EFFECT OF WATER REDUCING AGENT AND

SHRINKAGE REDUCING AGENT ON CONCRETE,

THEIR SUITABLE DOSAGE AND HOW THEY WILL
CHANGE THE PROPERTIES OF THE CONCRETE.
 ABSTRACT

Admixtures are commonly used in the concrete mixtures to enhance the various properties
of concrete. Using admixtures are giving advantages as well as disadvantages. Water
reducing admixtures are useful in achieving increased workability of a given mix without
increase in water content, achieving high strength without an increasing cement and also
obtaining specified strength at lower cement content. But the problem of using the water
reducing admixture is that the concrete mixed with the Water reducing admixture would
increase the early shrinkage and the number of cracks intensely and accelerate the speed of
early cracking. Shrinkage reducing admixtures significantly reduce the early age and long
term shrinkage cracking of concrete structures. The reduction in capillary tension by
organic agents of shrinkage reducing admixtures decreases the concrete volume changes
due to internal self-desiccation or air drying of concrete. Cracking can be controlled by
using appropriate reinforcement. Shrinkage cannot be reduced by the reinforcement but it
supports to reduce the widening of the cracks. This study aims to investigate the
effectiveness of shrinkage-reducing agents and water reducing admixtures for reducing
autogenous shrinkage and drying shrinkage on concrete mixtures made with different
dosages of admixtures. The research was also conducted to study the effects of shrinkage-
reducing agents and water reducing admixture on other properties of concrete including
slump, air content, compressive strength and splitting-tensile strength.

i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

ii
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT............................................................................................................................i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS...................................................................................................ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS......................................................................................................iii
LIST OF FIGURES................................................................................................................v
LIST OF TABLES................................................................................................................vi
LIST OF ABBREVIATION................................................................................................vii
CHAPTER ONE.....................................................................................................................8
INTRODUCTION.............................................................................................................8
1.1 Concrete as a Composite.....................................................................................8
1.2 Portland Cement..................................................................................................9
1.3 Proportioning of concrete mixtures.....................................................................9
1.4 ACI method for concrete mix design................................................................10
1.5 Hydration...........................................................................................................10
1.6 Setting of Cement Paste....................................................................................11
1.7 High Temperature on Hardened Paste...............................................................11
1.8 ASTM Standards...............................................................................................11
1.9 Admixtures........................................................................................................12
1.10 ASTM classification of admixtures...................................................................12
1.11 Water-Reducing Admixture.............................................................................13
1.12 High-Range Water-Reducing or Super plasticizing Admixture.......................13
1.13 Specific performance admixture.......................................................................17
1.14 Shrinkage...........................................................................................................17
1.15 Setting Time and Strength of the concrete........................................................20
1.16 Aim of the study................................................................................................21
1.17 Objectives of the study......................................................................................21
1.18 Scope of the study.............................................................................................21
CHAPTER TWO..................................................................................................................22
LITERATURE REVIEW................................................................................................22
2.1 Introduction.......................................................................................................22
CHAPTER THREE..............................................................................................................28
METHODS AND RESULTS..........................................................................................28

iii
 3.1 Testing methods................................................................................................28
3.2 Calculation of Autogenous Length Change......................................................29
3.3 Results obtained from past investigations.........................................................29
3.4 Effect of shrinkage reducing admixture with different dosages on concrete....30
3.5 Determine the effect of shrinkage reducing admixture with HRWRA for high
performance concrete properties and shrinkage cracking.................................33
3.6 Effectiveness of Shrinkage reducing admixture for self-compacting concrete.37
3.7 Methodology.....................................................................................................40
CHAPTER FOUR................................................................................................................41
4.1 Conclusions and Recommendations..................................................................41
REFERENCES.....................................................................................................................43

iv
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1.1 - Illustration of a particulate composite................................................................9

Figure 1.2 - Utilization of water reduction to gain high early as well as late strength........17
Figure 1.3 - Autogenous shrinkage trends based on EN 1992 -1 -1....................................18
Figure 1.4 - Drying shrinkage trends based on EN 1992 -1 -1............................................19
Figure 3.1 - Variation of the shrinkage value with testing time...........................................31
Figure 3.2 - Variation of the minimum crack with testing time...........................................32
Figure 3.3 - Variation of rising temperature with hydration time........................................33
Figure 3.4 - Drying shrinkage of High-Performance Concrete with and without SRA.......36
Figure 3.5 - Methodology.....................................................................................................40

v
 LIST OF TABLES

Table 3.1 - Test Methods for Fresh Concrete Properties.....................................................28

Table 3.2 - Test Methods for Other Properties of Concrete.................................................28
Table 3.3 - Mix design for adiabatic temperature rise and compressive strength test.........31
Table 3.4 Concrete Mixture Proportions..............................................................................33
Table 3.5 - Fresh Concrete Properties..................................................................................35
Table 3.6 - dry shrinkage in 28 days and 120 days..............................................................35
Table 3.7 - Hardened Concrete Properties...........................................................................37
Table 3.8 - Mix design of the SCC mixtures with and without SRA...................................38
Table 3.9 - Concrete properties with and without SRA.......................................................39

vi
 LIST OF ABBREVIATION

ACI - AMERICAN CONCRETE INSTITUTE

ASTM - AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR TESTING AND MATERIAL
CAC - CALCIUM ALUMINATE CEMENT
CCES - CHINA CIVIL ENGINEERING SOCIETY
CSH - CALCIUM SILICATE HYDRATE
EN - EUROPEAN
FM - FINNESS MODULUS
HRWRA - HIGH RANGE WATER REDUCING ADMIXTURE
LWA - LIGHT WEIGHT AGGREGATE
SCC - SELF COMPACTING CONCRETE
SP - SUPER PLASTICIZER
SRA - SHRINKAGE REDUCING ADMIXTURE
WRA - WATER REDUCING ADMIXTURE
W/C - WATER CEMENT RATIO

vii
 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

Concrete takes an important place among the most durable construction materials. Even
though it gives benefits cracking is problematic. Concrete cracking is mainly occurred due
to the shrinkage induced strain and the stresses in the concrete. Cracking influences to the
concrete strength properties, life time and appearance of the structure. When concrete is
drying for a long period of time shrinkage is taken place. Early age autogenous shrinkage
is one of the main problems in cracking. Due to this many studies are found related to the
early age autogenous shrinkage. It is important to repair the cracked concrete to prevent the
further deterioration Reasons for the further reasons may be thawing, freezing and also the
corrosion of steel reinforcement. Corrosion of steel reinforcement is occurred when water
with or without Chloride ions is infiltered into the concrete structure. Additional repairing
costs are needed when Cracking is taken place. Precautions can be taken to avoid early
deterioration of concrete and also the corrosion of reinforcement. Cracking reduces the life
span of concrete structures (concrete slabs, bridges) Nowadays, different types of
admixtures are frequently using in different ways to enhance the properties of concrete.
The behavior of an admixture in concrete depends on the properties of cementitious
material, aggregate, other admixtures, temperature and mixing methods.

1.1 Concrete as a Composite

Concrete is a well-known term among public. Layman will consider concrete as a mixture
of, sand, water, portland cement and crushed rock. However, the consultants in the field
define concrete in advanced manner other than considering it as a mixture.
In a general way, concrete is a particulate composite. Matrix of this composite is called the
binder, and the particles are called the aggregate. The concept is illustrated in Figure 1.1.

Matrix (Binder)

Particles (aggregate)

8
 Figure 1.1 Illustration of a particulate composite

The term, cement has its roots in French. ciment, and Latin cæmenta, “stone chips used for
making mortar”. Cement, in broad sense, means a binder. Binders or cements may be of
different materials; Portland cement paste, bitumen, Sulphur, and polymers are some
examples. Aggregate may be such as crushed rock, gravel, sand, crushed slag, crushed
glass, and pieces of metal.
From the Latin word concretus the term, concrete, is derived and it has the meanings of
condensed, hardened, and clotted.

