College Algebra v3.

2
• Edward Burger

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CHAPTER 1
Real Numbers and Their
Properties

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 SLOs
What is an algebraic expression?
Write the solution to inequality in 2 different ways.
What absolute value represents?
What are the properties of absolute value?
Know the properties of the exponents.
What is the order of operations?
Know to simplify expressions/equations following the order of operations.
Which operation has priority over the other between multiplication and division?
Name a polynomial based on the degree and the number of its terms.
Know to perform operations with polynomials.
Know (by heart) all the rules of the special binomial products and how to expand them.
Know all the factoring techniques and which method is being used in each case.
.

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 Algebraic Expressions
• A mathematical expression that has at least one variable is an algebraic
expression.
• To evaluate an algebraic expression, substitute known values of the
variables into the expression, then follow the order of operations.
3𝑚−2
Evaluate 2 for 𝑚 = 3 Evaluate 3𝑎𝑏 − 5 𝑏 for 𝑎 = 6 and 𝑏 = 4
𝑚 +1
3(6)(4) − 5 4
3(3) − 2
(3)2 +1 18(4) − 5(2)
9−2 7 72 − 10
= 62
9+1 10
The result of evaluating an algebraic expression with a set of real numbers
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for the variables results in a real number with a few important exceptions.
 Intervals of Real Numbers and How They are
Expressed
• The Density Theorem of Real
Numbers states that there are
infinitely many real numbers
between any two real numbers.
• This means you cannot list the
real numbers on an interval of
the number line, no matter how
small it is.
• Interval notation represents
intervals of real numbers as
ordered pairs. Open endpoints
are denoted with ( or ) and
closed endpoints with [ or ].
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 Intervals of Real Numbers and How They are
Expressed (CONTINUED)
• An interval of real numbers may be expressed in
either interval notation or set builder notation.

Interval: 𝑥: −∞, −6 ∪ [0, ∞ ) 𝑥: [−5, 3)

Set Builder: 𝑥 | 𝑥 < −6 or 𝑥 ≥ 0 𝑥| −5 ≤𝑥 <3

This is an example of two This is an example of one

unbounded intervals. bounded interval.
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 Absolute Value

• The absolute value of a number is its distance from 0 on

the number line; therefore, it is always nonnegative.

𝑎 for 𝑎 ≥ 0
𝑎 =ቊ
−𝑎 for 𝑎 < 0

Both cases must be addressed when

a variable is inside the absolute value!
5
2𝑥 − 5 for 𝑥 ≥
2𝑥 − 5 = 2
5
5 − 2𝑥 for 𝑥 <
2

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 Integer Exponents
• If a is a nonzero value and n is a nonnegative integer, then
𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎 ∙ 𝑎 ∙ 𝑎 ∙ ⋯ ∙ 𝑎 n factors of a

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 Integer Exponents: Negative Exponents

• If a is a nonzero value and m is a positive integer

𝑚 𝑚
1 1 𝑎 −𝑚 𝑏 𝑏𝑚
𝑎−𝑚 = = 𝑚 = = 𝑚
𝑎 𝑎 𝑏 𝑎 𝑎
1 3
3 3
2𝑥
𝑥2
1 33
23 𝑥 3 𝑥2 3
1 27
8𝑥 3 𝑥6
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 1.4 Identifying and Classifying Polynomials
• A polynomial in the x variable is an expression in the form:
𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0
where the coefficients 𝑎𝑛 , 𝑎𝑛−1 , … , 𝑎2 , 𝑎1 , 𝑎0 are real numbers and n is a
nonnegative integer.

• The largest exponent, n, is

called the degree of the
polynomial.
• The constant 𝑎𝑛 is called the
lead coefficient.
• The constant 𝑎0 is called the
constant term.
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 Identifying and Classifying Polynomials
(CONTINUED)
• A polynomial in the x variable is an expression in the form:
𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0
where the coefficients 𝑎𝑛 , 𝑎𝑛−1 , … , 𝑎2 , 𝑎1 , 𝑎0 are real numbers and n is a
nonnegative integer.
• Polynomial means “many terms”.
• If a polynomial has a small number of
terms, more specific names may be
used.
• 1 term: monomial
• 2 terms: binomial
• 3 terms: trinomial
• Special terms are not typically used
for larger polynomials.
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 Adding and Subtracting Polynomials
• Addition and subtraction of polynomials is done by combining like
terms.
• Like terms are terms with the same base and exponent.
• To combine like terms, add or subtract the coefficients. Nothing
happens to the exponents in addition or subtraction of polynomials!

