Tutorial Session 1

Spacetime Physics

·3 2022
January 18, 3

1/5
Question 1
Draw the t and the x axes of the spacetime coordinates of an observer O and then draw:
1. The world line of O’s clock at x = 1 m.
dx
2. The world line of a particle moving with velocity = 0.1, and which is at x = 0.5
dt
m when t = 0.
-

3. The t̄ and x̄ axes of an observer O who moves with velocity v = 0.5 in the positive x
direction relative to O and whose origin (t̄ = x̄ = 0) coincides with that of O.
4. The locus of events whose interval s 2 from the origin is 1 m2 .
5. The locus of events whose interval s 2 from the origin is +1 m2 .
6. The locus of events whose interval s 2 from the origin is 0.
7. The locus of events, all of which occur at the time t = 2 m (simult. as seen by O).
8. The locus of events, all of which occur at the time t = 2 m (simult. as seen by Ō)
9. Show that simult. events as seen by Ō may not be simult. as seen by O
2/5
1.1

* = 1m

1. 2

Rao 5m
.

.
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constancy of speed of light
1- 3 We use the .

be and ⑦
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for

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Having drawn the for ,
we a-

such that the above is

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.

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hyperbola correspond
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at
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 Tutorial Session 2 and Solutions
EÐL205G Eðlisfræði rúms og tíma
January 20, 2023

1. For the pairs of events whose coordinates (t, x, y, z) in some frame are
given below, classify their separations as timelike, spacelike, or null.
(a) (0, 0, 0, 0) and (-1, 1, 0, 0)
(b) (1, 1, -1, 0) and (-1, 1, 0, 2)
(c) (6, 0, 1, 0) and (5, 0, 1, 0)
(d) (-1, 1, -1, 1) and (4, 1, -1, 6)
2. An astronaut takes a trip to Sirius, which is located a distance of 8 light
years from the Earth. (Note that 1 light year (ly) is the distance light
travels through free space in 1 yr.) The astronaut measures the time of
the one-way journey to be 6 yr. If the spaceship moves at a constant speed
of 0.8c, how can the 8-ly distance be reconciled with the 6-yr trip time
measured by the astronaut?
3. A beam of unstable K-mesons traveling at a speed of v = 0.9c passes
through two counters 9 meters apart. The first counter records 1000 pulses
(1000 passing particles). The second records 250 pulses. Determine the
half-life of the K-meson in its own rest frame.
Note: A particle’s half-life is the particle wristwatch time (proper time)
during which half of the particles decay (on average).

1
 Tutorial Session 2 Solutions

EÐL205G Eðlisfræði rúms og tíma

1. To find if the separations of the given pairs of events are timelike, spacelike,
or null, we find the spacetime interval between these events. It is given by

∆s2 = −c2 ∆t2 + ∆x2 + ∆y 2 + ∆z 2

We will take c = 1 for most of our discussions. If

∆s2 = 0, the separation is null
∆s2 > 0, the separation is spacelike
∆s2 < 0, the separation is timelike

(a) (0, 0, 0, 0) and (−1, 1, 0, 0)

∆s2 = −(−1 − 0)2 + (1 − 0)2 + 0 + 0 = 0

The separation is null.

(b) (1, 1, −1, 0) and (−1, 1, 0, 2)

∆s2 = −(−1 − 1)2 + (1 − 1)2 + (0 + 1)2 + (2 − 0)2 = 1 > 0

The separation is spacelike.

(c) (6, 0, 1, 0) and (5, 0, 1, 0)

∆s2 = −(5 − 6)2 + 0 + (1 − 1)2 + 0 = −1 < 0

The separation is timelike.

(d) (−1, 1, −1, 1) and (4, 1, −1, 6)

∆s2 = −(4 + 1)2 + (1 − 1)2 + (−1 + 1)2 + (6 − 1)2 = 0

The separation is null.

