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YOUR NOTES
GCSE Physics Edexcel 
7. Astronomy
CONTENTS
7.1 The Solar System & Lifecycles of Stars
7.1.1 Gravity & Weight
7.1.2 The Solar System
7.1.3 Circular Orbits
7.1.4 Non-Circular Orbits
7.1.5 Equilibrium in Stars
7.1.6 The Life Cycle of Solar Mass Stars
7.1.7 The Life Cycle of Larger Stars
7.2 Cosmology
7.2.1 Theories of the Universe
7.2.2 The Doppler Effect
7.2.3 Galactic Red-shift
7.2.4 The Cosmic Microwave Background
7.2.5 Observing the Universe
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7.1 The Solar System & Lifecycles of Stars YOUR NOTES

7.1.1 Gravity & Weight
Gravity on Different Planets
The strength of gravity on different planets after an object's weight on that planet
Weight is defined as:
The force acting on an object due to gravitational attraction
Planets have strong gravitational fields

Hence, they attract nearby masses with a strong gravitational force
Because of weight:
Objects stay firmly on the ground
Objects will always fall to the ground
Satellites are kept in orbit
Objects are attracted towards the centre of the Earth due to its gravitational field
strength
Both the weight of any body and the value of the gravitational field strength g
differs between the surface of the Earth and the surface of other bodies in space,
including the Moon because of the planet or moon's mass
The greater the mass of the planet then the greater its gravitational field
strength
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A higher gravitational field strength means a larger attractive force towards YOUR NOTES
the centre of that planet or moon 

The gravitational field strength (g) on the Earth is approximately 10 N/kg
The gravitational field strength on the surface of the Moon is less than on the
Earth
This means it would be easier to lift a mass on the surface of the Moon than
on the Earth
The gravitational field strength on the surface of the gas giants (eg. Jupiter and
Saturn) is more than on the Earth
This means it would be harder to lift a mass on the gas giants than on the
Earth
Value for g on the different objects in the Solar System
On such planets such as Jupiter, an object’s mass remains the same at all points in
space
However, their weight will be a lot greater meaning for example, a human will be
unable to fully stand up
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YOUR NOTES
A person’s weight on Jupiter would be so large a human would be unable to fully

stand up
 Exam Tip
You do not need to remember the value of g on different planets for your
exam, the value of g for Earth will be given in the exam question.
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7.1.2 The Solar System YOUR NOTES

Objects in the Solar System
The Solar System consists of:
The Sun
Eight planets
Natural and artificial satellites
Dwarf planets
Asteroids and comets
The objects in our solar system
The Sun & the Planets

The Sun lies at the centre of the Solar System
The Sun is a star that makes up over 99% of the mass of the solar system
There are 8 planets and an unknown number of dwarf planets which orbit the Sun
The gravitational field around planets is strong enough to have pulled in all
nearby objects with the exception of natural satellites
The gravitational field around a dwarf planet is not strong enough to have
pulled in nearby objects
Satellites
There are two types of satellite:
Natural
Artificial
Some planets have moons which orbit them
Moons are an example of natural satellites
Artificial satellites are man-made and can orbit any object in space
The International Space Station (ISS) orbits the Earth and is an example of an
artificial satellite
Asteroids & Comets
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Asteroids and comets also orbit the sun YOUR NOTES
An asteroid is a small rocky object which orbits the Sun 