Examples:
7𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 5 − (3𝑥 2 − 9𝑥 + 6)
4𝑥 3 + 7𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1 + (𝑥 3 + 5𝑥 − 3)
Caution: Distribute the (–) through!
4𝑥 3 + 7𝑥 2 𝑥3
− 2𝑥 + 1 + + 5𝑥 − 3
7𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 5 − 3𝑥 2 + 9𝑥 − 6
4𝑥 3 + 𝑥 3 + 7𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 5𝑥 + 1 − 3
5𝑥 3 + 7𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 2 7𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 9𝑥 − 5 − 6
4𝑥 2 + 11𝑥 − 11
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 Multiplying Polynomials
• When multiplying monomials, multiply the coefficients and add
the exponents using the power rule for exponents.

5𝑥 3 3𝑥 4 = 5 ∙ 3 𝑥 3 𝑥 4 = 15𝑥 7
When multiplying a monomial through a larger polynomial, use the
Distributive Property and multiply the monomial by each term in the
larger polynomial.
1 2
6𝑥 2 𝑥 − 3𝑥 + 2
2

2
1 2
6𝑥 𝑥 − 6𝑥 2 3𝑥 + 6𝑥 2 2
2
©FlatWorld 2023 3𝑥 4 − 18𝑥 3 + 12𝑥 2
 Multiplying Polynomials (CONTINUED)
• For larger polynomial products, multiply each term in the first polynomial
by every term in the second polynomial, then collect like terms.
𝑥 2 + 3 −2𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 4
𝑥 2 −2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 2 5𝑥 − 𝑥 2 −4 + 3 −2𝑥 2 + 3 5𝑥 − 3 −4
−2𝑥 4 + 5𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 2 + 15𝑥 + 12
−2𝑥 4 + 5𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 + 15𝑥 + 12
A common case is the multiplication of binomials. When this occurs, the
FOIL pattern of the Distributive Property may be used.
F: First
3𝑥 2 − 4 −2𝑥 + 3 O: Outer
3𝑥 2 −2𝑥 + 3𝑥 2 3 + −4 −2𝑥 + −4 3 I: Inner
3 2 L: Last
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−6𝑥 + 9𝑥 + 8𝑥 − 12
 Multiplying Polynomials: Special Binomial Products
• The table below summarizes some special binomial products.
• Although these formulas are helpful and you should be able to identify the
names of them, you may find these products using the Distributive Property.

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 1.5 Factoring Polynomials: Greatest Common Factor
• Factoring polynomials is the reverse operation of multiplication using the
Distributive Property.
• The first step in factoring is to identify the Greatest Common Factor
(GCF) when possible, and factor it out of each term in the polynomial.
• The GCF is comprised of the following factors:
• The largest factor common to all coefficients in the polynomial.
• Each variable raised to the lowest power it occurs if it is in all terms of
the polynomial.
• The GCF of the coefficients is 8.
Factor 48𝑥 5 𝑦 3 − 40𝑥 3 𝑦 2 𝑧 4 24𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧 2
+ • The 𝑥 variable is in all terms, so 𝑥 2 is a
8𝑥 2 𝑦 6𝑥 3 𝑦 2 − 5𝑥𝑦𝑧 4 + 3𝑧 2 product of the GCF.
• The 𝑦 variable is in all terms, so 𝑦 is a
Divide the GCF out of each term and write
product of the GCF.
this factor in front: Reverse Distributive
• The 𝑧 variable is not in all terms.
Property of a monomial through a
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It is not included in the GCF.
polynomial.
 Factoring Polynomials: Grouping
• Factoring by grouping is a technique that may be used for polynomials
with 4 terms that have a discernible pattern through its coefficients.
• Group the first two and the last two terms.
• Factor the GCF out of each group.
• Factor the binomial common factor out of the two groups.
3 2 Notice the multiple of -4 between the first and
3𝑥 − 12𝑥 − 2𝑥 + 8 second terms and the third and fourth terms.
(3𝑥 3 −12𝑥 2 ) + (−2𝑥 + 8) Group first two and last two terms. If third term
is negative, use a double sign!
3𝑥 2 (𝑥 − 4) + (−2)(𝑥 − 4) Factor GCF out of each group. The binomials
that remain must be the same to use grouping!
(𝑥 − 4)(3𝑥 2 − 2) Factor common binomial factor out of the two
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groups.
 Factoring Polynomials: Factorable Trinomials
• Factorable Trinomials may be factored into two binomials by
reversing the FOIL multiplication pattern of binomials.
𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 − 16 Step 1: Determine the signs inside the binomials.
Remember we are “unFOILing”. Three cases:
( + )( − ) 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = + ( + )
𝑎𝑥 2 − 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = − ( − )
𝑥 + 1 𝑥 − 16 NO 𝑎𝑥 2 ± 𝑏𝑥 − 𝑐 = + ( − )
Step 2: Determine factor pairs of the lead
𝑥+4 𝑥−4 NO coefficient a and the constant term c
𝑎 = 1 ∙ 1 ; 𝑐 = 1 ∙ 16 or 2 ∙ 8 or 4 ∙ 4
𝑥+2 𝑥−8 YES!
Step 3: Determine the correct
Therefore, combination by checking with FOIL.
The outside and inside of the FOIL
©FlatWorld 2023 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 − 16 = 𝑥 + 2 𝑥 − 8 must combine to form the middle term.
 Factoring Polynomials: Factorable Trinomials
(CONTINUED)
• When the lead coefficient is not 1, the number of possible combinations
may become too large for trial and error.
• Given 𝑎 = 𝑝𝑞 and 𝑐 = 𝑚𝑛, the factorization is 𝑝𝑥 + 𝑚 𝑞𝑥 + 𝑛 such that
𝑝𝑛 + 𝑞𝑚 = 𝑏
Step 1: Determine factor pairs of the lead
6𝑥 2 − 22𝑥 + 20 coefficient, a=pq, and the constant term, c=mn.
− ( − ) 𝑎 = 6 = 1 ∙ 6 or 2 ∙ 3
𝑐 = 20
= (−1) ∙ (−20) or (−2) ∙ (−10) or (−4) ∙ (−5)
3𝑥 − 5 (2𝑥 − 4) Factors must be negative because b = -22.
Step 2: Determine the combination such that.
Check (Outside-Inside): 𝑝𝑛 + 𝑞𝑚 = 𝑏.
3𝑥 −4 + 2𝑥(−5) 3 −4 + 2 −5 = −22
Step 3: Write the factorization. Check to
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−12𝑥 − 10𝑥 = −22𝑥 make sure the outside and inside of the foil
make bx.
 Factoring Polynomials: ac-Grouping Method

