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Admixtures are commonly used in the concrete mixtures to enhance the various properties
of concrete. Using admixtures are giving advantages as well as disadvantages. Water
reducing admixtures are useful in achieving increased workability of a given mix without
increase in water content, achieving high strength without an increasing cement and also
obtaining specified strength at lower cement content. But the problem of using the water
reducing admixture is that the concrete mixed with the Water reducing admixture would
increase the early shrinkage and the number of cracks intensely and accelerate the speed of
early cracking. Shrinkage reducing admixtures significantly reduce the early age and long
term shrinkage cracking of concrete structures. The reduction in capillary tension by
organic agents of shrinkage reducing admixtures decreases the concrete volume changes
due to internal self-desiccation or air drying of concrete. Cracking can be controlled by
using appropriate reinforcement. Shrinkage cannot be reduced by the reinforcement but it
supports to reduce the widening of the cracks. This study aims to investigate the
effectiveness of shrinkage-reducing agents and water reducing admixtures for reducing
autogenous shrinkage and drying shrinkage on concrete mixtures made with different
dosages of admixtures. The research was also conducted to study the effects of shrinkage-
reducing agents and water reducing admixture on other properties of concrete including
slump, air content, compressive strength and splitting-tensile strength.
i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT............................................................................................................................i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS...................................................................................................ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS......................................................................................................iii
LIST OF FIGURES................................................................................................................v
LIST OF TABLES................................................................................................................vi
LIST OF ABBREVIATION................................................................................................vii
CHAPTER ONE.....................................................................................................................8
INTRODUCTION.............................................................................................................8
1.1 Concrete as a Composite.....................................................................................8
1.2 Portland Cement..................................................................................................9
1.3 Proportioning of concrete mixtures.....................................................................9
1.4 ACI method for concrete mix design................................................................10
1.5 Hydration...........................................................................................................10
1.6 Setting of Cement Paste....................................................................................11
1.7 High Temperature on Hardened Paste...............................................................11
1.8 ASTM Standards...............................................................................................11
1.9 Admixtures........................................................................................................12
1.10 ASTM classification of admixtures...................................................................12
1.11 Water-Reducing Admixture.............................................................................13
1.12 High-Range Water-Reducing or Super plasticizing Admixture.......................13
1.13 Specific performance admixture.......................................................................17
1.14 Shrinkage...........................................................................................................17
1.15 Setting Time and Strength of the concrete........................................................20
1.16 Aim of the study................................................................................................21
1.17 Objectives of the study......................................................................................21
1.18 Scope of the study.............................................................................................21
CHAPTER TWO..................................................................................................................22
LITERATURE REVIEW................................................................................................22
2.1 Introduction.......................................................................................................22
CHAPTER THREE..............................................................................................................28
METHODS AND RESULTS..........................................................................................28
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3.1 Testing methods................................................................................................28
3.2 Calculation of Autogenous Length Change......................................................29
3.3 Results obtained from past investigations.........................................................29
3.4 Effect of shrinkage reducing admixture with different dosages on concrete....30
3.5 Determine the effect of shrinkage reducing admixture with HRWRA for high
performance concrete properties and shrinkage cracking.................................33
3.6 Effectiveness of Shrinkage reducing admixture for self-compacting concrete.37
3.7 Methodology.....................................................................................................40
CHAPTER FOUR................................................................................................................41
4.1 Conclusions and Recommendations..................................................................41
REFERENCES.....................................................................................................................43
iv
LIST OF FIGURES
v
LIST OF TABLES
vi
LIST OF ABBREVIATION
vii
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Concrete takes an important place among the most durable construction materials. Even
though it gives benefits cracking is problematic. Concrete cracking is mainly occurred due
to the shrinkage induced strain and the stresses in the concrete. Cracking influences to the
concrete strength properties, life time and appearance of the structure. When concrete is
drying for a long period of time shrinkage is taken place. Early age autogenous shrinkage
is one of the main problems in cracking. Due to this many studies are found related to the
early age autogenous shrinkage. It is important to repair the cracked concrete to prevent the
further deterioration Reasons for the further reasons may be thawing, freezing and also the
corrosion of steel reinforcement. Corrosion of steel reinforcement is occurred when water
with or without Chloride ions is infiltered into the concrete structure. Additional repairing
costs are needed when Cracking is taken place. Precautions can be taken to avoid early
deterioration of concrete and also the corrosion of reinforcement. Cracking reduces the life
span of concrete structures (concrete slabs, bridges) Nowadays, different types of
admixtures are frequently using in different ways to enhance the properties of concrete.
The behavior of an admixture in concrete depends on the properties of cementitious
material, aggregate, other admixtures, temperature and mixing methods.
Concrete is a well-known term among public. Layman will consider concrete as a mixture
of, sand, water, portland cement and crushed rock. However, the consultants in the field
define concrete in advanced manner other than considering it as a mixture.
In a general way, concrete is a particulate composite. Matrix of this composite is called the
binder, and the particles are called the aggregate. The concept is illustrated in Figure 1.1.
Matrix (Binder)
Particles (aggregate)
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Figure 1.1 Illustration of a particulate composite
The term, cement has its roots in French. ciment, and Latin cæmenta, “stone chips used for
making mortar”. Cement, in broad sense, means a binder. Binders or cements may be of
different materials; Portland cement paste, bitumen, Sulphur, and polymers are some
examples. Aggregate may be such as crushed rock, gravel, sand, crushed slag, crushed
glass, and pieces of metal.
From the Latin word concretus the term, concrete, is derived and it has the meanings of
condensed, hardened, and clotted.
Main material included in Portland cement is argillaceous material (Latin argilla is white
clay). There are different types of argillaceous materials such as shale and calcareous
material. Calcium is the main element in the calcareous material. Argillaceous material
have to be heated to high temperatures so as to prepare the Portland cement. Many
chemical compounds like silica, potassium, sodium are included in Portland cement.