1.2 Portland Cement

Main material included in Portland cement is argillaceous material (Latin argilla is white
clay). There are different types of argillaceous materials such as shale and calcareous
material. Calcium is the main element in the calcareous material. Argillaceous material
have to be heated to high temperatures so as to prepare the Portland cement. Many
chemical compounds like silica, potassium, sodium is included in Portland cement.

1.3 Proportioning of concrete mixtures

Proper concrete proportioning is very important to achieve the sustainability and economic
aspects of concrete. Therefore, concrete mix should be prepared targeting the specific
properties of concrete such as strength, workability. Preparation of concrete mix includes
the process of determining the amounts of ingredients. This process is sometimes referred
to as “concrete mix design”, but this term misleadingly implies that the process is almost
based on computation as the case of structural design.
Proportioning of a mix may be entirely empirical. That is, it may totally depend on
experience or observation alone or it may have technical basis of tests and calculations.
Every property of the ingredients controlling the character of concrete mix cannot be
expressed quantitatively at the current status of practices. For example, texture and shape
of the coarse and fine materials cannot be evaluated accurately. Even water cement ratio
and water requirement can be adjusted to take a specific strength. Therefore, an approach
based on calculation is limited to make a reasonable initial guess of mix proportions. The
proportions so arrived lead to trial mixes. The properties of the trial mixes are to be
9
checked first in a laboratory against their specified values. In the event of observing
differences, mix proportions are to be suitably adjusted and a new trial mix should be
produced. This procedure has to be continued until a totally satisfactory mix is obtained.
Even satisfactory laboratory trial mix does not guarantee that the mix produced on the site
by using equipment there gives the specified properties. In other words, only a mix made
and used on the site can assure that all the properties of the concrete are satisfactory in
terms of the specification. This is particularly true with pumpable concrete, shotcrete, and
self-compacting concrete.
Even though the properties of ingredients are attempted to be maintained, those may vary
from time to time, and consequently periodic adjustments are needed in preparing the mix
proportions. In conclusion, it should be noted that, with the present state of knowledge,
generally tables, computer programs and charts are not possible to determine the exact mix
proportions. Even such calculations are made the results of those are only to be used as
intelligent guesses for the initial trial mixes.

1.4 ACI method for concrete mix design

American Concrete Institute (ACI)has proposed a method to make a concrete mix design.
This method is commonly used and highly accepted. At the beginning of this method water
content given for a maximum size of coarse aggregate should be selected. And then
workability needs to be found. Workability is denoted by slump. After that cement content
can be calculated by using water content and W/C ratio. W/C ratio has been taken at the
beginning by using design strength of the concrete. After this the volume of coarse
aggregate should be found. Finally, fine aggregate volume is calculated by finding the
difference between the total volume and volume of other ingredients. Volume basis
calculations give more accurate results than the weight basis calculations.

1.5 Hydration

Chemical reaction between compounds in cement and water is called hydration. Hydration
is taken place in the processes of setting and hardening of concrete. Hydration starts when
the water is added to cement and then it begins with the addition of external water to
cement and continues over a long period of time at varying rates. Even after many years,
unhydrated portions of cement particles may be present.

10
1.6 Setting of Cement Paste

Setting is the apparent conversion of cement paste from fluid state to rigid state. The time
taken to enter into setting is measured from the instant of adding water to dry cement. The
common equipment to assess the setting time is Vicat apparatus.
Flash setting is quick stiffening of cement paste with considerable evolution of heat. The
stiffening associated with flash setting cannot be reverted by further mixing. False setting
is an apparent stiffening with a little evolution of heat. The stiffening associated with false
setting reverts back on further mixing.

1.7 High Temperature on Hardened Paste

Hardening and gaining strength of Portland cement paste is caused by the hydration
reaction. Hydration causes to form mainly, calcium silicate hydrates (C-S-H), and calcium
sulphoalumnate hydrates, and calcium hydroxide. Water exists in cement paste in the
forms of chemically combined water, interlayer water, adsorbed water and capillary water.
Upon increasing temperature, first, capillary water starts to evaporate. That does not affect
the strength unless the material is heated rapidly, but causes shrinking of the paste. Once
the temperature has reached around 3000C, some combined water and interlayer water
begin to lose. Around 500 °C, Ca(OH) 2 starts to decompose. Complete decomposition of
C-S-H takes place around 900 °C, losing the strength of the hardened paste completely.
Even though not much used for structural applications after discovering the loss of strength
with age or retrogression of strength associated with the conversion of crystal structure of
aluminate hydrates at normal temperatures, calcium aluminate cement (CAC) or high
alumina cement (HAC) is more tolerant to high temperature. Hence, that type of cement is
used for high temperature applications such as refractory concrete.

1.8 ASTM Standards

ASTM standards have their own requirements, based on their recommended test
procedures. It is to be noted that the ASTM test procedures and EN test procedures differ
in many instances. For example, compressive strength given in Euro Norms (EN) is based
on performing 40 mm indirect cube testing of fractured mortar prism halves, whereas in

11
ASTM that is based testing 50 mm cubes. The compositions of the mixes are also different.
Consequently, the resulting values remain different.

1.9 Admixtures
Admixtures are compounds added in small quantities at the mixing stage of concrete,
with the aim of modifying or improving certain properties of fresh and / or hardened
concrete. Admixtures, while imparting beneficial effects may have harmful effects as
well. Therefore, the selection and use of admixtures have to be done cautiously.

Nowadays, mostly admixtures are available as proprietary formulations. The behavior of

an admixture in concrete depends on the properties of cementitious material, aggregate,
other admixtures, temperature and mixing methods. Therefore, the properties given in
manufactures’ trade literature cannot be treated no more than an approximate guide. The
real behavior can be observed only by making trial mixes under the proposed condition,
viz., batching/mixing method, temperature, and with the intended ingredients.

Admixtures can be categorized in different ways. One such division is based on the
water solubility of the compound. Another division is based on whether the compounds
are active, interactive or passive. By definition, active admixtures react with the soluble
components of cement to produce a compound imparting the effect; interactive
admixtures are surface-active compounds associating with liquid-air and solid-liquid
interfaces; passive admixtures do not change their form and give only a physical
contribution. During early days, admixtures were classified as chemical admixtures.
Chemical admixtures are mainly liquids, either in solution or in suspension form. They
may also be in the form of water-soluble solids.

1.10 ASTM classification of admixtures

ASTM classification is widely used in product descriptions. Some of the products may
qualify for more than one type. ASTM C494 / C494M – 17. There are 8 types of
admixtures.

Type A – Water - reducing

Type B – Retarding
Type C – Accelerating
Type D – Water-reducing and retarding
Type E – Water- reducing and accelerating
12
Type F – Water-reducing, high range
Type G – Water-reducing, high range, and retarding
Type S – Specific performance

1.11 Water-Reducing Admixture

Water Reducing Admixture is increasing workability of concrete with reduction of water
demand. In other words, the increase of workability by adding the admixture without
increasing water content is caused by the deflocculating of cement particles
accommodating a layer of water in between, and entrainment of air. Bleeding and
segregation can be reduced by using water-reducing admixtures. Air-entrainment is also
partly involved in this
The effect of increasing workability without addition of water helps to get increased
strength without increasing the content of cement. Also, the same strength can be achieved
with lesser amount of cement. This allows reducing the total heat generated by the mix.
The extent of water reduction or increase in workability depends on the admixture dosage.
However, very high degree of water reduction or increase in workability cannot be
achieved by extreme dosages of water reducing admixtures. It is because of the adverse
side effects including entrainment of air, excessive retardation, increase the early shrinkage
and accelerate the speed of cracking.
For applications where very high degree of water reduction is needed, a different class of
admixtures called high range water reducing or super plasticizing admixtures are to be
used.