2. The 8 light years is the proper distance from the Earth to Sirius, measured
by an observer seeing both the earth and Sirius at rest (nearly). We can
look at this problem in two ways:

1
 (a) The proper time measured by the observer at rest with respect to
the Earth and Sirius is given by

8 light years
tEarth = = 10 years
0.8c
Since the astronaut is moving with respect to the Earth, her clock
1
runs slow by a factor γ = p . Then, the time measured by
1 − v 2 /c2
her is
tEarth 10
tAstronaut = = √ = 10 × 0.6 = 6 years
γ 1/ 1 − 0.82

(b) The Astronaut sees the star Sirius moving towards her with a speed
0.8c but also sees a contracted distance given by
8 light years
dAstronaut = √ = 8 × 0.6 = 4.8 light years
1/ 1 − 0.82

Then, the time measured by the astronaut is

4.8 light years
tAstronaut = = 6 years
0.8c
3. We see that the number of K-mesons drops from 1000 to 250, thus be-
coming (1/4)th of their original number, hence, undergoing two half-lives.
Now, the clock in the particle rest frame runs slower than the clocks in
the lab frame (the frame in which our detectors are kept or the lab frame)
1 1
by a factor γ = p = √ ∼ 2.29. The time as measured
2
1 − v /c2 1 − .81
in the lab frame is
9m
tLab = = 3.33 × 10−8 s
0.9c
Then, the time measured in the rest frame of the K-mesons will be

tLab 3.33 × 10−8 s

tK-mesons = = = 1.45 × 10−8 s
γ 2.29
And during this time, two half-lives have passed, thus, giving the half-life
as
1.45
thalf-life, rest = × 10−8 s = 7.3 × 10−9 s
2

2
 Tutorial Session 3
EÐL205G Eðlisfræði rúms og tíma
February 5, 2023

1. (a) Use the spacetime diagram of an observer O to describe the following

experiment performed by O. Two bursts of particles of speed v = 0.5
are emitted from x = 0 at t = −2 m, one traveling in the positive x
direction and the other in the negative x direction. These encounter
detectors located at x = ±2 m. After a delay of 0.5 m of time, the
detectors send signals back to x = 0 at speed v = 0.75.
(b) The signals arrive back at x = 0 at the same event. (Make sure
your spacetime diagram shows this!) From this, the experimenter
concludes that the particle detectors did indeed send out their signals
simultaneously since he knows they are equal distances from x = 0.
Explain why this conclusion is valid.
(c) A second observer O′ moves with speed v = 0.75 in the negative
x direction relative to O. Draw the spacetime diagram of O′ and
in it depict the experiment performed by O. Does O′ conclude that
particle detectors sent out their signals simultaneously? If not, which
signal was sent first?

2. (’Seeing’ can be deceiving!!) Suppose a meter stick pointing in the x

direction is moving along the x-axis with speed 0.8c, with its midpoint
passing through the origin of S at t = 0. An observer is at the coordinates
x = 0 and y = 1 m. At what time does the observer see (i.e. receive
the light from) the midpoint of the stick? Use this information to find at
what coordinates along the x-axis, will the observer see (i.e. receive the
light from) the endpoints of the meter stick. (Hint: Imagine the observer
is taking a photograph of the meter stick, this photograph will show the
light coming from all points in the stick that arrives at the camera at the
same time.)

Answers

1
 problemt.in "
t n
pis particle
beam 1
-

B. → particle
a) C-a) beam 2

,
a- → left beam
a → right beam .

""

6=0.752
"

V2 -0^75

• R1 • Ra Re Emission .

'

• •

At A2
R,
Rzeeefer to Absorption
re of-
emission -

panama
0.5m delay .

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. ÷ ,

,
r r

, , , ,

Ai >
refer to
Az
Dy - P, Da D , and
P1
absorption of detectors
.

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particles ' world line
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E- meters to the
emission
initial
of particles .

the
b) The conclusion is valid .
since particle
detectors are at equal distances from
measured
a- 0 as in 0 and the
speed of the

emitted particles as measured in 0 is

also the Lame Calthough in opposite directions,

which the emitted
the time at
particles are as

measured in 0 will also be same.

 direction
traveling
0 is wot o ,
c) since , in a
-

it means that 0 is
travelingof
in tsé
according
to 0 .

like this
The
spacetime diagram
"
0 will look
:
at I

Be
•

R'
• •

Ep ,

Ar ⑨

p. 0 hi

Pz
•

E
DA
Da

signals
Obeseever 0 concludes that the are

not sent
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of particles is
given by
ER ,
and Ers .

According
sent
to 0,
signal ① was
first .
Solution continues on next page.