Proper concrete proportioning is very important to achieve the sustainability and economic
aspects of concrete. Therefore, concrete mix should be prepared targeting the specific
properties of concrete such as strength, workability. Preparation of concrete mix includes
the process of determining the amounts of ingredients. This process is sometimes referred
to as “concrete mix design”, but this term misleadingly implies that the process is almost
based on computation as the case of structural design.
Proportioning of a mix may be entirely empirical. That is, it may totally depend on
experience or observation alone or it may have technical basis of tests and calculations.
Every property of the ingredients controlling the character of concrete mix cannot be
expressed quantitatively at the current status of practices. For example, texture and shape
of the coarse and fine materials cannot be evaluated accurately. Even water cement ratio
and water requirement can be adjusted to take a specific strength. Therefore, an approach
based on calculation is limited to make a reasonable initial guess of mix proportions. The
proportions so arrived lead to trial mixes. The properties of the trial mixes are to be
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checked first in a laboratory against their specified values. In the event of observing
differences, mix proportions are to be suitably adjusted and a new trial mix should be
produced. This procedure has to be continued until a totally satisfactory mix is obtained.
Even satisfactory laboratory trial mix does not guarantee that the mix produced on the site
by using equipment there gives the specified properties. In other words, only a mix made
and used on the site can assure that all the properties of the concrete are satisfactory in
terms of the specification. This is particularly true with pumpable concrete, shotcrete, and
self-compacting concrete.
Even though the properties of ingredients are attempted to be maintained, those may vary
from time to time, and consequently periodic adjustments are needed in preparing the mix
proportions. In conclusion, it should be noted that, with the present state of knowledge,
generally tables, computer programs and charts are not possible to determine the exact mix
proportions. Even such calculations are made the results of those are only to be used as
intelligent guesses for the initial trial mixes.
American Concrete Institute (ACI)has proposed a method to make a concrete mix design.
This method is commonly used and highly accepted. At the beginning of this method water
content given for a maximum size of coarse aggregate should be selected. And then
workability needs to be found. Workability is denoted by slump. After that cement content
can be calculated by using water content and W/C ratio. W/C ratio has been taken at the
beginning by using design strength of the concrete. After this the volume of coarse
aggregate should be found. Finally, fine aggregate volume is calculated by finding the
difference between the total volume and volume of other ingredients. Volume basis
calculations give more accurate results than the weight basis calculations.
1.5 Hydration
Chemical reaction between compounds in cement and water is called hydration. Hydration
is taken place in the processes of setting and hardening of concrete. Hydration starts when
the water is added to cement and then it begins with the addition of external water to
cement and continues over a long period of time at varying rates. Even after many years,
unhydrated portions of cement particles may be present.
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1.6 Setting of Cement Paste
Setting is the apparent conversion of cement paste from fluid state to rigid state. The time
taken to enter into setting is measured from the instant of adding water to dry cement. The
common equipment to assess the setting time is Vicat apparatus.
Flash setting is quick stiffening of cement paste with considerable evolution of heat. The
stiffening associated with flash setting cannot be reverted by further mixing. False setting
is an apparent stiffening with a little evolution of heat. The stiffening associated with false
setting reverts back on further mixing.
Hardening and gaining strength of Portland cement paste is caused by the hydration
reaction. Hydration causes to form mainly, calcium silicate hydrates (C-S-H), and calcium
sulphoalumnate hydrates, and calcium hydroxide. Water exists in cement paste in the
forms of chemically combined water, interlayer water, adsorbed water and capillary water.
Upon increasing temperature, first, capillary water starts to evaporate. That does not affect
the strength unless the material is heated rapidly, but causes shrinking of the paste. Once
the temperature has reached around 3000C, some combined water and interlayer water
begin to lose. Around 500 °C, Ca(OH) 2 starts to decompose. Complete decomposition of
C-S-H takes place around 900 °C, losing the strength of the hardened paste completely.
Even though not much used for structural applications after discovering the loss of strength
with age or retrogression of strength associated with the conversion of crystal structure of
aluminate hydrates at normal temperatures, calcium aluminate cement (CAC) or high
alumina cement (HAC) is more tolerant to high temperature. Hence, that type of cement is
used for high temperature applications such as refractory concrete.
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ASTM that is based testing 50 mm cubes. The compositions of the mixes are also different.
Consequently, the resulting values remain different.
1.9 Admixtures
Admixtures are compounds added in small quantities at the mixing stage of concrete,
with the aim of modifying or improving certain properties of fresh and / or hardened
concrete. Admixtures, while imparting beneficial effects may have harmful effects as
well. Therefore, the selection and use of admixtures have to be done cautiously.
Admixtures can be categorized in different ways. One such division is based on the
water solubility of the compound. Another division is based on whether the compounds
are active, interactive or passive. By definition, active admixtures react with the soluble
components of cement to produce a compound imparting the effect; interactive
admixtures are surface-active compounds associating with liquid-air and solid-liquid
interfaces; passive admixtures do not change their form and give only a physical
contribution. During early days, admixtures were classified as chemical admixtures.
Chemical admixtures are mainly liquids, either in solution or in suspension form. They
may also be in the form of water-soluble solids.
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5. Cross – linked acrylic polymer
(4) reduced diffusivity and water permeability even under pressure; and
(5) increased strength at early age such as at 3 - 7 days without increasing cement
content.
14
All those benefits are obtainable as a result of the possibility of reducing water in the mix
at proportioning stage, causing reduction of water-cement ratio. These benefits can be
achieved to a lesser degree with water-reducing or plasticizing admixture.