1.12 High-Range Water-Reducing or Super plasticizing Admixture

Whenever a water reducing effect greater than that is possible with water reducing
admixtures, high range water reducing or super plasticizing admixtures are needed.
Chemicals used as high range water reducing admixtures are of large molecular weight,
and not by products as water reducing admixtures. Hence, they are more expensive. Some
of the chemicals used for the purpose are:

1. Sulfonated naphthalene formaldehyde (SNF)

2. Sulfonated melamine formaldehyde (SMF)
3. Polycarboxylate ester
4. Copolymer of carboxylic acrylic acid with acrylic ester

13
5. Cross – linked acrylic polymer

Superplasticizers enhance the mobility of cement paste as a result of electrostatic repulsion

of cement particles with adsorbed admixture molecules. Unlike water reducing admixture,
high range water reducing admixture does not entrain air. In fact, with this type of
admixture it becomes difficult to entrain air, when air entrainment is a requirement.
When choosing a high range water reducing admixture, compatibility of that with the
cement used has to be checked. Otherwise, the effectiveness in water reduction will be less
prominent, and short lived.
Finer cements have a larger specific surface area than the coarser ones. Since the
admixture is adsorbed to the surface of particles, higher dosage of admixture is needed
for finer cement than for coarser ones to get the same effect of water reduction. Cements
with high C3A content reduce the effectiveness of superplasticizer. On the other hand,
cements with very low content of C3A may result in excessive retardation.

Consumption of admixture by cement with the commencement of the hydration reaction

leads to rapid loss of flowability achieved with the admixture. Therefore, in order to
retain the effect of water reduction for a longer period, superplasticizers except
polycarboxylate type, have to be added as the last ingredient, with a smaller fraction of
mixing water, toward the latter part of mixing. Retarder added at the beginning of
mixing may also help to prolong the water reducing effect of superplasticizer. Redosing
of the admixture is helpful in restoring the lost workability with time. However, multiple
re-dosing is less effective. Because of the effective deflocculating action,
superplasticizers are beneficial where very fine additions like silica fume or pigments are
to be effectively dispersed in a cementitious mix. Even though the direct benefit of
superplasticizer is to get desired workability with much less water content, concrete
mixes can be designed by making use this characteristic to obtain,

(1) High strength concrete;

(2) reduced cement content;

(3) reduced heat of hydration;

(4) reduced diffusivity and water permeability even under pressure; and

(5) increased strength at early age such as at 3 - 7 days without increasing cement
content.

14
All those benefits are obtainable as a result of the possibility of reducing water in the mix
at proportioning stage, causing reduction of water-cement ratio. These benefits can be
achieved to a lesser degree with water-reducing or plasticizing admixture.

1.12.1 Effects of High range water reducing admixtures on concrete properties

(1) Slump

HRWRAs are often used in concrete mixtures. HRWRA is mainly affected to the loosing
slump with time which means workability of concrete is reduced. There are some reasons
for the loss of slump in these types of concrete mixtures such as type of the admixture,
dosage, other admixture dosage, properties of cement, strength of concrete and temperature
of the mixture. These factors can control manually. But environmental temperature can’t
be controlled by designer. So, this temperature is affected to the process of HRWRA
reaction.

Rate of slump loss is depending on the dosage of HRWRA in concrete mixture. Rate of
slump loss can be reduced by using higher dosage of HRWRA (Ravina et al. 1986).
Manufacturers of the admixture is giving a recommended dosage range to use with
optimum conditions. If that ranges are not considered, efficiency of HRWRA can be
reduced.

(2) Segregation

Separation of mixture components as a result of the differences in their particle size or

density is defined as the Segregation in concrete. HRWRA is reducing the water in the
concrete. Therefore, segregation will not occur in the cement paste. But segregation may
occur if recommended dosage ranges are not taken when using the admixtures to create
flowing concrete. As a result of poor proportioning and deficiency of mixing, localized
excess fluidity and segregation may occur.

(3) Compressive strength and Tensile strength

15
Main function of HRWRA is the reducing water from concrete mixture. As a result of
reducing water content, W/C ratio is decreased. Reduction of W/C ratio is affected to
increase the cement content. Cement content is mainly influenced to the strength of the
concrete. When dosage of HRWRA is increasing, strength of the concrete is increased. In
the early age, rate of strength increasing is slightly high.

When designing a concrete mix design with include HRWRA, W/C ratio should be found
at the beginning of the design. Then concrete strength should be assumed according to the
requirements. Cement dispersing is affected to the increase of the concrete strength.
Therefore, assumed concrete strength can be varied. Use of variation of W/C with strength
for material is most acceptable way to doing the mix design. Improvement of concrete
strength at early age by using HRWRA admixture can be shown from above data.

High range water reducing admixtures affect the tensile strength in the same way affect the
compressive strength. Standard laboratory tests are using to determine the tensile and
compressive strength of the concrete.

(4) Drying shrinkage and creep

Laboratory studies have found that drying shrinkage is increased in concrete when
HRWRA is added to the mixture. Some laboratory test data have found that when
HRWRA is added at a certain cement ratio, the drying shrinkage of concrete is increased.
But this does not happen in every situation. So generally, it is considered that drying
shrinkage of concrete with HRWRA is similar or higher than drying shrinkage of concrete
without HRWRA. If the cement content is increased when adding the HRWRA, the drying
shrinkage is reduced. If drying shrinkage is significantly influencing to the concrete
structure, drying shrinkage should be measured before the preparation of mix design
(ASTM C 157)
When comparing shrinkage values of mixtures with and without HRWRA, strength of
concrete is the main factor considered but not the age of the concrete. And also, this
comparison is done by keeping equal porosity in both mixtures. Many studies have been
conducted regarding the creep and it was found that when adding HRWRA creep is
increased while shrinkage is increased.

16
 Figure 1.2 - Utilization of water reduction to gain high early as well as late strength

1.13 Specific performance admixture

Specific performance admixture (ASTM Type S) provides desired reduction of water

content, Changing the setting time of concrete or both of them together. This provision of
uses is without any adverse impacts on the properties of concrete such as life time, strength
etc. The specific performance characteristics are used for shrinkage reduction, mitigation
of alkali-silica reaction, and viscosity modification.

1.14 Shrinkage

Volume reduction of concrete causes the shrinkage and or volume reduction of concrete is
time dependent. Moisture is a major factor for the occurrence of autogenous shrinkage and
drying shrinkage. Thermal shrinkage is taken place due to the influence of temperature in
concrete. Due to the carbonation reaction a volume change in concrete is occurred. As a
result of this volume change, carbonation shrinkage is taken place. Both creep and
shrinkage are not dependent on stress in concrete. But there is a possibility of occurring a
shrinkage when a concrete is restrained.

17
1.14.1 Autogenous Shrinkage

Autogenous shrinkage is associated with the hydration, so that the major part develops in
initial days after casting. Since autogenous shrinkage is an effect of self-desiccation of
cement paste causing partially empty capillaries, the associated shrinkage takes place.
Even if the concrete is perfectly cured externally, preventing any moisture movement to
the ambience. Autogenous shrinkage is more prominent in concretes with low water-
cement ratio, or in other words, in concretes having high strength.