2
 Problem Solving Session 4
EÐL205G EDlisfræDi rúms og tíma
February 2023

1. Find the angle between the face diagonals of a cube.

2. Prove that the two dimensional rotation matrix given by
    
Āx cos ϕ sin ϕ Ax
=
Āy − sin ϕ cos ϕ Ay
preserves dot products.
(That is, show that Āx B̄x + Āy B̄y = Ax Bx + Ay By .)
3. (a) Write out the matrix that describes a Galilean transformation.
(b) Write out the matrix describing a Lorentz transformation along the
y axis.
(c) Find the matrix describing a Lorentz transformation with velocity v
along the x axis followed by a Lorentz transformation with velocity
v̄ along the y axis. Does it matter in what order the transformations
are carried out?

Solutions
1. A pictorial representation of the problem can be given as:

The face diagonals A and B are given by

A = 1.êx + 0.êy + 1.êz B = 0.êx + 1.êy + 1.êz

We can write the dot product as follows:

A·B=1·0+0·1+1·1=1

1
 We can also write the dot product as:
√ √
A · B = AB cos θ = 2 2 cos θ
This gives
π
2 cos θ = 1 ⇒ θ = or 60◦
3
2. From the rotation matrix, we have,
Āx = Ax cos ϕ + Ay sin ϕ
Āy = Ay cos ϕ − Ax sin ϕ
Similarly,
B̄x = Bx cos ϕ + By sin ϕ
B̄y = By cos ϕ − Bx sin ϕ
The dot product is given by
Āx B̄x + Āy B̄y = (Ax cos ϕ + Ay sin ϕ)(Bx cos ϕ + By sin ϕ)
+ (Ay cos ϕ − Ax sin ϕ)(By cos ϕ − Bx sin ϕ)
= Ax Bx cos2 ϕ + Ax By sin ϕ cos ϕ + Ay Bx sin ϕ cos ϕ + Ay By sin2 ϕ
+ Ax Bx sin2 ϕ − Ax By sin ϕ cos ϕ − Ay Bx sin ϕ cos ϕ + Ay By cos2 ϕ
= Ax Bx + Ay By
Hence, the dot product is preserved under rotation.
3. (a) A Galilean transformation along +x axis is given by:
ct̄ = ct
x̄ = x − vt
ȳ = y
z̄ = z
The matrix corresponding to this transformation will be written as
follows:     
ct̄ 1 0 0 0 ct
 x̄  −β 1 0 0  x 
 =  
 ȳ   0 0 1 0  y 
z̄ 0 0 0 1 z
v
Here, β = .
c
(b) A Lorentz transformation along +y axis is given by:
t̄ = γ(t − βy)
x̄ = x
ȳ = γ(y − βt)
z̄ = z

2
 The matrix corresponding to this transformation will be written as
follows:     
t̄ γ 0 −γβ 0 t
x̄  0 1 0 0 x
 
 =
ȳ  −γβ 0 γ 0 y 
z̄ 0 0 0 1 z
v 1
Here, β = and γ = p .
c 1 − β2
(c) i. v along x followed by v̄ along y axis:
     
t̄ γ̄ 0 −γ̄ β̄ 0 γ −γβ 0 0 t
x̄  0 1 0 0  −γβ γ 0 0 x
 =   
ȳ  −γ̄ β̄ 0 γ̄ 0  0 0 1 0  y 
z̄ 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 z
  
γγ̄ −γγ̄β −γ̄ β̄ 0 t
 −γβ γ 0 0   x
= −γγ̄β −γγ̄β β̄
 
γ̄ 0  y 
0 0 0 1 z

ii. v̄ along y followed by v along x axis:

     
t̄ γ −γβ 0 0 γ̄ 0 −γ̄ β̄ 0 t
x̄ −γβ γ 0 0  0 1 0 0 x
 =   
ȳ   0 0 1 0 −γ̄ β̄ 0 γ̄ 0 y 
z̄ 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 z
  
γγ̄ −γβ −γγ̄ β̄ 0 t
−γγ̄β γ −γγ̄β β̄ 0   x
=  −γ̄ β̄
 
0 γ̄ 0  y 
0 0 0 1 z

YES, the order matters. When we switch the order of the trans-
formations, we get different matrices.