(1) Slump
HRWRAs are often used in concrete mixtures. HRWRA is mainly affected to the loosing
slump with time which means workability of concrete is reduced. There are some reasons
for the loss of slump in these types of concrete mixtures such as type of the admixture,
dosage, other admixture dosage, properties of cement, strength of concrete and temperature
of the mixture. These factors can control manually. But environmental temperature can’t
be controlled by designer. So, this temperature is affected to the process of HRWRA
reaction.
Rate of slump loss is depending on the dosage of HRWRA in concrete mixture. Rate of
slump loss can be reduced by using higher dosage of HRWRA (Ravina et al. 1986).
Manufacturers of the admixture is giving a recommended dosage range to use with
optimum conditions. If that ranges are not considered, efficiency of HRWRA can be
reduced.
(2) Segregation
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Main function of HRWRA is the reducing water from concrete mixture. As a result of
reducing water content, W/C ratio is decreased. Reduction of W/C ratio is affected to
increase the cement content. Cement content is mainly influenced to the strength of the
concrete. When dosage of HRWRA is increasing, strength of the concrete is increased. In
the early age, rate of strength increasing is slightly high.
When designing a concrete mix design with include HRWRA, W/C ratio should be found
at the beginning of the design. Then concrete strength should be assumed according to the
requirements. Cement dispersing is affected to the increase of the concrete strength.
Therefore, assumed concrete strength can be varied. Use of variation of W/C with strength
for material is most acceptable way to doing the mix design. Improvement of concrete
strength at early age by using HRWRA admixture can be shown from above data.
High range water reducing admixtures affect the tensile strength in the same way affect the
compressive strength. Standard laboratory tests are using to determine the tensile and
compressive strength of the concrete.
Laboratory studies indicate that adding a HRWRA to a cement paste increases the drying
shrinkage of the paste. Some laboratory data confirm that HRWRAs can increase concrete
drying shrinkage at a given water cement ratio and cement content (given paste content),
but this effect has not been definitively established. Therefore, the drying shrinkage of
flowing concrete should be similar to, or slightly greater than, that of the same concrete
mixture without any HRWRA. If there is a simultaneous reduction in cement content and
w/cm when the HRWRA is added, drying shrinkage can be reduced. If drying shrinkage is
a critical factor for the structure being built,’ the shrinkage (ASTM C 157) should be
measured before the mix proportions are finalized to ensure that the desired value is not
exceeded. Shrinkage values of concrete with and without HRWRA should be compared
at equal strength of the concrete, not equal time (age), so that concretes are compared at a
similar porosity. Although few studies have been made on creep characteristics, it is
expected that adding HRWRAs to concrete should affect creep to the same extent that they
affect shrinkage.
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Figure 1.2 - Utilization of water reduction to gain high early as well as late strength
1.14 Shrinkage
Volume reduction of concrete causes the shrinkage and or volume reduction of concrete is
time dependent. Moisture is a major factor for the occurrence of autogenous shrinkage and
drying shrinkage. Thermal shrinkage is taken place due to the influence of temperature in
concrete. Due to the carbonation reaction a volume change in concrete is occurred. As a
result of this volume change, carbonation shrinkage is taken place. Both creep and
shrinkage are not dependent on stress in concrete. But there is a possibility of occurring a
shrinkage when a concrete is restrained.
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1.14.1 Autogenous Shrinkage
Autogenous shrinkage is associated with the hydration, so that the major part develops in
initial days after casting. Since autogenous shrinkage is an effect of self-desiccation of
cement paste causing partially empty capillaries, the associated shrinkage takes place.
Even if the concrete is perfectly cured externally, preventing any moisture movement to
the ambience. Autogenous shrinkage is more prominent in concretes with low water-
cement ratio, or in other words, in concretes having high strength.
Drying shrinkage is combined with the movement of moisture from cement paste to the
ambience. Hence, it depends on the ambient relative humidity and the surface to volume
ratio of the member. It also depends on the strength of the concrete, and the age at which
the concrete starts to expose to the drying environment. Drying shrinkage does not take
place within the period of water curing. Since the drying rate becomes higher with water-
cement ratio, concretes with lower strengths demonstrate a greater drying shrinkage. This
behavior is opposite in the case of autogenous shrinkage.
Set of curves shown in figure 1.4 illustrate the trends for the notional size(h0) equals to
100mm, relative humidity, 60% and the period of curing is 5 days. The notional size is
defined by using cross sectional area (Ac)and perimeter of the considering part of the cross
section of the structure(u)Notational size can be calculated by 2A c/u.The physical meaning
of the notional size can be approximately described as the thickness of a member having
large dimensions in the two other directions, if the surfaces perpendicular to the thickness
are open to ambience.
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Figure 1.4 - Drying shrinkage trends based on EN 1992 -1 -1
Carbonation in concrete is occurred when CO2 is penetrated into the moist pores and then
at first it becomes carbonic acid and then it reacts with Ca(OH) 2 to form CaCO3, increasing
the density. As a result of this, reduction of volume is taken place. Carbonation shrinkage
will lead the surface cracking(crazing), and also the warping of thin sheets of cementitious
products if different carbonation rates are prevailed on surfaces.
Water loss from fresh concrete can occur in two different ways which causes the plastic
shrinkage. Through evaporation from an exposed surface is the predominant mode. And
also, material of the formwork is highly influenced to the plastic shrinkage. The reason for
this is the loosing of water by suction of the formwork material. Water loss in such way
will increase the effects of surface evaporation. Generally accepted fact is that the water
loss from paste fraction of concrete due to external factors will generate negative capillary
pressures and as a result the volume of the paste to be contracted, hence it will cause the
shrinkage. There are four main factors which influence the water evaporation. They are
wind speed, relative humidity and temperature of environment and concrete. Even though
these conditions are most likely to be observed during the summer months, it is possible to
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occur at any time. The rate of the bleed water transportation to the concrete surface will
influence the potential for the phenomenon or form of cracking which is generally called as
plastic shrinkage cracking. Research studies have reported that if the rate of surface
evaporation exceeds about 0.1 lb/ft2 /h (0.5 kg/ m2 /h), the moisture loss will exceed the
rate of reaching the bleed water to the surface and with that setting into motion the
mechanisms causing plastic shrinkage.