Figure 1.3 Autogenous shrinkage trends based on EN 1992 -1 -1

1.14.2 Drying shrinkage

Drying shrinkage is combined with the movement of moisture from cement paste to the
ambience. Hence, it depends on the ambient relative humidity and the surface to volume
ratio of the member. It also depends on the strength of the concrete, and the age at which
the concrete starts to expose to the drying environment. Drying shrinkage does not take
place within the period of water curing. Since the drying rate becomes higher with water-
cement ratio, concretes with lower strengths demonstrate a greater drying shrinkage. This
behavior is opposite in the case of autogenous shrinkage.
Set of curves shown in figure 1.4 illustrate the trends for the notional size (h 0) equals to
100 mm, relative humidity, 60% and the period of curing is 5 days. The notional size is
defined by using cross sectional area (A c) and perimeter of the considering part of the cross
section of the structure (u) Notational size can be calculated by 2Ac/u. The physical
meaning of the notional size can be approximately described as the thickness of a member
having large dimensions in the two other directions, if the surfaces perpendicular to the
thickness are open to ambience.

18
 Figure 1.4 - Drying shrinkage trends based on EN 1992 -1 -1

1.14.3 Carbonation shrinkage

Carbonation in concrete is occurred when CO2 is penetrated into the moist pores and then
at first it becomes carbonic acid and then it reacts with Ca(OH) 2 to form CaCO3, increasing
the density. As a result of this, reduction of volume is taken place. Carbonation shrinkage
will lead the surface cracking (crazing), and also the warping of thin sheets of cementitious
products if different carbonation rates are prevailed on surfaces.

1.14.4 Plastic shrinkage

Water loss from fresh concrete can occur in two different ways which causes the plastic
shrinkage. Through evaporation from an exposed surface is the predominant mode. And
also, material of the formwork is highly influenced to the plastic shrinkage. The reason for
this is the loosing of water by suction of the formwork material. Water loss in such way
will increase the effects of surface evaporation. Generally accepted fact is that the water
loss from paste fraction of concrete due to external factors will generate negative capillary
pressures and as a result the volume of the paste to be contracted, hence it will cause the
shrinkage. There are four main factors which influence the water evaporation. They are
wind speed, relative humidity and temperature of environment and concrete. Even though
these conditions are most likely to be observed during the summer months, it is possible to

19
occur at any time. The rate of the bleed water transportation to the concrete surface will
influence the potential for the phenomenon or form of cracking which is generally called as
plastic shrinkage cracking. Research studies have reported that if the rate of surface
evaporation exceeds about 0.1 lb/ft2 /h (0.5 kg/ m2 /h), the moisture loss will exceed the
rate of reaching the bleed water to the surface and with that setting into motion the
mechanisms causing plastic shrinkage.
In literature plastic shrinkage is defined as the fresh concrete shrinkage, exposed to
drying and which is taken place at the time when the concrete is ‘plastic’ (Neville et al
2000). Usually the duration is short and it ends when the concrete has come to its final set.
Tensile stresses will develop if there is a non-uniform shrinkage or restraint, which may
cause cracking due to the low tensile strength and strain capacity the concrete is having at
this stage. Generally, these cracks are called as ‘plastic shrinkage cracks’. Cracks caused
by plastic shrinkage, thermal dilution, early age drying and autogenous shrinkage cannot
be differentiated. Even though Cracking are problematic there are some cracking which
does not affect negatively to the structure. Influence of cracking is taken place when it is
enlarged.

1.15 Setting Time and Strength of the concrete

The final decision on acceptance may be made even when the water fails to satisfy
preliminary inspections by performing test on setting time and 7 days compressive
strength. Those tests may be considered an alternative to the qualitative or quantitative
chemical tests as well. Therefore, the limits specified on setting time and strength are
considered crucial requirements on acceptance. Further, in ASTM 1602, the limits on the
outcome of chemical tests are considered as optional requirements.

1.16 Aim of the study

This study aims to investigate the effectiveness of shrinkage reducing agents and water
reducing admixtures for reducing autogenous shrinkage, drying shrinkage and plastic
shrinkage on concrete mixtures made with different dosages of admixtures and also to
study the effects of shrinkage reducing agents and water reducing admixture on other

20
properties of concrete including slump, air content, compressive strength and splitting-
tensile strength.

1.17 Objectives of the study

• To determine the effectiveness of shrinkage reducing agents and water reducing

admixtures for reducing autogenous shrinkage and drying shrinkage different concrete
mixtures.

• To analyses the effect of shrinkage reducing agents and water reducing admixture on
other properties of concrete.

1.18 Scope of the study

This study is limited to water reducing admixtures and shrinkage reducing agents. The
properties of concrete will be tested considering the changes in slump during the first hour,
initial setting time, autogenous shrinkage, Compressive strength and splitting tensile
strengths.

21
 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

Shrinkage cracking can be one of the main reasons behind concerns about concrete structures.
There are many reasons for weakening the concrete structure. Shrinkage cracking is one of the
main reasons which is frequently occurred in concrete structures. Cracking has major effects on
steel reinforcement and lifetime of the concrete structure. It is because moisture is infiltrated into
the steel reinforcement and a corrosion of steel reinforcement can be taken place. As a result of
corrosion, the strength of the concrete structure can be reduced. So, the life time of the concrete
structure is also decreased. Gilbert et al 2001 has investigated this. It is mentioned that shrinkage
cracking plays a major role in concrete cracking. There are four types of concrete shrinkage
cracking such as autogenous shrinkage, plastic shrinkage, drying shrinkage and carbonation
shrinkage. Firstly, occurring shrinkage among the four types is the autogenous shrinkage.
Autogenous shrinkage happens when water in capillary pores removed due to cement materials. In
here water is not escaped to the atmosphere. This shrinkage cracking is increased when water
cement ratio (W/C) is lower. It happens when water cement ratio is decreasing resulting the
increase of cement content. Plastic shrinkage is taken place when the water is evaporated from the
freshly poured concrete. Drying shrinkage is occurred when drying of harden concrete. This is due
to the escape of water into atmosphere when hardening the concrete. So, volume change of
concrete is observed (Mokarem et al 2002). Carbonation shrinkage is occurred due to a chemical
reaction with CO2 and cement. More details regarding above mentioned types of shrinkage will be
further discussed from the sections below.

2.1.1 Autogenous Shrinkage

After the initial setting of the concrete autogenous shrinkage can be happened due to the volume
change of concrete. It is because of the chemical reactions and self-desiccation. Generally, water is
applied into the concrete. When the addition of water is not sufficient after the initial setting of
concrete, a volume change at a microscopic level is taken place inside the concrete resulting
autogenous shrinkage. Calcium silicate hydrate (CSH) gel is formed during the hydration reaction
of the concrete. As a result of this, fine pores are formed within the hardened concrete. When
hydration process is further taken place, inside the capillary pores a gel water is formed and then
menisci is formed. Outside water supply is influenced on this. Due to the occurrence of negative