The asteroid belt lies between Mars and Jupiter
Comets are made of dust and ice and orbit the Sun in a different orbit to those of
planets
The ice melts when the comet approaches the Sun and forms the comet’s tail
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The Planets YOUR NOTES
The 8 planets in our Solar System in ascending order of the distance from the Sun 
are:
Mercury
Venus
Earth
Mars
Jupiter
Saturn
Uranus
Neptune
There are 4 rocky planets: Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars
There are 4 gas planets: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune
The eight planets of our Solar System
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YOUR NOTES
 Exam Tip
You need to know the order of the 8 planets in the solar system. The 
following mnemonic gives the first letter of each of the planets to help you
recall them:
My Very Easy Method Just Speeds Up N aming (Planets)
Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, N eptune, (Pluto)
Of course, Pluto has been classed as a dwarf planet since 2006, so you
shouldn't include it as one of the 8 planets, but old mnemonics still include
it so that the mnemonic makes sense!
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The Creation of the Solar System YOUR NOTES
The way humans have thought about the solar system has changed many times 
throughout history
Before the development of the telescope, these ideas were based on what could be
seen with the naked eye
This restricted the details that could be gathered about the solar system, as
asteroids, most of the satellites of other planets, and the most distant planets are
not visible to the naked eye
Ancient Model of the Solar System
An Egyptian astronomer called Ptolemy (AD 100-168) described one of the earliest
ideas for how the solar system is structured
Ptolemy’s model and many earlier ideas from scholars of the solar system had the
Earth at the centre of it
Over time, though, it became apparent that the old model did not quite fit with
observation due to more detailed observations of the motions of the planets
This was called the geocentric model of the solar system
Modern Model of the Solar System
Placing the Sun at the centre of the solar system and having the Earth and other
planets orbit it gave a much more accurate explanation of astronomical
observations
Nicolas Copernicus (1473-1543) first suggested changing the model of the solar
system to one with the Sun at the centre
Detailed observations with telescopes have given us evidence that this is the
correct idea
This is now the accepted heliocentric model of the solar system
The geocentric model vs. the heliocentric model
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Worked Example YOUR NOTES
 A long time ago, astronomers thought that the Earth was the centre of the

Universe. This was called the geocentric model.The evidence for this model
came from observations of the sky using the naked eye. After the telescope
was invented, astronomers quickly gathered evidence that showed that the
geocentric model is not correct.Describe the evidence both for the
geocentric model and against the geocentric model.
Step 1: Describe the evidence supporting the geocentric model
When observing the Sun, Moon, stars or planets with the naked eye, they
appear to be moving across the sky and not just orbiting the Sun
Instead, they seem to appear to be going around the Earth
From simple observation, objects appear to move in the same direction and in
a predictable pattern of movement which is the same each day
Step 2: Describe the evidence against the geocentric model
The moons of other planets (such as Jupiter) can clearly be seen to be orbiting
the other planet and not the Earth
Careful observations of the Sun (and other objects) show their movements are,
in fact, not quite the same each day
Detailed telescope observations show the planets of the Solar System do not
move in a simple orbital path around the Earth
This is evidenced by the retrograde motion of planets, which can only be
explained by a heliocentric model
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7.1.3 Circular Orbits YOUR NOTES

Orbiting Bodies
There are many orbiting objects in our solar system and they each orbit a different
type of planetary body
Orbiting Objects or Bodies in Our Solar System Table
A smaller body or object will orbit a larger body

For example, a planet orbiting the Sun
In order to orbit a body such as a star or a planet, there has to be a force pulling
the object towards that body
Gravity provides this force
The gravitational force exerted by the larger body on the orbiting object is always
attractive
Therefore, the gravitational force always acts towards the centre of the larger
body
The gravitational force will cause the body to move and maintain in a circular path
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YOUR NOTES
Gravitational attraction causes the Moon to orbit around the Earth
Orbits of Planets
There are several similarities in the way different planets orbit the Sun:
Their orbits are all slightly elliptical (stretched circles) with the Sun at one
focus (approximately the centre of the orbit)
They all orbit in the same plane
They all travel the same direction around the Sun
There are also a few differences:
They orbit at different distances from the Sun
They orbit at different speeds
They all take different amounts of time to orbit the Sun
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The orbits of planets around the Sun YOUR NOTES
Orbits of Moons 
Moons orbit planets in a circular path
Some planets have more than one moon
The closer the moon is to the planet:
The shorter the time it will take to orbit
The greater the speed of the orbit
Comets
The orbits of comets are very different to those of planets:
Their orbits are highly elliptical (very stretched) or hyperbolic
This causes the speed of the comets to change significantly as their distance
from the Sun changes
Not all comets orbit in the same plane as the planets and some don’t even
orbit in the same direction
The elliptical orbit of a comet
Artificial Satellites
A satellite needs to travel at a specific speed to maintain a circular orbit at
a particular distance from the object
If the speed of the satellite is too large:
The radius of the orbit will increase and the satellite will spiral into space
This is because the gravitational attraction cannot provide enough force to
keep it in orbit
If the speed of the satellite is too low:
The radius of the orbit will decrease and the satellite will move towards the
object it should be orbiting
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This is because the gravitational attraction is too strong to maintain a YOUR NOTES
constant orbital radius 
Diagram showing how the speed of an artificial satellite affects its orbit
If an artificial satellite is to change the radius at which it is orbiting then