3
 Problem Solving Session 5
EÐL205G EDlisfræDi rúms og tíma
February 2023

1. A particle as observed in a certain reference frame has a total energy of

5 GeV and a momentum of pc = 3 GeV.
(a) What is its energy in a frame in which its momentum is equal to
pc = 4 GeV?
(b) What is the particle’s rest mass, in units of eV/c2 ?
(c) For better or for worse, some people find the units eV/c2 too clunky.
And they prefer to use atomic mass units (amu). Use the conversion
1 amu = 931.5 MeV/c2 to express the rest mass in amu.
(d) What is the relative velocity of the two frames?
2. An observer sits on a train (reference frame S ′ ) moving with constant
velocity v relative to the ground (reference frame S). A constant force of
magnitude F is applied to an object of mass m in the forward direction,
which was initially at rest in the frame of the train. After a time t = tP
has elapsed since the force was applied, calculate:
(a) The work done on the particle by force F according to both reference
frames.
(b) The change in kinetic energy according to both reference frames.

Solutions

1. (a) You can use the relation we derived in class: E 2 − p2 c2 = m2 c4 . This

implies that E ′2 − p′2 c2 = E 2 − p2 c2 (it is the same in both frames).
Thus E ′2 =√E 2 − p2 c2 + p′2 c2 = (5 GeV)2 − (3 GeV)2 + (4 GeV)2 ,
and E ′ = 4 2 GeV ∼ 5.66 GeV.
(b)

m2 c4 = E 2 − p2 c2
(1)
p
(5 GeV)2 − (3 GeV)2
⇒m = = 4 GeV/c2 .
c4

(c) m ∼ 4.3 amu.

1
 (d) From S:
5
E = γs m0 c2 ⇒ γs =
4
From S’: √
E ′ = γs′ m0 c2 ⇒ γs′ = 2
Thus, the speed of the particle according to frames S and S’, respec-
tively is r
u2 4 us 3
1 − 2s = ⇒ = βs =
c 5 c 5
and r
u2′ 1 us′ 1
1 − s2 = ⇒ = βs′ = √
c 2 c 2
We, then find the relative speed between frames using the velocity
addition formula
βs − β
βs′ =
1 − βs β
(2)
βs − βs′
⇒β = = −0.186
1 − βs ′ β s
The relative speed between the frames is |β| = 0.186.
2. (a) According to S’:
Z x′P
WS ′ = F⃗ · d⃗x′
x′1
tP
dx′
Z
= ma dt (3)
t1 dt
Z tP
= ma u′ (t)dt
t1

Using u′ (t) = at, we get

1
WS ′ = ma2 t2P
2
According to S:
Z xP
WS = F⃗ · d⃗x
x1
Z tP (4)
= ma u(t)dt
t1

Using u(t) = v + at, we get

1
WS = mavtP + ma2 t2P
2
Here, v is the relative velocity between S and S’.

2
(b) According to S’:

∆KS ′ = Kf ′ − Ki′
1
= mu′ (t)2 − 0 (5)
2
1
= ma2 t2P = WS ′
2
According to S:

∆KS = Kf − Ki
1 1
= mu(t)2 − mv 2 (6)
2 2
1
= ma2 t2P + mvatP = WS
2
We can clearly see that the work-energy theorem is satisfied. And
we could’ve just used that :D.

3
Problem Solving Session 6
EÐL205G EDlisfræDi rúms og tíma
February 2023

1
 Spacetime Physics: Midterm Exam

February 25, 2022, 08:20-09:50

Instructions
1. There are five questions on this exam. Completely answer as many of them as you can.
2. Your answers should be written on your own paper, to be turned in at the end of class.
3. Your answers should be clearly written and well-motivated. Spacetime diagrams in particular must be
drawn with care and well-labelled. Partial credit is available, as long as you show your work.
4. You may use a single page, one-sided equation sheet that you have made. You may not use any
electronic devices.
5. Relax and have fun. Just do your best.

Questions
1. A muon has a rest mass of m = 0.1 GeV/c2 , and it has a rest frame lifetime of 2.2 × 10−6 seconds.
Such a muon is created by a particle collision in a linear particle accelerator. The muon has a total
energy of 50 GeV, and travels down the remaining 3 kilometers of the tunnel.
(a) How long does the muon appear to live according to a stationary experimenter?
(b) According to a stationary experimenter, does the muon reach the end of the tunnel? Show your
work.
(c) Repeat the calculation in part (b) from the muon’s point of view. According to the muon, does
the muon reach the end of the tunnel? Show your work.
2. One observer sees three spacelike separated events (A, B, and C) occur in the order ABC. A second
observer sees the same three events, but they see them occur in the opposite order: CBA. Draw a
spacetime diagram of the two frames with lines of simultaneity illustrating that this is possible.
3. For this problem, set c = 1. Consider a particle with four-momentum p, and an observer with four-
velocity u. When the observer is at rest, her normalized four-velocity vector is just u = (1, 0, 0, 0).
Show that if the particle goes through the observer’s laboratory (where the observer is at rest), the
magnitude of the three-momentum measured is
q
2
|p| = p · p + (p · u) . (1)

Hint: Evaluate the righthand side.