22
pressures inside the pores, a shrinkage is occurred in the hardened concrete (JCI 1998). Self
desiccation is mainly affected to the autogenous shrinkage. Self-desiccation is the loss of water in
capillary pores because of the hydration reaction of the concrete. In the process of self-desiccation
there is no water loss into the atmosphere. Aitcin et al 2003 has found that generally self-
desiccation is occurred in every types of concrete. But the way of its impact is different on the
normal concrete and high-performance concrete. Normally W/C ratio is low in high performance
concrete. It emphasizes the fact that cement content is high and water content is low in high
performance concrete.IN normal concrete water content is high due to the higher W/C ratio. As a
result of this, excess water is remained in the concrete and the capillary pores are fully filled with
the water. So large pores are formed inside the concrete. Inside large pores menici is formed due to
the self-desiccation. Due to the enlargement of these large pores small stresses are formed. Due to
this, in normal concrete autogenous shrinkage is low. When considering the high performance
concrete, small pores are formed due to the low water cement ratio and high cement content. When
self desiccation is taken place, high tensile stress is formed due to the small pores. As a result, high
autogenous shrinkage is formed in high performance concrete (Aitcin et al 2003). Bentz et al.
(2002) has explained that in high performance concrete a dense microstructure is formed avoiding
the entrance of the externally added water into the concrete. End products of the hydration process
occupies a less space in concrete and when the self desiccation is occurred empty pores are formed.
Due to the microstructure external water cannot be entered into the empty pores. As a result of this,
very large tensile stresses are formed in the pores. So, in high performance concrete a significant
shrinkage is taken place. Holt et al (2002) studied how the autogenous shrinkage is occurred due to
the chemical reactions. In this study shrinkage was considered into two as early age and latter age.
Early age was taken as the shrinkage occurred less than a day. Internal decrease of volume is
discussed in early age autogenous shrinkage. During the reaction in cement clinker mainly four
reactions are taken place on the following products. They are C2S, C3S, C4AF, and C3A.These
products react with water and form other products where they have less volume. In the latter age
autogenous shrinkage, chemical reaction is slowed in the concrete due to the increase of strength of
concrete and a restriction for the development of a stress. However, autogenous shrinkage is
occurred due to the continuous process of hydration. But the rate of autogenous shrinkage is low.
The reason for this is the low value of internal relative humidity.

2.1.2 Drying Shrinkage

As a result of the decrease of internal humidity in the concrete, autogenous and drying shrinkage
are occurred. But those two types of shrinkages are different to each other. Drying shrinkage is
occurred when the water in concrete is escaped into the atmosphere where the autogenous
shrinkage is occurred when the water in concrete is escaped due to the cement (JCI, 1998). In

23
drying shrinkage concrete volume is reduced due to the loss of water in the concrete from
evaporation. In this process tensile stress of concrete is increased and concrete can be cracked and
an external deflection and internal warping can be occurred. This phenomenon is taken place due to
not having an external load on concrete structure. (Mehta et al. 1993) found that the volume when
concrete is drying is not as same as the volume when water is escaping. Due to the large pores in
concrete, water is collected in them. This water is called as free water. The escape of this water
does not affect to the volume change. Stress formed in the large pores does not affect the shrinkage.
But stress formed due to the collection of water in the small pores affects the shrinkage. Water in
small pores is called as interlayer water. Escape of interlayer water can affect the shrinkage. This
interlayer water is also known as zeolite water. This water is forming H bonds with CSH structure.
Due to this it is very difficult to remove the interlayer water. If the interlayer water is removed the
CSH structure is shrunk (Mehta et al. 1993). Drying shrinkage is started from the surface of the
concrete. It depends on the relative humidity in the atmosphere and size of pores in concrete. Due
to the impact of those factors, speed of the drying shrinkage is varied. In normal concrete as the
pores are interconnected and due to having large pores drying shrinkage is high. In high
performance concrete drying shrinkage is low due to the small pores and not having a continuous
connection between the pores (Aitcin et al 2003).

2.1.3 Plastic Shrinkage

Plastic shrinkage is occurred when the water is evaporated in freshly poured concrete. There are
many factors influencing the plastic shrinkage such as rate of evaporation of water, pressure in the
pores, concrete mixing method and environmental conditions etc. Better protection methods should
be adapted to reduce the evaporation. Some of those methods are spraying the curing compound on
the surface of the structure and using cover sheets. Nowadays shrinkage reducing admixtures are
commonly used to reduce that evaporation from the concrete, pore pressures and also plastic
shrinkage cracking. Lin and Huang 2010 found that the evaporation from the concrete can be
reduced by using superabsorbent polymers and saturated light-weight aggregates resulting the
reduction in plastic shrinkage. Leeman et al. (2011) showed that when using admixtures
evaporation can be reduced by a paraffin dispersion. And also, the plastic shrinkage can be reduced
by using the fibre reinforcement. Kronl et al 1995 has conducted a comparison test about horizontal
plastic deformation by using an accelerator and retarder. It was found that the shrinkage is higher in
accelerator than the retarder and the reference. Combrinck et al 2013 also showed the same results
mentioned before.

24
 2.1.4 Factors Affecting Shrinkage of Concrete

There are many reasons causative for the occurrence of shrinkage. The major causes are concrete
mix design, curing method, environmental conditions, material properties, geometry of concrete
element and cement content (Mehta and Monteiro 1993, Neville at al 1995). Due to the increase of
fineness of cement particles, surface area of the cement is increased. Because of that reaction of
water and cement is increased. So, the autogenous shrinkage is increased in concrete. This was
further studied in (Bentz et al. 2001). It was revealed that shrinkage is varied with the particle size
distribution of the cement. It was found that higher the particle size, early age autogenous
shrinkage is lower. Due to this it is better to use cement having large particle size so as to reduce
early age shrinkage cracking. It is important to increase the life time of the concrete (Bentz et al.
2001). Composition and properties of C4AF and C3A affect the early age shrinkage cracking
(Aїtcin et al. 2003). Fineness and composition of Portland cement affects the hydration but there is
no impact on volume and properties of hydration products. These reasons are not having impact on
drying shrinkage (Mehta et al ,1993).

Increase of cement content and decrease of water cement ratio in concrete cause a higher
autogenous shrinkage. But due to the formation of microstructure, drying shrinkage is reduced.
Modulus of elasticity in aggregates is directly affected to the drying shrinkage. If aggregates with
high elastic modulus are used the drying shrinkage is increased from five times than the aggregates
with low elastic modulus (Troxell et al,1958). When the aggregate size and amount of aggregates
are increased the drying shrinkage is also increased (Neville et al. 1995). According to the
arrangement of pores in the aggregate particles, autogenous shrinkage is varied. And also, in
accordance with the internal water content in aggregate particles the autogenous shrinkage is
varied. Internal curing is taken place due to the availability of water in the aggregate particles.
(Lura et al. 2001) showed that light weight aggregates (LWA) reduce the self-desiccation. And
also, it was found that if aggregates have 50% or 100% saturation, they are showing autogenous
shrinkage. Normal weight aggregates initially show higher shrinkage than LWA. But in the latter
age, shrinkage is higher in LWA than the normal weight aggregates. This is due to the reduction in
modulus of elasticity in LWA. Matsushita and Tsuruta (Matsushita et al, 1998) studied whether the
autogenous shrinkage is varied with the type of coarse aggregate. Different types of Coarse
aggregates with same weights were taken for the study and found that the type of coarse aggregate
does not have any impact on the autogenous shrinkage of high-performance concrete. Properties of
fly ash and particle size distribution affect the workability of the concrete, rate of increasing the
strength, water requirement of the concrete (Mehta et al. 1993). (Yuan et al ,1983) found that type
of fly ash influences the drying shrinkage of concrete. In this study Class C fly ash was used for the
cement and the above-mentioned result was derived. Drying shrinkage has been increased when

25
cement 30% - 50% is replaced with the fly ash in self-compacting concrete (Naik et al. 2005).
(Tangtermsirikul et al,1998) had also stated this furthermore by explaining the impact of fly ash
content, particle size distribution and admixture content on the autogenous shrinkage. When SO 3
content in fly ash is increased autogenous shrinkage is reduced. When the particle size of fly ash is
decreased the autogenous shrinkage is increased with compared to concrete without fly ash. When
considering the particle size and percentage of fly ash replacement, higher influence on autogenous
shrinkage was shown by the particle size. When the percentage of fly ash replacement is increased,
autogenous shrinkage is reduced.