the speed at which it is travelling must change
To maintain a stable orbit:
If the speed increases the radius must increase
If the speed decreases the radius must decrease
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Circular Orbits YOUR NOTES
Planets travel around the Sun in orbits that are (approximately) circular 
Objects in circular orbit are travelling at a constant speed but a changing
velocity
In a circular path, the direction in which the object is travelling will be constantly
changing direction
A change in direction causes a change in velocity
Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity
Therefore, if the object is constantly changing direction then its
velocity is constantly changing and so the object in orbit is accelerating
A resultant force is needed to cause an acceleration

This resultant force is gravity and it must act at right angles to the instantaneous
velocity of the object to create a circular orbit
This is always towards the centre of the orbit
The instantaneous velocity of the object is the velocity at a given time
The direction of the instantaneous velocity and the gravitational force at different
points of the Earth’s orbit around the sun
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7.1.4 Non-Circular Orbits YOUR NOTES

Non-Circular Orbits
Some orbits, such as those of comets, are non-circular
These are often more elliptical
However, their orbits are still stable
For a stable orbit, the radius must change if the comets orbital speed changes
For example, for a comet in an elliptical orbit around the Sun:
As the comet approaches the Sun, the radius of the orbit decreases and the
orbital speed increases due to the Sun's strong gravitational pull
As the comet travels further away from the Sun, the radius of the orbit
increases and the orbital speed decreases due to a weaker gravitational pull
from the Sun
Comets travel in highly elliptical orbits, speeding up as they approach the Sun
As a comet approaches the Sun:

It loses gravitational potential energy and gains kinetic energy
The icy body of the comet also starts to melt, and forms a tail that always
points away from the Sun
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7.1.5 Equilibrium in Stars YOUR NOTES

Equilibrium in Stars
Stars are held together by a delicate balance of inwards and outwards forces
One of these forces is the force of gravity
This is an attractive force which pulls the outer layers inwards
The other force is the force from the pressure caused by the thermal expansion
This is an outward force which is exerted from the expanding hot
gases inside the star
When the inward pull of gravity and the force from the outward thermal
expansion acting on the star are equal, the star will be in equilibrium
This is how the stars in the main sequence remain stable for millions of years
Forces acting within a star. The centre red circle represents the star’s core and the
orange circle represents the stars outer layers
If the temperature of a star increases, the outward pressure will also increase

This will cause the star to expand
If the temperature drops the outward pressure will also decrease
This will cause the star to contract
As long as these two forces balance, the star will remain stable
Once these forces are unbalanced, then they will no longer be in equilibrium
causing the star to expand or contract
This happens when fusion in the core of stars, and hence thermal expansion,
ceases at the end of the star's life
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7.1.6 The Life Cycle of Solar Mass Stars YOUR NOTES