• Another option for factoring a trinomial is the ac-grouping method:

• Determine the factor pairs of the product ac.
• Find the factor pair such that the sum of the factors equal b.
• Break the bx term into two terms with coefficients from this factor pair.
• Factor by grouping.
Step 1: Calculate 𝑎𝑐 = 2 ∙ 21 = 42
2𝑥 2 + 17𝑥 + 21
Step 2: Determine factor pairs of ac
2𝑥 2 + 14𝑥 + 3𝑥 + 21 42 = 1 ∙ 42 or 2 ∙ 21 or 3 ∙ 14 or 6 ∙ 7 ;
Step 3: Find the factor pair with a sum of b = 17
(2𝑥 2 +14𝑥) + (3𝑥 + 21)
17 = 3 + 14
2𝑥(𝑥 + 7) + 3(𝑥 + 7) Step 4: Rewrite middle term as the sum
of two terms with these coefficients.
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(𝑥 + 7)(2𝑥 + 3)
Step 5: Factor by grouping
 Factoring Polynomials: Perfect Square Trinomials
• A perfect square trinomial is a trinomial with two identical binomial
factors. These are often expressed as a binomial squared.
• Perfect square coefficients on the quadratic and constant terms are an
indicator the polynomial may be a perfect square trinomial.

4𝑥 2 + 20𝑥 + 25
𝐴2 = 4𝑥 2 , therefore 𝐴 = 2𝑥
𝐵2 = 25, therefore 𝐵 = 5

4𝑥 2 + 20𝑥 + 25 = 2𝑥 + 5 2

You may not always recognize a trinomial as a perfect square

trinomial. If not, factor the trinomial by “unFOILing”. If the two
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factors are identical, the trinomial is a perfect square trinomial!
 Factoring Polynomials: Special Forms
• The difference of perfect squares factors as the conjugate product of
the square roots of the perfect squares.
16𝑥 2 − 49
𝐴2 = 16𝑥 2 , therefore 𝐴 = 4𝑥
𝐵2 = 49, therefore 𝐵 = 7
Note: The sum of squares is NOT factorable! 4𝑥 + 7 4𝑥 − 7
• The sum or difference of perfect cubes is factorable. They factor as a binomial of
the cube roots and a trinomial defined by these cube roots.
• Use SOAP to recall the signs in the factorization. Same, Opposite, Always Positive
8𝑥 3 + 125
𝐵3 = 125, therefore 𝐵 = 5
2𝑥 + 5 4𝑥 2 − 10𝑥 + 25
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S O AP
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