In literature plastic shrinkage is defined as the fresh concrete shrinkage, exposed to
drying and which is taken place at the time when the concrete is ‘plastic’ (Neville et al
2000). Usually the duration is short and it ends when the concrete has come to its final set.
Tensile stresses will develop if there is a non-uniform shrinkage or restraint, which may
cause cracking due to the low tensile strength and strain capacity the concrete is having at
this stage. Generally, these cracks are called as ‘plastic shrinkage cracks’. Cracks caused
by plastic shrinkage, thermal dilution, early age drying and autogenous shrinkage cannot
be differentiated. Even though Cracking are problematic there are some cracking which
does not affect negatively to the structure. Influence of cracking is taken place when it is
enlarged.
The final decision on acceptance may be made even when the water fails to satisfy
preliminary inspections by performing test on setting time and 7-day compressive strength.
Those tests may be considered an alternative to the qualitative or quantitative chemical
tests as well. Therefore, the limits specified on setting time and strength are considered
crucial requirements on acceptance. Further, in ASTM 1602, the limits on the outcome of
chemical tests are considered as optional requirements.
This study aims to investigate the effectiveness of shrinkage-reducing agents and water
reducing admixtures for reducing autogenous shrinkage, drying shrinkage and plastic
shrinkage on concrete mixtures made with different dosages of admixtures and also to
study the effects of shrinkage-reducing agents and water reducing admixture on other
20
properties of concrete including slump, air content, compressive strength and splitting-
tensile strength.
This study is limited to water reducing admixtures and shrinkage-reducing agents. The
properties of concrete will be tested considering the changes in slump during the first hour,
initial setting time, autogenous shrinkage, Compressive strength and splitting tensile
strengths.
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CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
Shrinkage cracking can be one of the main reasons behind concerns about concrete structures.
There are many reasons for weakening the concrete structure. Shrinkage cracking is one of the
main reasons which is frequently occurred in concrete structures. Cracking has major effects on
steel reinforcement and lifetime of the concrete structure. It is because moisture is infiltrated into
the steel reinforcement and a corrosion of steel reinforcement can be taken place. As a result of
corrosion, the strength of the concrete structure can be reduced. So, the life time of the concrete
structure is also decreased. Gilbert et al 2001 has investigated this. It is mentioned that shrinkage
cracking plays a major role in concrete cracking. There are four types of concrete shrinkage
cracking such as autogenous shrinkage, plastic shrinkage, drying shrinkage and carbonation
shrinkage. Firstly, occurring shrinkage among the four types is the autogenous shrinkage.
Autogenous shrinkage happens when water in capillary pores removed due to cement materials.
In here water is not escaped to the atmosphere. This shrinkage cracking is increased when water
cement ratio (W/C) is lower. It happens when water cement ratio is decreasing resulting the
increase of cement content. Plastic shrinkage is taken place when the water is evaporated from
the freshly poured concrete. Drying shrinkage is occurred when drying of harden concrete. This is
due to the escape of water into atmosphere when hardening the concrete. So, volume change of
concrete is observed (Mokarem et al 2002). Carbonation shrinkage is occurred due to a chemical
reaction with CO2 and cement. More details regarding above mentioned types of shrinkage will be
further discussed from the sections below.
After the initial setting of the concrete autogenous shrinkage can be happened due to the volume
change of concrete. It is because of the chemical reactions and self-desiccation. Generally, water
is applied into the concrete. When the addition of water is not sufficient after the initial setting of
concrete, a volume change at a microscopic level is taken place inside the concrete resulting
autogenous shrinkage. Calcium silicate hydrate (CSH) gel is formed during the hydration reaction
of the concrete. As a result of this, fine pores are formed within the hardened concrete. When
hydration process is further taken place, inside the capillary pores a gel water is formed and then
22
menisci is formed. Outside water supply is influenced on this. Due to the occurrence of negative
pressures inside the pores, a shrinkage is occurred in the hardened concrete (JCI 1998). Self
desiccation is mainly affected to the autogenous shrinkage. Self-desiccation is the loss of water in
capillary pores because of the hydration reaction of the concrete. In the process of self-
desiccation there is no water loss into the atmosphere. Aitcin et al 2003 has found that generally
self-desiccation is occurred in every types of concrete. But the way of its impact is different on the
normal concrete and high-performance concrete. Normally W/C ratio is low in high performance
concrete. It emphasizes the fact that cement content is high and water content is low in high
performance concrete.IN normal concrete water content is high due to the higher W/C ratio. As a
result of this, excess water is remained in the concrete and the capillary pores are fully filled with
the water. So large pores are formed inside the concrete. Inside large pores menici is formed due
to the self-desiccation. Due to the enlargement of these large pores small stresses are formed.
Due to this, in normal concrete autogenous shrinkage is low. When considering the high
performance concrete, small pores are formed due to the low water cement ratio and high
cement content. When self desiccation is taken place, high tensile stress is formed due to the
small pores. As a result, high autogenous shrinkage is formed in high performance concrete
(Aitcin et al 2003). Bentz et al. (2002) has explained that in high performance concrete a dense
microstructure is formed avoiding the entrance of the externally added water into the concrete.