The Life Cycle of Solar Mass Stars
1. Nebula
All stars form from a giant cloud of hydrogen gas and dust called a nebula
2. Protostar
The force of gravity within a nebula pulls the particles closer together until it
forms a hot ball of gas, known as a protostar
As the particles are pulled closer together the density of the protostar will
increase
This will result in more frequent collisions between the particles which causes
the temperature to increase
3. Main Sequence Star
Once the protostar becomes hot enough, thermal expansion from fusion reactions
occur within its core and the force of gravity keeps the star in equilibrium
At this point, the star is born, and it becomes a main-sequence star
During the main sequence, the star is in equilibrium and said to be stable
The inward force due to gravity is equal to the outward pressure force which
results from the expanding hot gases inside the star
4. Red Giant
After several billion years the reactions in the star eventually die down as it runs
out of fuel
This causes the core to shrink and heat up
The core will shrink because the inward force due to gravity will become
greater than the outward force due to the pressure dies down
As the core shrinks, more reactions will cause the outer part of the star to expand
It will become a red giant
It is red because the outer surface starts to cool
5. White Dwarf
The star will eventually become unstable and eject the outer layer of dust and gas
as a planetary nebula
The core which is left behind will collapse completely, due to the pull of gravity,
and the star will become a white dwarf
The white dwarf will be cooling down and as a result, the amount of energy it
emits will decrease
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YOUR NOTES
The lifecycle of a solar mass star
 Exam Tip
Make sure you remember the life cycle for a solar mass star and ensure you
can describe the sequence in a logically structured manner in case a 6
marker comes up in the exam!Ensure you can remember the end stages for a
solar mass star clearly (red giant, planetary nebula, white dwarf) as this is
different for a star that is much larger than our Sun!
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7.1.7 The Life Cycle of Larger Stars YOUR NOTES

The Life Cycle of Larger Stars
A large star is one that is much larger than the Sun
Stars that are larger than the Sun have much shorter lifespans – in the region
of hundreds of millions of years (instead of billions)
The life cycle of a star larger than the Sun starts in the same way as a solar mass
star
1. Nebula
All stars form from a giant cloud of hydrogen gas and dust called a nebula
2. Protostar
The force of gravity within a nebula pulls the particles closer together until it
forms a hot ball of gas, known as a protostar
As the particles are pulled closer together the density of the protostar
will increase
This will result in more frequent collisions between the particles which causes
the temperature to increase
3. Main Sequence Star
Once the protostar becomes hot enough, thermal expansion from fusion reactions
occur within its core and the force of gravity keeps the star in equilibrium
At this point, the star is born, and it becomes a main-sequence star
During the main sequence, the star is in equilibrium and said to be stable
The inward force due to gravity is equal to the outward pressure force which
results from the expanding hot gases inside the star
4. Red Supergiant
Eventually, the main sequence star will reach a stage when it starts to run out of
fuel in its core
This causes the core to shrink and heat up
The core will shrink because the inward force due to gravity is greater than
the outward force due to the pressure of the expanding gases
This will cause more reactions in the core will cause the outer part of the star to
expand and it will become a red supergiant
A red supergiant is much larger than a red giant
5. Supernova
Once the reactions inside the red supergiant finally finish, the core of the star will
collapse suddenly and rebound causing a gigantic explosion
This is called a supernova
The outer remnants of the star will be ejected into space during the supernova
explosion
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6. Neutron Star (or Black Hole) YOUR NOTES
At the centre of this explosion a dense body, called a neutron star will form 
In the case of the largest stars, the neutron star that forms at the centre will
continue to collapse under the force of gravity until it forms a black hole
A black hole is an extremely dense point in space that not even light can
escape from
Lifecycle of stars much larger than our Sun
 Exam Tip
Make sure you remember the life cycle for a high mass star and ensure you
can describe the sequence in a logically structured manner in case a 6
marker comes up in the exam!Ensure you can remember the end stages for a
high mass star clearly (red supergiant, supernova, neutron star/black hole)
as this is different for a star that is a similar size to the Sun!
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7.2 Cosmology YOUR NOTES