4. Two spaceships, each 100 meters long in its own rest frame, pass each other going opposite directions.
Instruments on ship A determine that the front end of spaceship B requires 5×10−6 seconds to traverse
the full length of A.

1
 (a) What is the relative velocity of the two spaceships?
(b) A clock in the front end of B reads exactly one o’clock as it passes by the front end of A. What
will the clock read as it passes by the rear end of A?
5. Amadeus and Barnaby are twins. Amadeus goes on a trip to α Centauri (4 light-years away) and back
again. He travels at speed 0.6c with respect to the earth both ways, and transmits a radio signal every
0.01 years in his frame. Barnaby stays on Earth and similarly sends a signal every 0.01 years in his
own rest frame.
(a) How many signals emitted by Amadeus before he turns around does Barnaby receive?
(b) How many signals does Amadeus recieve from Barnaby before he turns around?
(c) Who is younger by the end of the trip, and by how much?

Icelandic Version
Leiðbeiningar
1. Prófið samanstendur af fimm Dæmum. Svarið eins mörgum dæmum og þið getið.
2. Svarið prófspurningum á ykkar eigin blöð, lausnum skal skilað í lok tímans.
3. Svörin skulu vera skýrt rituð og vel útskýrð. Tímarúmsmyndir verða að vera vandlega teiknaðar og
merktar. Hluti stiga er gefinn fyrir ófullkomnar lausnir ef eru fyrir hendi
4. Þið megið nota eitt blað með ykkar eigin jöfnum öðru megin á blaðsíðunni. Engin raftæki eru leyfð.
5. Slakið á, hafið gaman að, og gerið ykkar besta.

Dæmi
1. Mýeind hefur kyrrstöðumassa m = 0.1 GeV/c2 , og í kyrrstöðukerfi sýnu líftíma 2.2 × 10−6 sekúndur.
Mýeind myndast við árekstur einda í agnahraðli. Mýeindin sem myndast hefur heildarorku 50 GeV, og
ferðast eftir 3 km löngum göngum agnahraðalsins.
(a) Hversu lengi lifir mýeindin frá sjónarhorni kyrrstæðum tilraunaeðlisfræðing?
(b) Samkvæmt kyrrstæðum tilraunaeðlisfræðing, nær mýeindin að enda agnahraðalsins? Sýnið út-
reikninga.
(c) Endurtakið reikninga í (b) lið frá sjónarhorni mýeindarinnar. Frá henni séð, nær mýeindin að
enda hraðalsins? Sýnið útreikninga.
2. Athugandi sér þrjá atburði (A, B, and C) með rúmlæg bil á milli sín í röðinni ABC. Annar athugandi
sér sömu þrjá atburði, en þeir gerast í annari röð: CBA. Teiknið tímarúmsmynd af tregðukerfunum
tveimur með samtímalínum merktum á sem sýnir að þetta er mögulegt.
3. Í þessu dæmi setjum við c = 1. Hugsum okkur eind með fjórskriðþunga p, og athuganda með fjórhraða
u. Ef athugandinn væri kyrrstæður, þá væri fjórhraði hans einfaldlega u = (1, 0, 0, 0). Sýnið að ef
eindin ferðast í gegnum tilraunastofu athugandans (þar sem athugandinn er kyrrstæður), þá er stærð
þrískriðþungans sem athugandinn mælir
q
2
|p| = p · p + (p · u) . (2)

Ábending Reiknið út úr hægri hlið jöfnunnar.

2
4. Tvö geimskip, hvort um sig 100 metrar á lengd í eigin tregðukerfi. Ferðast í gagnstæða átt fram hjá
hvort öðru. Mælitæki skips A sýna að framendi geimskips B þarf 5 × 10−6 sekúndur til þess að ferðast
fram hjá skipi A.
(a) Hver er hraði skips A miðað við hraða B?
(b) Klukka á framenda skips B sýnir að klukkan er akkurat eitt á hádegi þegar hún fer fram hjá
framenda skips A. Hvað sýnir klukkan þegar hún ferðast framhjá afturenda A?
5. Amadeus og Barnaby eru tvíburar. Amadeus fer í ferðalag til α Centauri (4 ljósár í burtu) og aftur til
baka. Hann ferðast með hraðanum 0.6c miðað við jörð í báðar áttir, og sendir útvarpsmerki á 0,01 árs
fresti í sýnu tregðukerfi. Barnaby er eftir á jörðinni og sendir líka útvarpsmerki á 0,01 árs fresti í sýnu
tregðukerfi.