End products of the hydration process occupies a less space in concrete and when the self
desiccation is occurred empty pores are formed. Due to the microstructure external water cannot
be entered into the empty pores. As a result of this, very large tensile stresses are formed in the
pores. So, in high performance concrete a significant shrinkage is taken place. Holt et al (2002)
studied how the autogenous shrinkage is occurred due to the chemical reactions. In this study
shrinkage was considered into two as early age and latter age. Early age was taken as the
shrinkage occurred less than a day. Internal decrease of volume is discussed in early age
autogenous shrinkage. During the reaction in cement clinker mainly four reactions are taken place
on the following products. They are C2S, C3S, C4AF, and C3A.These products react with water and
form other products where they have less volume. In the latter age autogenous shrinkage,
chemical reaction is slowed in the concrete due to the increase of strength of concrete and a
restriction for the development of a stress. However, autogenous shrinkage is occurred due to the
continuous process of hydration. But the rate of autogenous shrinkage is low. The reason for this
is the low value of internal relative humidity.
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As a result of the decrease of internal humidity in the concrete, autogenous and drying shrinkage
are occurred. But those two types of shrinkages are different to each other. Drying shrinkage is
occurred when the water in concrete is escaped into the atmosphere where the autogenous
shrinkage is occurred when the water in concrete is escaped due to the cement (JCI, 1998). In
drying shrinkage concrete volume is reduced due to the loss of water in the concrete from
evaporation. In this process tensile stress of concrete is increased and concrete can be cracked
and an external deflection and internal warping can be occurred. This phenomenon is taken place
due to not having an external load on concrete structure. (Mehta et al. 1993) found that the
volume when concrete is drying is not as same as the volume when water is escaping. Due to the
large pores in concrete, water is collected in them. This water is called as free water. The escape
of this water does not affect to the volume change. Stress formed in the large pores does not
affect the shrinkage. But stress formed due to the collection of water in the small pores affects
the shrinkage. Water in small pores is called as interlayer water. Escape of interlayer water can
affect the shrinkage. This interlayer water is also known as zeolite water. This water is forming H
bonds with CSH structure. Due to this it is very difficult to remove the interlayer water. If the
interlayer water is removed the CSH structure is shrunk (Mehta et al. 1993). Drying shrinkage is
started from the surface of the concrete. It depends on the relative humidity in the atmosphere
and size of pores in concrete. Due to the impact of those factors, speed of the drying shrinkage is
varied. In normal concrete as the pores are interconnected and due to having large pores drying
shrinkage is high. In high performance concrete drying shrinkage is low due to the small pores and
not having a continuous connection between the pores (Aitcin et al 2003).
Plastic shrinkage is occurred when the water is evaporated in freshly poured concrete. There are
many factors influencing the plastic shrinkage such as rate of evaporation of water, pressure in
the pores, concrete mixing method and environmental conditions etc. Better protection methods
should be adapted to reduce the evaporation. Some of those methods are spraying the curing
compound on the surface of the structure and using cover sheets. Nowadays shrinkage reducing
admixtures are commonly used to reduce that evaporation from the concrete, pore pressures and
also plastic shrinkage cracking. Lin and Huang found that the evaporation from the concrete can
be reduced by using superabsorbent polymers and saturated light-weight aggregates resulting the
reduction in plastic shrinkage. Leeman et al. (2011) showed that when using admixtures
24
evaporation can be reduced by a paraffin dispersion. And also, the plastic shrinkage can be
reduced by using the fibre reinforcement. Kronl et al. has conducted a comparison test about
horizontal plastic deformation by using an accelerator and retarder. It was found that the
shrinkage is higher in accelerator than the retarder and the reference. Combrinck and Boshoff
also showed the same results mentioned before.
There are many reasons causative for the occurrence of shrinkage. The major causes are concrete
mix design, curing method, environmental conditions, material properties, geometry of concrete
element and cement content (Mehta and Monteiro 1993, Neville at al 1995). Due to the increase
of fineness of cement particles, surface area of the cement is increased. Because of that reaction
of water and cement is increased. So, the autogenous shrinkage is increased in concrete. This was
further studied in (Bentz et al. 2001). It was revealed that shrinkage is varied with the particle size
distribution of the cement. It was found that higher the particle size, early age autogenous
shrinkage is lower. Due to this it is better to use cement having large particle size so as to reduce
early age shrinkage cracking. It is important to increase the life time of the concrete (Bentz et al.
2001). Composition and properties of C4AF and C3A affect the early age shrinkage cracking (Aїtcin
et al. 2003). Fineness and composition of Portland cement affects the hydration but there is no
impact on volume and properties of hydration products. These reasons are not having impact on
drying shrinkage (Mehta et al ,1993).
Increase of cement content and decrease of water cement ratio in concrete cause a higher
autogenous shrinkage. But due to the formation of microstructure, drying shrinkage is reduced.
Modulus of elasticity in aggregates is directly affected to the drying shrinkage. If aggregates with
high elastic modulus are used the drying shrinkage is increased from five times than the
aggregates with low elastic modulus (Troxell et al,1958) .When the aggregate size and amount of
aggregates are increased the drying shrinkage is also increased(Neville et al. 1995).According to
the arrangement of pores in the aggregate particles, autogenous shrinkage is varied. And also, in
accordance with the internal water content in aggregate particles the autogenous shrinkage is
varied. Internal curing is taken place due to the availability of water in the aggregate particles.
(Lura et al. 2001) showed that light weight aggregates (LWA) reduce the self-desiccation. And
also, it was found that if aggregates have 50% or 100% saturation, they are showing autogenous
shrinkage. Normal weight aggregates initially show higher shrinkage than LWA. But in the latter
age, shrinkage is higher in LWA than the normal weight aggregates. This is due to the reduction in
modulus of elasticity in LWA. Matsushita and Tsuruta (Matsushita et al, 1998) studied whether
25
the autogenous shrinkage is varied with the type of coarse aggregate. Different types of Coarse
aggregates with same weights were taken for the study and found that the type of coarse
aggregate does not have any impact on the autogenous shrinkage of high-performance concrete.