7.2.1 Theories of the Universe
Big Bang & Steady State Theories
The Big Bang Theory
Around 14 billion years ago, the Universe began from a very small region that
was extremely hot and dense
Then there was a giant explosion, which is known as the Big Bang
This caused the universe to expand from a single point, cooling as it does so, to
form the universe today
Each point expands away from the others
This is seen from galaxies moving away from each other, and the further away
they are the faster they move
As a result of the initial explosion, the Universe continues to expand
All galaxies are moving away from each other, indicating that the universe is
expanding
An analogy of this is points drawn on a balloon where the balloon represents

space and the points as galaxies
When the balloon is deflated, all the points are close together and an equal
distance apart
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As the balloon expands, all the points become further apart by the same amount YOUR NOTES
This is because the space itself has expanded between the galaxies 

Therefore, the density of galaxies falls as the Universe expands
A balloon inflating is similar to the stretching of the space between galaxies
Steady State Theory

The Steady State theory was the main rival to the Big Bang theory up until the mid-
1960s
The main idea behind the Steady State theory was that the Universe has always
existed more or less as it is seen now
The theory accounted for the expansion of the Universe by suggesting that as
galaxies move apart, new ones will be formed in the gaps in between them
This implies the density of galaxies remains the same as the universe
expands
Whilst the Steady State theory could explain the expansion of the Universe it could
not explain some of the other evidence that emerged in favour of the Big Bang and
hence is not an accepted theory today
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YOUR NOTES
The Steady State Theory vs the Big Bang Theory
Page 24 of 38
Evidence for the Big Bang YOUR NOTES
Since there is more evidence supporting the Big Bang theory than the Steady State 
theory, it is the currently accepted model for the origin of the Universe
The main pieces of evidence for the Big Bang are
Galactic red-shift
Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) radiation
Evidence from Galactic Red-Shift
By observing the light spectrums from supernovae in other galaxies there is
evidence to suggest that distant galaxies are receding (moving further apart) even
faster than nearby galaxies
These observations were first made in 1998
The light spectrums show that light from distant galaxies is redshifted, which is
evidence that the universe is expanding
As a result, astronomers have concluded that:
All galaxies are moving away from the Earth
Galaxies are moving away from each other
This is what is expected after an explosion
Matter is first densely packed and as it explodes it, it moves out in all
directions getting further and further from the source of the explosion
Some matter will be lighter and travel at a greater speed, further from the
source of the explosion
Some matter will be heavier and travel at a slower speed, closer to the source
of the explosion
If someone were to travel back in time and compare the separation distance of the
galaxies:
It would be seen that galaxies would become closer and closer together until
the entire universe was a single point
If the galaxies were originally all grouped together at a single point and were then
exploded a similar effect would be observed
The galaxies that are the furthest are moving the fastest - their distance is
proportional to their speed
The galaxies that are closer are moving slower
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YOUR NOTES
Tracing the expansion of the universe back to the beginning of time leads to the idea
the universe began with a “big bang”
Evidence from CMB Radiation

According to the Big Bang theory, the early Universe was extremely hot and
extremely dense
As a result of this, it must have emitted thermal radiation
Astronomers discovered radiation in the microwave region of the electromagnetic
spectrum which comes from all directions and has a temperature of 2.73 K
This is known as the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) radiation
This radiation is thought to be the remains of the thermal energy from the Big
Bang, spread across the whole Universe
The radiation is in the microwave region because over the past 14 billion years or
so, that radiation initially from the Big Bang has become redshifted as the
Universe has expanded
The CMB radiation is very uniform and has the exact profile expected to be emitted
from a hot body that has cooled down over a very long time
This phenomenon is something that other theories (such as the Steady State
Theory) cannot explain
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7.2.2 The Doppler Effect YOUR NOTES