Drying shrinkage is increased with the increase of atmospheric temperature and low relative
humidity in the environment. It is due to the increase of water evaporation with the influence of
those factors. It was found that drying shrinkage was zero when the relative humidity is 100%. It is
because of the water evaporation to the atmosphere is not taken place when the relative humidity is
maximum. Geometry of the concrete structure has a major impact on shrinkage. Volume to surface
area ratio is the mainly influencing factor. When volume to surface area ratio is increased,
shrinkage is increased (Neville et al. 1995).

2.1.5 Shrinkage Reducing Admixtures (SRAs)

Use of shrinkage reducing admixtures (SRAs) is the best and commonly used method to reduce
autogenous shrinkage and drying shrinkage. This was firstly found in Japan in 1980. Performance
of shrinkage reducing admixtures is varied with the manufacturer. The main function of SRAs is
the reduction of surface tension in capillaries. When the surface tension is reduced the stress in
pores is reduced resulting the reduction in shrinkage (Roncero et al. 2003). Ribeiro et al. 2003
studied the effectiveness of shrinkage reducing admixtures on concrete shrinkage. Two types of
SRAs were used in this study and 25% replacement of cement by fly ash was used in every
mixture. It was found that drying shrinkage was reduced about 30% due to the use of SRAs. One of
the main reasons for this reduction is the reduction of stress in pores. When the dosage of SRAs is
increasing, drying shrinkage is reducing. But the compressive strength of concrete is reduced.
(Roncero et al. 2003) studied the influence of SRA on microstructure and the behaviour of concrete
for a long period of time.0.4W/C ratio and 0%,1%,2% dosages of SRA with respect to the mass of
cement were used in this study. After two years of time the shrinkage strain was checked. Then the
results indicated that drying shrinkage strain has been reduced when SRA dosage is increasing. (Y
Yao et al,2019) found how the shrinkage is changed with the variation of SRA dosage. It was
observed that when SRA dosage is increasing, both shrinkage and compressive strengths have
shown reductions. Better air void systems can be obtained for thawing and freezing resistant by
using glycol-ether based SRA. But this cannot be taken unless the air entraining admixture (AEA)
and mix design is properly selected.

26
27
 CHAPTER THREE

METHODS AND RESULTS

3.1 Testing methods

ASTM standard was used to perform laboratory test. Test methods for fresh concrete and
other properties of concrete are included in table 3.1 and table 3.2. And also dimensions of
laboratory apparatus and testing time are given in table 3.2.

Table 3.1 - Test Methods for Fresh Concrete Properties

Property Test method

Slump ASTM C 143

Density ASTM C 138

Air content by pressure method ASTM C 231

Concrete temperature ASTM C 1064

Table 3.2 - Test Methods for Other Properties of Concrete

Property Test Specimen Number of Test ages

method tests

Time of initial ASTM C - 403 diameter - 6" 2 Until start to initial setting
setting height - 5"
sieved mortar
Autogenous UWMCBU* Length - 13 ¾" 3 Time of initial setting and
shrinkage Width - 4" between 15h to 18h
Height - 4" (0.7 days)
beam 1, 3, 7, 14, 28, and 56 days.
Compressive ASTM C - 39 diameter - 4" 3 1, 3, 7, 14, 28, 91, and 182 days
strength height - 8"
cylinder
Splitting-tensile ASTM C - 496 diameter - 4" 3 1, 3, 7, 14, 28, 91, and 182 days
strength height - 8"
cylinder
Drying ASTM C - 157 Length -11 ¼" 3 1 and 28 days during water
shrinkage Width - 3" storage. Subsequently after 4, 7,
Height -3" 14, 28, 56, 112 days during air
beam storage at a relative humidity of
50 ± 4%.

28
3.2 Calculation of Autogenous Length Change
Autogenous shrinkage is measured by using a strain in concrete. When calculating
autogenous shrinkage, it needs to deduct the thermal strain from the concrete strain. In the
study coefficient of thermal expansion was taken as normally 10 × 10 -6/°C. During the test
autogenous length in a concrete beam was taken from two dial gauge readings where the
dial indicators are placed in certain points which need to measure the autogenous length of
concrete beam. Xoa and Xob were taken from dial gauges at the initial setting of the
concrete. Other readings recorded from the dial gauge were Xia and Xib. Autogenous
shrinkage was considered as a linear strain and autogenous shrinkage was calculated using
the equation given below.

[( X ia + X ib) – ( X 0 a+ X 0b)]
ΔL= −ε t
L
where,
L = distance between two gauge points where the autogenous lengths are measured
(between little plates of the gauge points)
εt = Thermal strain calculated as dT × α where, dT = temperature difference in concrete
and α = coefficient of thermal expansion of concrete.

3.3 Results obtained from past investigations

Several solutions were suggested to the drying shrinkage problems in concrete structure.
These suggestions varied from mixture proportions to cement type. In mixture proportions
water content and aggregate quality can be changed. In cement type, shrinkage
compensating cement can be used. In some situations, drying shrinkage can be reduced
using a proper mix design. In addition, it can be reduced by following recommendations of
concreting and curing practices. It is difficult to avoid drying shrinkage in concrete
structures due to the reasons such as high ambient temperature, high wind velocity and low
humidity in air. Using locally found materials is a major reason for the occurrence of
shrinkage cracking. At present one of the highly accepted methods to prevent shrinkage
crack is the use of shrinkage compensating cement. It was used in many applications.
Other methods were also found to prevent the shrinkage cracking. Those methods are
highly accepted by the concrete construction market.

29
There are advantages as well as disadvantages of the use of shrinkage compensating
cement. These disadvantages affect largely to the properties of concrete. One of the main
reasons when using shrinkage compensating cement is the loss of slump. Slump loss is
taken place due to the abundance of ettringite which is formed at early hydration stage.
And also, better curing method needs to be used so as to facilitate the mixing of the cement
and water which leads to an advanced concrete hydration process. Finally, proper
formwork and reinforcement steel design is needed to prevent the shrinkage. Having
proper formwork and reinforcement steel design will prevent the inadequate expansion in
concrete structures. Due to the above mentioned reasons shrinkage compensating cement is
not universally accepted. Nowadays, the commonly used method is the use of shrinkage
reducing admixture. By using shrinkage reducing admixtures, long term ad short term
shrinkage in concrete structures can be reduced. Shrinkage reducing admixture is a
chemical so a complicated reaction is taken place in the concrete mixture. Many
publications have discussed the characteristics, properties and uses of shrinkage reducing
admixtures. Following sections will describe the process takes place when shrinkage
reducing admixture is used with a water reducing admixture.

3.4 Effect of shrinkage reducing admixture with different dosages on concrete

The investigations by Y Yao et al. (2019) have found the effects of the dosage of shrinkage
reducing admixture (SRA) on the shrinkage of the structure and crack properties of
cement. This investigation found that SRA plays a major role in preventing the cracking.
For the study, Portland cement (reference cement) type CEM P.I 42.5 (according to the
china standard) had been used. As fine aggregate, the sand with the fineness modulus is
3.1. The particle size distribution of coarse aggregate was 5 - 20 mm. A shrinkage reducing
admixture (SRA) had used with 0% to 5% wt by mass of cement. A naphthalene sulfonate
water reducing admixture (WRA) had used and it has a water reducing rate of 20 wt.%.
WRA had used at a dosage of 0.75 wt.% by mass of cement.
The volume of concrete was 50L and the mixing proportions are given below. The dosage
of the SRA was 0%, 1%, 2% and 5% respectively.