Properties of fly ash and particle size distribution affect the workability of the concrete, rate of
increasing the strength, water requirement of the concrete (Mehta et al. 1993). (Yuan et al ,1983)
found that type of fly ash influences the drying shrinkage of concrete. In this study Class C fly ash
was used for the cement and the above-mentioned result was derived. Drying shrinkage has been
increased when cement 30%-50% is replaced with the fly ash in self-compacting concrete (Naik et
al. 2005). (Tangtermsirikul et al,1998) had also stated this furthermore by explaining the impact of
fly ash content, particle size distribution and admixture content on the autogenous shrinkage.
When SO3 content in fly ash is increased autogenous shrinkage is reduced. When the particle size
of fly ash is decreased the autogenous shrinkage is increased with compared to concrete without
fly ash. When considering the particle size and percentage of fly ash replacement, higher
influence on autogenous shrinkage was shown by the particle size. When the percentage of fly
ash replacement is increased, autogenous shrinkage is reduced.
Drying shrinkage is increased with the increase of atmospheric temperature and low relative
humidity in the environment. It is due to the increase of water evaporation with the influence of
those factors. It was found that drying shrinkage was zero when the relative humidity is 100%. It
is because of the water evaporation to the atmosphere is not taken place when the relative
humidity is maximum. Geometry of the concrete structure has a major impact on shrinkage.
Volume to surface area ratio is the mainly influencing factor. When volume to surface area ratio is
increased, shrinkage is increased (Neville et al. 1995).
Use of shrinkage-reducing admixtures (SRAs) is the best and commonly used method to reduce
autogenous shrinkage and drying shrinkage. This was firstly found in Japan in 1980.Performance
of shrinkage-reducing admixtures is varied with the manufacturer. The main function of SRAs is
the reduction of surface tension in capillaries. When the surface tension is reduced the stress in
pores is reduced resulting the reduction in shrinkage (Roncero et al. 2003). (Ribeiro et al. 2003)
studied the effectiveness of shrinkage reducing admixtures on concrete shrinkage. Two types of
SRAs were used in this study and 25% replacement of cement by fly ash was used in every
mixture. It was found that drying shrinkage was reduced about 30% due to the use of SRAs. One
of the main reasons for this reduction is the reduction of stress in pores. When the dosage of SRAs
is increasing, drying shrinkage is reducing. But the compressive strength of concrete is reduced.
26
(Roncero et al. 2003) studied the influence of SRA on microstructure and the behaviour of
concrete for a long period of time.0.4W/C ratio and 0%,1%,2% dosages of SRA with respect to the
mass of cement were used in this study. After two years of time the shrinkage strain was checked.
Then the results indicated that drying shrinkage strain has been reduced when SRA dosage is
increasing. (Y Yao et al,2019) found how the shrinkage is changed with the variation of SRA
dosage. It was observed that when SRA dosage is increasing, both shrinkage and compressive
strengths have shown reductions. Better air void systems can be obtained for thawing and
freezing resistant by using glycol-ether based SRA. But this cannot be taken unless the air
entraining admixture (AEA) and mix design is properly selected.
27
CHAPTER THREE
ASTM standard was used to perform laboratory test. Test methods for fresh concrete and
other properties of concrete are included in table 3.1 and table 3.2. And also dimensions of
laboratory apparatus and testing time are given in table 3.2.
28
3.2 Calculation of Autogenous Length Change
Autogenous shrinkage is measured by using a strain in concrete. When calculating
autogenous shrinkage, it needs to deduct the thermal strain from the concrete strain. In the
study coefficient of thermal expansion was taken as 10 × 10-6/°C. During the test
autogenous length in a concrete beam was taken from two dial gauge readings where the
dial indicators are placed in certain points which need to measure the autogenous length of
concrete beam. Xoa and Xob were taken from dial gauges at the initial setting of the
concrete. Other readings recorded from the dial gauge were Xia and Xib.Autogeneous
shrinkage was considered as a linear strain and autogenous shrinkage was calculated using
the equation given below.
[( X ia + X ib) – ( X 0 a+ X 0b)]
ΔL= −ε t
L
where,
L = distance between two gauge points where the autogenous lengths are measured
(between little plates of the gauge points)
εt = Thermal strain calculated as dT × α where, dT = temperature difference in concrete
and α = coefficient of thermal expansion of concrete.
Several solutions were suggested to the drying shrinkage problems in concrete structure.
These suggestions varied from mixture proportions to cement type. In mixture proportions
water content and aggregate quality can be changed. In cement type, shrinkage
compensating cement can be used. In some situations, drying shrinkage can be reduced
using a proper mix design. In addition, it can be reduced by following recommendations of
concreting and curing practices. It is difficult to avoid drying shrinkage in concrete
structures due to the reasons such as high ambient temperature, high wind velocity and low
humidity in air. Using locally found materials is a major reason for the occurrence of
shrinkage cracking. At present one of the highly accepted methods to prevent shrinkage
crack is the use of shrinkage compensating cement. It was used in many applications.
Other methods were also found to prevent the shrinkage cracking. Those methods are
highly accepted by the concrete construction market.
29
There are advantages as well as disadvantages of the use of shrinkage compensating
cement. These disadvantages affect largely to the properties of concrete. One of the main
reasons when using shrinkage compensating cement is the loss of slump. Slump loss is
taken place due to the abundance of ettringite which is formed at early hydration stage.
And also, better curing method needs to be used so as to facilitate the mixing of the cement
and water which leads to an advanced concrete hydration process. Finally, proper
formwork and reinforcement steel design is needed to prevent the shrinkage. Having
proper formwork and reinforcement steel design will prevent the inadequate expansion in
concrete structures. Due to the above mentioned reasons shrinkage compensating cement is
not universally accepted. Nowadays, the commonly used method is the use of shrinkage
reducing admixture. By using shrinkage reducing admixtures, long term ad short term
shrinkage in concrete structures can be reduced. Shrinkage reducing admixture is a
chemical so a complicated reaction is taken place in the concrete mixture. Many
publications have discussed the characteristics, properties and uses of shrinkage reducing
admixtures. Following sections will describe the process takes place when shrinkage
reducing admixture is used with a water reducing admixture.