The Doppler Effect
Usually, when an object emits waves, the wavefronts spread out symmetrically
If the wave source moves, the waves can become squashed together or
stretched out
Therefore, when a wave source moves relative to an observer there will be a

change in the observed frequency and wavelength
Wavefronts are even in a stationary object but are squashed in the direction of the
moving wave source
A moving object will cause the wavelength, λ, (and frequency) of the waves to
change:
The wavelength of the waves in front of the source decreases (λ – Δλ) and the
frequency increases
The wavelength behind the source increases (λ + Δλ) and the frequency
decreases
This effect is known as the Doppler effect
Note: Δλ means 'change in wavelength'
 Exam Tip
Although you will not be expected to do any calculations with the Doppler
effect, it is important you remember the relationship between wavelength
and frequency (wavelength increases, frequency decreases and vice versa)
Page 27 of 38
7.2.3 Galactic Red-shift YOUR NOTES

Galactic Red-shift
The Doppler effect affects all types of waves, including light
Light emitted from stars and galaxies will be at a certain wavelength in the visible
part of the electromagnetic spectrum
If an object moves away from an observer the wavelength of light increases
This is known as redshift as the light moves towards the red end of the
spectrum
If an object moves towards an observer the wavelength of light decreases
This is known as blueshift as the light moves towards the blue end of the
spectrum
Light from a star that is moving towards an observer will be blue shifted and light
from a star moving away from an observer will be red shifted
An increase in wavelength is a decrease in frequency and vice versa
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YOUR NOTES
The observer in front observes a blue shift, the observer behind observes a redshift
Page 29 of 38
YOUR NOTES
 Exam Tip
You need to know that in the visible light spectrum red light has the longest 
wavelength and the smallest frequency compared to blue light which has a
shorter wavelength and higher frequency
To help you to remember what happens to the wavelength and the frequency
of an object as it moves further away, it is useful to think about how the
sound of a motorbike would change as it travels away from you. As the
motorbike travels away from you the pitch of the sound will become lower.
This means the frequency of the sound is decreasing. If the frequency has
decreased, the wavelength must also have increased.
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The Expanding Universe YOUR NOTES
Galactic redshift provides evidence for the Big Bang Theory and the expansion of 
the universe
The diagram below shows the light coming to the Earth from a close object, such
as the Sun, and the light coming to the Earth from a distant galaxy
Comparing the light spectrum produced from the Sun and a distant galaxy
Red-shift provides evidence that the Universe is expanding because:

Red-shift is observed when the spectral lines from the distant galaxy move closer
to the red end of the spectrum
This is because light waves are stretched by the expansion of the universe so
the wavelength increases (or frequency decreases)
This indicates that the galaxies are moving away from us
Light spectrums produced from distant galaxies are red-shifted more than nearby
galaxies
This shows that the greater the distance to the galaxy, the greater the
redshift
This means that the further away a galaxy is, the faster it is moving away
from the Earth
These observations imply that the universe is expanding and therefore support
the Big Bang Theory
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Red-shift & the Origin of the Universe YOUR NOTES
Both the Big Bang and Steady State theories of the origin of the Universe account 
for the red-shift of galaxies
The fact that light from distant galaxies is redshifted shows that the galaxies are:
Moving away from the Earth
Moving away from each other
This is a predicted consequence of the universe expanding from some initial point
(as implied in the Big Bang Theory):
Suppose the galaxies were originally all grouped together and then started to
spread out at different speeds
The galaxies that are moving fastest would move the furthest – the distance
they move would be proportional to their speed - exactly the sort of
relationship shown in the following graph
Graph showing the greater the distance to a galaxy, the greater the redshift
The Steady State Theory, however, does also account for the redshift of galaxies
It suggested that as galaxies moved apart, new ones were created in the space in
between, resulting in a universe that remains the same over time
This means that more distant galaxies are still seen to have a greater redshift
However, the Steady State Theory does not support the evidence from the Cosmic
Microwave Background radiation, and hence is no longer a supported theory
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7.2.4 The Cosmic Microwave Background YOUR NOTES