30
 Table 3.3 - Mix design for adiabatic temperature rise and compressive strength test.

Item Cement Silica Fume Sand Aggregate WRA SRA W/C

(kg / m3) (kg / m3) (kg / m3) (kg / m3) (kg / m3) (kg / m3) (kg / m3)

Ref 470 80 669 1091 9.41 0 0.3

SRA - 1% 470 80 669 1091 9.41 5.50 0.3

SRA - 2% 470 80 669 1091 9.41 11.00 0.3

SRA - 5% 470 80 669 1091 9.41 27.50 0.3

According to the China Civil Engineering Society Standard (CCES 01 – 2004) the crack
properties were observed by the ring method. Shrinkage crack properties of concrete with
age were further studied. It was found that the shrinkage reducing agent had reduced the
shrinkage value of each sample compared to the reference concrete. And also, the
shrinkage value was decreased with the increasing of SRA dosage under the same testing
time. However, the growth rate of shrinkage value was decreased with the extending of
testing time. Following figure shows the variation of the shrinkage value with testing time.

Figure 3.1 – Variation of the shrinkage value with testing time

in different dosage of SRA

31
The maximum crack of the concrete with SRA 5% dosage was 0.342 mm. It was compared
with the reference sample. It was 0.875 mm. the reduction as high as 61%. After 28 days,
because of the internal curing effect of the SRA, the defects and cracks in the concrete
structure were reduced. Variation of the minimum crack with testing time is given below.

Figure 3.2 - Variation of the minimum crack with testing time

in different dosage of SRA

In this study, adiabatic temperature rising with the different dosages was determined.
According to the results of that study, it was investigated that SRA was not only reducing
the rising temperature in about 8°C during the hydration process of concrete, but also it had
delayed the appearing time of initial balance temperature peak, and the appearing time can
extend to about five hours when the SRA dosage of 5 wt.%. Meanwhile, these effects were
obviously enhanced with the increase of SRA dosage. Faster the hydrations rate of cement
in early age. And also, rapider the temperature rises of concrete. The effect of SRA has
been improved by the resistance of cracking of mass concrete. And also, it has been
improved by the volume stability of mass concrete. That was mainly attributed to the effect

32
of hydration heat of cement, specific heat capacity of concrete, cement content, and
hydration process of cement on the adiabatic temperature rise of concrete.

Figure 3.3 Variation of rising temperature with hydration time

in different dosage of SRA

3.5 Determine the effect of shrinkage reducing admixture with HRWRA for high
performance concrete properties and shrinkage cracking.

Following study has discussed how the newly developed shrinkage reducing admixture
affects to the high performance concrete. In the study high performance concrete mixture
has been prepared with silica fume. Test was conducted by applying shrinkage reducing
admixture and not adding shrinkage reducing admixture. This test has found the drying
shrinkage of the concrete. Resistance of concrete to shrinkage cracking was tested and
finally the results indicated that when adding shrinkage reducing admixture to high
performance concrete, the shrinkage is reduced. And also, it was found that the restrained
shrinkage cracking is significantly reduced.
The experimental program of Kevin J. Folliard et al (1997) had considered the properties
of high-performance concrete, with parameters improve the proper use of shrinkage
reducing admixtures. Relevant ASTM standards were followed in all of the applicable
cases.

33
In this study, ASTM Type I cement was used and also fine aggregate was used according
to the ASTM C 33 standard. Natural was used in this study and it was found that the
Fineness Modulus (FM) was 2.65. According to ASTM C 33 (Size 67) standard coarse
aggregate was used. Coarse aggregate type was a crushed quartz diorite. In this study, by
using above mentioned two types of aggregate, high performance concrete mixture was
made. Main material of the shrinkage-reducing admixture was blend of propylene glycol
derivatives.

There are two set of mixtures which were made for the study. And also, one of sets has two
mixture proportions with and without SRA. And another set of mixtures was made without
silica fume and other was made with a constant weight of silica fume. Cement and
aggregate weights were constant at all time when making the mixture proportions. It was a
fully activated liquid. Its specific gravity was 0.95 and it is capable of properly dissolving
in water. The amount of ingredients used in the study are given below.

Table 3.4 Concrete Mixture Proportions

Type of Cement Silica Coarse Fine HRWR SRA Water
mixture (kg/m3) Fume Aggregate Aggregate (ml/100kg (kg/m3) (kg/m3)
(kg/m3) (kg/m3) (kg/m3) of binder)
Control 457 0 1090 779 1080 0 160
Concrete
Concrete with 457 0 1092 779 1030 6.9 153.1
1.5% SRA
Silica Fume 423 34 1092 766 1175 0 160
concrete
Silica Fume 423 34 1092 766 1110 6.9 153.1
concrete with
1.5% SRA

In the mixtures, Mass of binder was mixed to 1.5% SRA. And also, target slump was 150 –
200 mm. Therefore, HRWRA dosage was changed to achieve the target slump. This
dosage range is mostly used in high performance concrete. Mixing water is absorbed by
concrete with HRWRA or concrete with silica fume. When adding SRA to the mixture,
there is a certain water content which can be removed by SRA and this amount of water is
reduced from the concrete. Due to this, W/C ratio was decreased up to 0.34. The initial
W/C ratio was 0.35. The Following fresh concrete properties were obtained from the study.

34
 Table 3.5 - Fresh Concrete Properties

Type of Slump Air content Unit Weight Initial Set Final Set
mixture (mm) (%) (kg/m3) (H:M) (H:M)
Control 190 1.6 2526 5.48 8.27
Concrete
Concrete with 190 1.6 2515 7.44 10.56
1.5% SRA
Silica Fume 190 1.7 2501 7.24 10.07
concrete
Silica Fume 190 1.6 2496 10.07 12.14
concrete with
1.5% SRA

The dry shrinkage of concrete was measured in 28 days and in 120 days. It is shown in
figure 3.4. In both cases of with and without silica fume in high performance concrete,
drying shrinkage is reduced by the shrinkage reducing admixtures. However, in the case of
adding silica fume the shrinkage is high. Results indicated the reduction of drying
shrinkage as 52% and 43% in 28 days and 120 days respectively. This comparison was
done with a concrete without SRA. For this comparison, SRA was added to control
concrete to have shrinkage reduction of 35% ,29% at 28 days and 120 days respectively.

Type of mixture 28 Days Drying Shrinkage (%) 120 days Drying Shrinkage (%)

Control Concrete 0.049 0.070

Concrete with 1.5% 0.032 0.050

SRA
Silica Fume concrete 0.051 0.077

Silica Fume concrete 0.024 0.044

with 1.5% SRA

35
 Table 3.6 - Dry shrinkage in 28 days and 120 days

Figure 3.4 - Drying shrinkage of High-Performance Concrete with and without SRA
(ASTM C 157, l - day moist-cure).

Compressive strength of concrete results is given in Table 3.7. The reduction of

compressive strength was one of the results of the addition of SRA. When testing the
strength at the first day, main reason for the strength loss was the SRA. Early hydration of
cement was the reason for the strength loss. At the latter age of concrete, compressive
strength was lower from 8-9% in concrete mixture with SRA than the mixture without
SRA.As previously stated, the HRWRA dosage in concrete mixtures was reduced to
observe the water reducing effect of SRA. However low changes were done to the water
cement ratio. If HRWRA dosage was constant the amount of water needed to add was
reduced to get the target slump. But with the change of compressive strengths,
effectiveness of HRWRA dosage in concrete cannot be evaluated.

