data. The application of statistical methods extracts
information from research data and provides different ways
to assess the robustness of research outputs.
METHODS FOR STATISTICAL DATA ANALYSIS
1. Mean
2. Standard Deviation
3. Regressions
4. Sample Size Determination
5. Hypothesis Testing
ROLE OF STATISTICAL RESEARCH
For a variety of reasons, lots of governmental entities and
agencies collect demographic and other information on
people. Governments collect data through various means,
sometimes as part of other activities. The census is a primary
example of valuable governmental primary data collection
that can be used as a secondary data collection method in
other research studies.
Several nonprofit and governmental entities specialize in
collecting data to feed the efforts of other researchers.
Research from public sources is usually free.
DATA COLLECTION: SAMPLING
Sampling theory is part of the mathematical discipline of
probability theory. Probability is used in mathematical
statistics to study the sampling distributions of sample
statistics and, more generally, the properties of statistical
procedures. The use of any statistical method is valid when
the system or population under consideration satisfies the
assumptions of the method. The difference in point of view
between classic probability theory and sampling theory is,
roughly, that probability theory starts from the given
parameters of a total population to deduce probabilities that
pertain to samples. Statistical inference, however, moves in
the opposite direction—inductively inferring from samples to
the parameters of a larger or total population.
BASIC STEPS OF STATISTICAL EXPERIMENTS:
1. Research Plan
2. Design Experiments
3. Performing the Experiments
4. Examining the Data
5. Documentation
6. Presentation of result
OBSERVATIONAL STUDIES
An example of an observational study is one that explores the
association between smoking and lung cancer. This type of
study typically uses a survey to collect observations about the
area of interest and then performs statistical analysis. In this
case, the researchers would collect observations of both
smokers and non-smokers, perhaps through a cohort study,
and then look for the number of cases of lung cancer in each
group. A case-control study is another type of observational
study in which people with and without the outcome of
interest (e.g. lung cancer) are invited to participate and their
exposure histories are collected.
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS
A descriptive statistic is a summary statistic that
quantitatively describes or summarizes features of a
collection of information, while descriptive statistics in the
mass noun sense is the process of using and analyzing those
statistics. Descriptive statistics is distinguished from
inferential statistics, in that descriptive statistics aims to
summarize a sample, rather than use the data to learn about
the population that the sample of data is thought to represent.
INFERENTIAL STATISTICS
Statistical inference is the process of using data analysis to
deduce properties of an underlying probability distribution.
Inferential statistical analysis infers properties of a
population, for example by testing hypotheses and deriving
estimates. It is assumed that the observed data set is sampled
from a larger population. Inferential statistics can be
contrasted with descriptive statistics. Descriptive statistics is
solely concerned with properties of the observed data, and it
does not rest on the assumption that the data come from a
larger population.
NULL AND ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS
Interpretation of statistical information can often involve the
development of a null hypothesis which is usually (but not
necessarily) that no relationship exists among variables or that
no change occurred over time. The best illustration for a
novice is the predicament encountered by a criminal trial. The
null hypothesis, H0, asserts that the defendant is innocent,
whereas the alternative hypothesis, H1, asserts that the
defendant is guilty.
ERROR
Working from a null hypothesis, two basic forms of error are
recognized:
Type I errors where the null hypothesis is falsely rejected
giving a "false positive".
Type II errors where the null hypothesis fails to be rejected
and an actual difference between populations is missed giving
a "false neg Standard deviation refers to the extent to which
individual observations in a sample differ from a central
value, such as the sample or population mean, while Standard
error refers to an estimate of difference between sample mean
and population mean.
Statistical error is the amount by which an observation differs
from its expected value, a residual is the amount an
observation differs from the value the estimator of the
expected value assumes on a given sample (also called
prediction).
Mean squared error is used for obtaining efficient estimators,
a widely used class of estimators.
Root mean square error is simply the square root of mean
squared error. a variety of reasons, lots of governmental
entities and agencies collect demographic and other
information on people.
STATISTICAL TEST AND PROCEDURE
- Analysis of Variance
- Chi-Square Test
- Correlation
- Factor Analysis
- Regression Analysis
- T and Z test
- Time Series Analysis
- Conjoint Analysis
- Mean Square Weighted Division
QUANTITATIVE METHODS
Marketers, scientists, academics, and others may start a study
with a predetermined hypothesis, but their research often
begins with the collection of data. Initially, the collected data
is unstructured. Various facts and figures may or may not
have context. A researcher’s job is to make sense of this data,
and the choice of data collection method often helps.
DIFFERENT QUANTITATIVE RESEARCHES
APPROACHES
Descriptive research seeks to collect data that shows
relationships between different occurrences. A positive
correlation is one in which two variables either increase or
decrease at the same time. A negative correlation is when an
increase in one variable means a decrease in another.
Experimental research also known as “true
experimentation,” uses the scientific method to determine the
cause-and-effect relationship between variables. This method
uses controls for all of the crucial factors that could
potentially affect the phenomena of interest. Using the
experimental method, researchers randomly assign
participants in an experiment to either the control or treatment
groups.
Quasi - Experimental research also known as “causal-
comparative,” is similar to experimental research. Since it’s
often impossible or impractical to control for all factors
involved, quasi-experimental methods don’t control for some
factors but otherwise follow the scientific method to establish
a cause-and-effect relationship.
QUALITATIVE METHODS
Data analysis can take various formats. The method you
choose depends on the subject matter of your research.
Quantitative methods, such as surveys, large-scale
benchmarks, and prioritization, answer the question “How
much?” But these methods can leave the question “Why?”
unanswered. This is where qualitative data collection methods
come into play.

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS

Ethnography comes from anthropology, the study of human
societies and cultures. Ethnography seeks to understand how
people live their lives. Through this method, researchers veer
away from the specific and practical questions that traditional
market researchers use and instead observe the participants in
a non-directed way. This approach is intended to reveal
behaviors from a subject’s perspective rather than from the
view of the researchers.

Grounded theory arose when sociological researchers

sought to provide a level of legitimacy to qualitative research
— to ground it in reality rather than assumptions. Before this
method, qualitative data analysis was actually done before
any quantitative data was collected, so it was disconnected
from the collection and analysis process.

REFERENCES
[1] Garcia, C.D. and Reganit, A.R. (2010). Developing
Competencies in Research and Thesis Writing.
Mandaluyong City: Book atbp. Publishing Corp.

[2] Leedy, Paul. (2018). Practical Research: Planning And

Design, 12th ed. Pearson.

[3] Locke et. al (2013). Proposals That Work: Guide for

Planning Dissertations and Grant Proposals, 6th edition.
SAGE Publications, Inc.

[4] Merriam, Sharan. (2015). Qualitative Research: A Guide

to Design and Implementation, 4th ed. John Wiley & Sons.
Thiel, D.V. (2014). Research Methods for Engineers.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.