The Cosmic Microwave Background
The discovery of the CMB (Cosmic Microwave Background) led to the Big Bang
theory becoming the currently accepted model since it is not supported by the
Steady State theory
The CMB is a type of electromagnetic radiation which is a remnant from the
early stages of the Universe
It has a wavelength of around 1 mm making it a microwave, hence the name
Cosmic Microwave Background
In 1964, Astronomers discovered radiation in the microwave region of the
electromagnetic spectrum coming from all directions and at a generally uniform
temperature of 2.73 K
They were unable to do this any earlier since microwaves are absorbed by the
atmosphere
Around this time, space flight was developed which enabled astronomers to
send telescopes into orbit above the atmosphere
According to the Big Bang theory, the early Universe was an extremely hot and
dense environment
As a result of this, it must have emitted thermal radiation
The radiation is in the microwave region
This is because over the past 14 billion years or so, the radiation initially from
the Big Bang has become redshifted as the Universe has expanded
Initially, this would have been high energy radiation, towards the gamma end
of the spectrum
As the Universe expanded, the wavelength of the radiation increased
Over time, it has increased so much that it is now in the microwave region of
the spectrum
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The CMB is a result of high energy radiation being redshifted over billions of years YOUR NOTES
The CMB radiation is very uniform and has the exact profile expected to be emitted 
from a hot body that has cooled down over a very long time
This phenomenon is something that other theories (such as the Steady State
Theory) cannot explain
The CMB is represented by the following map:
The CMB map with areas of higher and lower temperature. Places with higher
temperature have a higher concentration of galaxies, Suns and planets
This is the closest image to a map of the Universe

The different colours represent different temperatures
The red / orange / brown regions represent warmer temperature indicating a
higher density of galaxies
The blue / green regions represents cooler temperature indicating a lower
density of galaxies
The temperature of the CMB is mostly uniform, however, there are minuscule
temperature fluctuations (on the order of 0.00001 K)
This implies that all objects in the Universe are more or less uniformly spread
out
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7.2.5 Observing the Universe YOUR NOTES

A Short History of Astronomy
Methods of observing the Universe have changed drastically over time
Throughout history, astronomy has played an important role in human society
Not just because of mankind’s fascination with the heavens but also in
navigation and agriculture
Ancient astronomers split the night sky into constellations to help them remember
the stars
They knew that some constellations only ever appeared in the northern skies,
whilst others lay to the south
They also aligned monuments with the position of certain stars or the position of
the Sun on certain days of the year, and these helped them to keep track of the
seasons
One example is the Callanish Stones in the Isle of Lewis and Harris, Scotland
These are an arrangement of standing stones placed in a cruciform pattern
with a central stone circle 13 metres (43 feet) in diameter
They were constructed specifically in line with the movements of the Sun and
Moon, 5000 years ago
The Callanish stones were used to track the movements of the Sun and the Moon
Modern Telescopes
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The most important development in astronomy was the invention of the YOUR NOTES
astronomical telescope in the early 17th century 

Early telescopes allowed astronomers to:
Observe the features of planets and moons for the first time
Develop more accurate models of the solar system, for example, the
heliocentric model of the Solar System
Modern telescopes provide much more data than the telescopes used hundreds of
years ago, this is because:
They can detect more wavelengths/frequencies in the EM spectrum than just
visible light
They can be positioned above the Earth’s atmosphere where less radiation is
absorbed
They can detect weaker signals
They have a much greater magnification
They are much more powerful
Technology has improved so computers can process and improve the data
Modern telescopes come in several shapes and sizes
These can range from smaller telescopes found in a classroom to giant radio
telescopes, such as the Lovell Telescope based at the Jodrell Bank Observatory
in Cheshire
Modern telescopes are a range of different sizes and can be on Earth on in space,
depending on their use
Page 36 of 38
Telescopes in Space YOUR NOTES
The atmosphere can substantially restrict the quality of astronomical observations, 