36
 Table 3.7 - Properties of Concrete

Type of mixture Compressive Strength (MPa)

1 - day 7 - day 28 - day 90 - day
Control 31.2 51.9 63.9 74.1
Concrete
Concrete with 25.0 48.2 58.7 67.6
1.5% SRA
Silica Fume 30.6 56.0 76.4 83.6
concrete
Silica Fume 25.5 50.7 71.7 76.9
concrete with
1.5% SRA

3.6 Effectiveness of Shrinkage reducing admixture for self-compacting concrete

Impact of Shrinkage reducing admixture on the plastic shrinkage cracking self-compacting

concrete was studied by A. Leemann et al. (2013). The density of produced concrete was
460 kg/m3.The blended cement used for this concrete has 15% of limestone and 15% of fly
ash by mass of concrete(CEM II/B-M (V-LL 32.5 R according to EN 197 - 1).And also the
water content was 202 l/m3 (w/c of 0.44).As fine aggregates , alluvial sand was used and as
coarse aggregate gravel was used. They were added separate fractions (0 – 1 mm: 35% by
mass, 1 – 4 mm, 21% by mass, 4/8 mm: 19% by mass, 8–16 mm: 25% by mass). Main
material of the superplasticizer (SP) was polycarboxylate. Organic hydroxyl compounds
based shrinkage reducing agent (SRA) was used. Curing compounds were sprayed for the
curing process. Pendant drop method was used to find the effect of the SRA on the surface
tension in capillaries. This method can be used only for the concrete which consists of the
admixture and deionized water in amounts similar to those employed in the concrete. The
surface tension of the SRA solution was 0.0432 ± 0.001 N/m (average and standard
deviation of 4 independent measurements), Mixing proportioning of the concrete is given
below.

37
 Table 3.8 - Mix design of the SCC mixtures with and without SRA

Name Reference mixture Mixture with SRA

Aggregate (kg / m3) 1660 1635
Water (kg / m3) 202 202
Cement (kg / m3) 460 460
Superplasticizer (kg / m3) 2.3 2.3
Admixture (kg / m3) 0 9.2
w/c 0.44 0.44

According to ASTM C1579-06 plastic shrinkage cracking was determined. The self
compacting concrete was filled into two molds with standard dimensions (355 x 560 x 100
mm3) and containing an insert. This insert had two parallel ridges and they were placed
parallel and near to the shorter sides of the mold. One ridge was placed at the middle of the
mold. These ridges are placed to fix the concrete rigidly when conducting the test. The
purpose of middle ridge is the occurrence of plastic shrinkage at the middle of the beam.
The specimen was placed in a climate chamber at a temperature of 30 ± 1 C and a relative
humidity of 60 ± 5%. And also, wind tunnel was placed with a wind speed of 7 ± 0.5 m/s.
Respective sensors and an anemometer were used to determine the temperature, relative
humidity and wind speed inside the tunnel. Readings of sensors were obtained after 10
minutes of concrete mixing. Two specimens were prepared. In this test, testing time is
calculated after the 10 minutes of concrete mixing. Because it is considered that the plastic
shrinkage is starting to occur after 10 minutes of mixing the concrete. Condition of the
surface was observed in every 30 minutes. And also, cracking behavior of concrete surface
was determined in every 30 minutes. In this manner the test was conducted for seven
hours. Finally, the crack width was determined using a ruler and loupe. The distance
interval of crack width was 10 mm and the least count of the measurement was 0.05 mm.

Dosage of the superplasticizer was constant. Due to the addition of SRA workability was
increased but a segregation was not taken place. But due to adding SRA, 28 days
compressive strength of concrete was reduced by about 7 – 11% with respect to the
reference concrete. The comparison of concrete properties is summarized in the table
below.

38
 Table 3.9 - Concrete properties with and without SRA

Name Reference mixture Mixture with SRA

Flow (cm) 60 72
Bulk density (kg / m3) 2360 2325
Air void content (%) 1.6 1.6
Compressive strength f28 (MPa) 50.7 46.4

Cracks has not been formed in SCC with SRA during the test. But cracks were formed in
reference mixture. In the reference mixture time taken to form crack was about 4.0 to 4.5 h.
SRA reduces the surface tension of water in concrete pores. Due to this capillary pressure
of concrete was reduced. Reduction of capillary pressure was the main reason for the
prevention of cracking. By using this specific SRA type, surface tension of deionized water
was reduced by about 40%. For this a certain amount of SRA was used in the concrete
mixture. pendant drop method was used to determine the surface tension. Capillary
pressure was increased at the latter age in SCC with SRA compared to the reference
mixture. Critical point of capillary pressure was reduced and a tensile strength was
developed in concrete to prevent the cracking. Concrete settlement was compared with the
reference mixture and reduction of mass loss was steady in first 2h. As it was steady,
bleeding was constant. SEA has reduced the transporting rate of pore fluid to the surface
after the critical point mentioned above.

3.7 Methodology

PHASE I
Find relevant
literatures
39
 Collect the data and
information

Figure 3.5 - Methodology

PHASE III
Analysis the data and
find out the methods

PHASE IV
Interpretation of
results

PHASE V
Conclusion and
Recomondation

40
 CHAPTER FOUR

4.1 Conclusions and Recommendations

4.1.1 Conclusion
Drying shrinkage cracking and autogenous shrinkage cracking can be reduced considerably
by using SRA in high performance concrete. Ring test was performed to interpret this
result. Effectiveness of SRA was observed within a short time period of curing process.
However, proper curing is essential for concrete to increase the shrinkage reducing
efficiency of SRA in field applications. Curing is important to prevent the concrete
cracking. SRA reduces the surface tension of pores resulting the reduction in cracking. It
occurs due to the reduction of capillary stress and reduction of water evaporation from the
concrete surface. The early compressive strength of SRA mixed concrete is lower than
concrete mixture without SRA.
By using SRA in concrete, repairing costs for concrete structures can be deducted. If there
is a repair in concrete structures, its effectiveness can be increased by using concrete
mixtures with SRA. Most probably SRA mixed concrete is frequently used for the crack
repairing of original concrete structures .With the use of SRA, fresh concrete is made
somewhat same as the pre-shrunk fabric /structures and so a lot of suitability with existing
concrete structures. Additionally, SRA mixed concrete can considerably reduce the
autogenous shrinkage of high performance concrete structures. Even though application of
SRA in concrete is expensive, it significantly enhances the performance of concrete
structures. It is sustainable and economically effective in the field applications. The cost
for water reducing admixtures can be reduced by using some SRA products.
The autogenous shrinkage is increased when SP dosage is increased. It occurs due to the
better cement dispersion in concrete. And also, when SP dosage is increased the rate of
shrinkage at the plastic and semi plastic period is increased. After setting, the effect was
the opposite, where the rate of shrinkage decreased with SP dosage. After setting of the
concrete, when SP dosage is increased rate of shrinkage is reduced. By using shrinkage
reducing admixture, rate of autogenous shrinkage can be reduced in every concrete. When
SRA dosage is increased the rate of autogenous shrinkage can be increased. When SRA is
added to SP mixed concrete, the performance of concrete can be considerably improved.

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 4.1.2 Recommendation

It is considered the most accurate methods to avoid early age cracking are proper curing
and covering the surface of concrete from thick sheets. As a reliable curing method,
spraying curing compounds to the surface of the concrete structure is mostly used in the
field applications. But when considering the practical situation, even if proper curing
method is used cracking can occur in some of the concrete structures. In addition, if the
structure is covered properly and if curing compounds are sprayed concrete cracking can
be taken place. As there are many issues in different methods used to avoid cracking, one
of the best ways to overcome this is the preparation of proper mix design. It is important to
use high amount of coarse aggregate and adequate dosage of shrinkage reducing
admixtures to the mix design.
Following recommendations can be given to reduce the early age shrinkage cracking.
1.Using adequate dosage of Shrinkage reducing admixture (reduced evaporation as well as
autogenous shrinkage).
2.. Reducing the SP dosage.

42
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