Table 3.3 - Mix design for adiabatic temperature rise and compressive strength test.
30
Item Cement Silica Fume Sand Aggregate WRA SRA W/C
(kg/m3) (kg/m3) (kg/m3) (kg/m3) (kg/m3) (kg/m3) (kg/m3)
According to the China Civil Engineering Society Standard (CCES 01 – 2004) the crack
properties were observed by the ring method. Shrinkage crack properties of concrete with
age were further studied. It was found that the shrinkage reducing agent had reduced the
shrinkage value of each sample compared to the reference concrete. And also, the
shrinkage value was decreased with the increasing of SRA dosage under the same testing
time. However, the growth rate of shrinkage value was decreased with the extending of
testing time. Following figure shows the variation of the shrinkage value with testing time.
31
The maximum crack of the concrete with SRA 5% dosage was 0.342 mm. It was compared
with the reference sample. It was 0.875 mm. the reduction as high as 61%. After 28 days,
because of the internal curing effect of the SRA, the defects and cracks in the concrete
structure were reduced. Variation of the minimum crack with testing time is given below.
In this study, adiabatic temperature rising with the different dosages was determined.
According to the results of that study, it was investigated that SRA was not only reducing
the rising temperature in about 8°C during the hydration process of concrete, but also it had
delayed the appearing time of initial balance temperature peak, and the appearing time can
extend to about five hours when the SRA dosage of 5 wt.%. Meanwhile, these effects were
obviously enhanced with the increase of SRA dosage. Faster the hydrations rate of cement
in early age. And also, rapider the temperature rises of concrete. The effect of SRA has
been improved by the resistance of cracking of mass concrete. And also, it has been
improved by the volume stability of mass concrete. That was mainly attributed to the effect
of hydration heat of cement, specific heat capacity of concrete, cement content, and
hydration process of cement on the adiabatic temperature rise of concrete.
32
Figure 3.3 Variation of rising temperature with hydration time
in different dosage of SRA
3.5 Determine the effect of shrinkage reducing admixture with HRWRA for high
performance concrete properties and shrinkage cracking.
Following study has discussed how the newly developed shrinkage reducing admixture
affects to the high performance concrete. In the study high performance concrete mixture
has been prepared with silica fume. Test was conducted by applying shrinkage reducing
admixture and not adding shrinkage reducing admixture. This test has found the drying
shrinkage of the concrete. Resistance of concrete to shrinkage cracking was tested and
finally the results indicated that when adding shrinkage reducing admixture to high
performance concrete, the shrinkage is reduced. And also, it was found that the restrained
shrinkage cracking is significantly reduced.
The experimental program of Kevin J. Folliard et al (1997) had considered the properties
of high-performance concrete, with parameters improve the proper use of shrinkage
reducing admixtures. Relevant ASTM standards were followed in all of the applicable
cases.
In this study, ASTM Type I cement was used and also fine aggregate was used according
to the ASTM C 33 standard. Natural was used in this study and it was found that the
Fineness Modulus (FM) was 2.65. According to ASTM C 33 (Size 67) standard coarse
33
aggregate was used. Coarse aggregate type was a crushed quartz diorite. In this study, by
using above mentioned two types of aggregate, high performance concrete mixture was
made. Main material of the shrinkage-reducing admixture was blend of propylene glycol
derivatives.
There are two set of mixtures which were made for the study. And also, one of sets has two
mixture proportions with and without SRA. And another set of mixtures was made without
silica fume and other was made with a constant weight of silica fume. Cement and
aggregate weights were constant at all time when making the mixture proportions. It was a
fully activated liquid. Its specific gravity was 0.95 and it is capable of properly dissolving
in water. The amount of ingredients used in the study are given below.
In the mixtures, Mass of binder was mixed to 1.5% SRA. And also, target slump was 150 –
200 mm. Therefore, HRWRA dosage was changed to achieve the target slump. This
dosage range is mostly used in high performance concrete. Mixing water is absorbed by
concrete with HRWRA or concrete with silica fume. When adding SRA to the mixture,
there is a certain water content which can be removed by SRA and this amount of water is
reduced from the concrete. Due to this, W/C ratio was decreased up to 0.34. The initial
W/C ratio was 0.35. The Following fresh concrete properties were obtained from the study.
34
Table 3.5 - Fresh Concrete Properties
Mixture Slump Air content Unit Weight Initial Set Final Set
Description (mm) (%) (kg/m3) (H:M) (H:M)
Control 190 1.6 2526 5.48 8.27
Concrete
Concrete with 190 1.6 2515 7.44 10.56
1.5% SRA
Silica Fume 190 1.7 2501 7.24 10.07
concrete
Silica Fume 190 1.6 2496 10.07 12.14
concrete with
1.5% SRA
The dry shrinkage of concrete was measured in 28 days and in 120 days. It is shown in
figure 3.4. In both cases of with and without silica fume in high performance concrete,
drying shrinkage is reduced by the shrinkage reducing admixtures. However, in the case of
adding silica fume the shrinkage is high. Results indicated the reduction of drying
shrinkage as 52% and 43% in 28 days and 120 days respectively. This comparison was
done with a concrete without SRA. For this comparison, SRA was added to control
concrete to have shrinkage reduction of 35% ,29% at 28 days and 120 days respectively.
Mixture Description 28-Day Drying Shrinkage (%) 120-day Drying Shrinkage (%)
35
Figure 3.4 - Drying shrinkage of High-Performance Concrete with and without SRA
(ASTM C 157, l - day moist-cure).