such as:
Reflection of light from moisture in the atmosphere causing light pollution
Air currents distorting the path of starlight
As well as this, not all electromagnetic radiation coming from space reaches the
Earth’s surface
The atmosphere absorbs certain wavelengths of electromagnetic waves restricting
observations from astronomical objects that produce these, such as:
Near (short-wavelength) microwaves
Far (long-wavelength) infrared
Near (short-wavelength) ultraviolet
X-rays
Gamma rays
Some wavelengths of the electromagnetic spectrum are absorbed by the Earth's

atmosphere
To get around these problems, telescopes are often launched into space
The most famous of these is the Hubble Space Telescope (this detects UV,
optical, and near-infrared)
Others include the Chandra X-ray telescope and the Spitzer infrared telescope
The benefits of space telescopes are:
They lead to the discovery of objects not detectable by visible light
More information and data can be collected
Different EM waves can give different types of information about astronomical
objects
Page 37 of 38
They can produce much more detailed and magnified images YOUR NOTES
They produce clearer images which are unaffected by Earth’s atmosphere and 
light pollution
The downsides of space telescopes are:
The telescopes are much harder to repair
They cannot be made too large since they need to fit into a rocket to be
launched
They are much more expensive
Page 38 of 38

SME Physics Important Stuff To Remember

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GCSE Physics Edexcel 

7.1 The Solar System & Lifecycles of Stars YOUR NOTES

Planets have strong gravitational fields

the centre of that planet or moon 

Value for g on the different objects in the Solar System

A person’s weight on Jupiter would be so large a human would be unable to fully

7.1.2 The Solar System YOUR NOTES

The objects in our solar system

The Sun & the Planets

Asteroids and comets also orbit the sun YOUR NOTES

An asteroid is a small rocky object which orbits the Sun 

The Planets YOUR NOTES

The eight planets of our Solar System

Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, N eptune, (Pluto)

The Creation of the Solar System YOUR NOTES

The geocentric model vs. the heliocentric model

Worked Example YOUR NOTES

Step 1: Describe the evidence supporting the geocentric model

7.1.3 Circular Orbits YOUR NOTES

A smaller body or object will orbit a larger body

Gravitational attraction causes the Moon to orbit around the Earth

The orbits of planets around the Sun YOUR NOTES

The elliptical orbit of a comet

This is because the gravitational attraction is too strong to maintain a YOUR NOTES

constant orbital radius 

If an artificial satellite is to change the radius at which it is orbiting then

Circular Orbits YOUR NOTES

A resultant force is needed to cause an acceleration

7.1.4 Non-Circular Orbits YOUR NOTES

As a comet approaches the Sun:

7.1.5 Equilibrium in Stars YOUR NOTES

If the temperature of a star increases, the outward pressure will also increase

7.1.6 The Life Cycle of Solar Mass Stars YOUR NOTES

The lifecycle of a solar mass star

7.1.7 The Life Cycle of Larger Stars YOUR NOTES

6. Neutron Star (or Black Hole) YOUR NOTES

Lifecycle of stars much larger than our Sun

7.2 Cosmology YOUR NOTES

An analogy of this is points drawn on a balloon where the balloon represents

This is because the space itself has expanded between the galaxies 

A balloon inflating is similar to the stretching of the space between galaxies

Steady State Theory

The Steady State Theory vs the Big Bang Theory

Evidence for the Big Bang YOUR NOTES

Evidence from CMB Radiation

7.2.2 The Doppler Effect YOUR NOTES

Therefore, when a wave source moves relative to an observer there will be a

7.2.3 Galactic Red-shift YOUR NOTES

An increase in wavelength is a decrease in frequency and vice versa

The Expanding Universe YOUR NOTES

Red-shift provides evidence that the Universe is expanding because:

Red-shift & the Origin of the Universe YOUR NOTES

7.2.4 The Cosmic Microwave Background YOUR NOTES

This is the closest image to a map of the Universe

7.2.5 Observing the Universe YOUR NOTES

astronomical telescope in the early 17th century 

Telescopes in Space YOUR NOTES

The atmosphere can substantially restrict the quality of astronomical observations, 

Some wavelengths of the electromagnetic spectrum are absorbed by the Earth's

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