36
Table 3.7 - Hardened Concrete Properties
37
Table 3.8 - Mix design of the SCC mixtures with and without SRA
According to ASTM C1579-06 plastic shrinkage cracking was determined. The self
compacting concrete was filled into two molds with standard dimensions (355 x 560 x 100
mm3) and containing an insert. This insert had two parallel ridges and they were placed
parallel and near to the shorter sides of the mold. One ridge was placed at the middle of the
mold. These ridges are placed to fix the concrete rigidly when conducting the test. The
purpose of middle ridge is the occurrence of plastic shrinkage at the middle of the beam.
The specimen was placed in a climate chamber at a temperature of 30 ± 1 C and a relative
humidity of 60 ± 5%. And also, wind tunnel was placed with a wind speed of 7 ± 0.5 m/s.
Respective sensors and an anemometer were used to determine the temperature, relative
humidity and wind speed inside the tunnel. Readings of sensors were obtained after 10
minutes of concrete mixing. Two specimens were prepared. In this test, testing time is
calculated after the 10 minutes of concrete mixing. Because it is considered that the plastic
shrinkage is starting to occur after 10 minutes of mixing the concrete. Condition of the
surface was observed in every 30 minutes. And also, cracking behavior of concrete surface
was determined in every 30 minutes. In this manner the test was conducted for seven
hours. Finally, the crack width was determined using a ruler and loupe. The distance
interval of crack width was 10 mm and the least count of the measurement was 0.05 mm.
Dosage of the superplasticizer was constant. Due to the addition of SRA workability was
increased but a segregation was not taken place. But due to adding SRA, 28 days
compressive strength of concrete was reduced by about 7 – 11% with respect to the
reference concrete. The comparison of concrete properties is summarized in the table
below.
38
Table 3.9 - Concrete properties with and without SRA
Flow (cm) 60 72
Bulk density (kg / m3) 2360 2325
Air void content (%) 1.6 1.6
Compressive strength f28 (MPa) 50.7 46.4
Cracks has not been formed in SCC with SRA during the test. But cracks were formed in
reference mixture. In the reference mixture time taken to form crack was about 4.0 to 4.5 h.
SRA reduces the surface tension of water in concrete pores. Due to this capillary pressure
of concrete was reduced. Reduction of capillary pressure was the main reason for the
prevention of cracking. By using this specific SRA type, surface tension of deionized water
was reduced by about 40%. For this a certain amount of SRA was used in the concrete
mixture. pendant drop method was used to determine the surface tension. Capillary
pressure was increased at the latter age in SCC with SRA compared to the reference
mixture. Critical point of capillary pressure was reduced and a tensile strength was
developed in concrete to prevent the cracking. Concrete settlement was compared with the
reference mixture and reduction of mass loss was steady in first 2h. As it was steady,
bleeding was constant. SEA has reduced the transporting rate of pore fluid to the surface
after the critical point mentioned above.
3.7 Methodology
PHASE I
Find relevant
literatures
PHASE
39 II
Collect the data and
information
PHASE III
Analysis the data and
find
Figure 3.5 out the methods
- Methodology
PHASE IV
Interpretation of
results
PHASE V
Conclusion and
Recomondation
40
CHAPTER FOUR
4.1.1 Conclusion
Drying shrinkage cracking and autogenous shrinkage cracking can be reduced considerably
by using SRA in high performance concrete. Ring test was performed to interpret this
result. Effectiveness of SRA was observed within a short time period of curing
process.However,proper curing is essential for concrete to increase the shrinkage reducing
efficiency of SRA in field applications. Curing is important to prevent the concrete
cracking.SRA reduces the surface tension of pores resulting the reduction in cracking. It
occurs due to the reduction of capillary stress and reduction of water evaporation from the
concrete surface. The early compressive strength of SRA mixed concrete is lower than
concrete mixture without SRA.
By using SRA in concrete, repairing costs for concrete structures can be deducted. If there
is a repair in concrete structures, its effectiveness can be increased by using concrete
mixtures with SRA.Most probably SRA mixed concrete is frequently used for the crack
repairing of original concrete structures .With the use of SRA, fresh concrete is made
somewhat same as the pre-shrunk fabric /structures and so a lot of suitability with existing
concrete structures. Additionally,SRA mixed concrete can considerably reduce the
autogenous shrinkage of high performance concrete structures.Eventhough application of
SRA in concrete is expensive ,it significantly enhances the performance of concrete
structures. It is sustainable and economically effective in the field applications. The cost
for water reducing admixtures can be reduced by using some SRA products.
The autogenous shrinkage is increased when SP dosage is increased. It occurs due to the
better cement dispersion in concrete. And also, when SP dosage is increased the rate of
shrinkage at the plastic and semi plastic period is increased. After setting, the effect was
the opposite, where the rate of shrinkage decreased with SP dosage. After setting of the
concrete, when SP dosage is increased rate of shrinkage is reduced. By using shrinkage
reducing admixture, rate of autogenous shrinkage can be reduced in every concrete. When
SRA dosage is increased the rate of autogenous shrinkage can be increased. When SRA is
added to SP mixed concrete, the performance of concrete can be considerably improved.
41
4.1.2 Recommendation
It is considered the most accurate methods to avoid early age cracking are proper curing
and covering the surface of concrete from thick sheets. As a reliable curing method,
spraying curing compounds to the surface of the concrete structure is mostly used in the
field applications.But when considering the practical situation, even if proper curing
method is used cracking can occur in some of the concrete structures. In addition, if the
structure is covered properly and if curing compounds are sprayed concrete cracking can
be taken place. As there are many issues in different methods used to avoid cracking, one
of the best ways to overcome this is the preparation of proper mix design. It is important to
use high amount of coarse aggregate and adequate dosage of shrinkage reducing
admixtures to the mix design.
Following recommendations can be given to reduce the early age shrinkage cracking.
1.Using adequate dosage of Shrinkage reducing admixture (reduced evaporation as well as
autogenous shrinkage).
2.. Reducing the SP dosage.
42
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