(a) Hversu mörg merki sendir Amadeus áður en hann snýr við til jarðar?
(b) Hversu mörg merki fær Amadeus frá Barnaby áður en hann snýr við?
(c) Hver er yngri við lok ferðalagsins, og hversu mikið yngri er hann?

3
 Problem Solving Session 8
EÐL205G EDlisfræDi rúms og tíma
3rd March 2023

1. A photon (sometimes called a gamma ray (γ)) can produce an electron

(e− ) and positron (e+ ) when it enters the electric field of a heavy nucleus:

γ → e+ + e−

What is the minimum photon energy required to accomplish this? The

masses of the electron and the positron are equal.
2. The light emitted by a galaxy shows a continuous distribution of wave-
lengths because the galaxy is composed of billions of different stars. Nev-
ertheless, some narrow gaps occur in the continuous spectrum where light
has been absorbed by cooler gases in the outer photospheres of normal
stars. In particular, ionized calcium atoms at rest produce strong absorp-
tion at a wavelength of 394 nm. For a galaxy in the constellation Hydra,
2 billion lightyears away, this absorption line is shifted to 475 nm. How
fast is the galaxy moving away from Earth?
3. An unstable particle of mass 1.9 GeV is initially at rest. The particle
decays into two fragments that fly off at velocities 0.99c and −0.87c. Find
the masses of the fragments.

1
 Problem Solving Session 9

March 10, 2023

1. Photon rocket. An ideal photon rocket uses pure radiation as the pro-
pelant (i.e. the rocket transforms its fuel into emitted photons of total
energy Eγ to propel itself; this results in a loss of rest mass of the rocket).
(a) If the initial and final rest masses of the rocket are Mi and Mf , show
that the final velocity cβ of the rocket relative to its initial rest frame
(Earth) is given by the equation:
 1/2
Mi 1+β
= . (1)
Mf 1−β

(b) If the rocket is ideal, then the loss of rest mass ∆M = Mf − Mi

is exactly equal to the radiated energy of the photons. The rocket
has a rest mass of 10 kg at time t = 0 and is at rest with respect
to Earth. At this instant, the engine is turned on, powering a laser
beam that emits 1020 photons per second, at a wavelength of 600 nm
(both quantities measured in the rest frame of the rocket). What
is the velocity of the rocket relative to Earth after 10 years (rocket
time) have passed?

2. A neutral pion of rest mass m and relativistic momentum p = 43 mc moves

along the positive x axis and then decays into two photons. One photon
is emitted in the +x direction and the other in the −x direction. Find the
relativistic energy of each photon in terms of m.
Answer: The +x photon has EA = mc2 and the −x photon has EB =
1 2
4 mc .

1
3.

Solution.
(a) Conservation of energy gives E + mc2 = 1.01mc2 γ. Conservation
of momentum gives Ec = 1.01mvγ. Here you have two equations
and two unknowns (E and v), so you can eliminate v and solve for
E. However, the algebra to do this is VERY annoying because of
the “extra” v in the momentum equation (outside of γ). Let’s use a
different form for the momentum of a massive particle:
2
Etotal − p2 c2 = m2 c4
m2 c4 γ 2 − p2 c2 = m2 c4 (2)
p
p = mc γ 2 − 1.
The last relationship is extremely useful!!! Now our 2 equations be-
come
E p
E + mc2 = 1.01mc2 γ, = 1.01mc γ 2 − 1, (3)
c

2
 and you can more easily eliminate γ without worrying about v. The
result is E = .01005mc2 .
(b) E > .01mc2 because some of the photon energy had to also be con-
verted into kinetic energy for the atom (in order for momentum to
be conserved).

3
 Problem Session Week 10

March 17, 2022

1. Consider the matrix X µν and the vector V µ with components

 
2 0 1 −1
−1 0 3 2 
X µν = 
−1 1 0 0 
 V µ = (−1, 2, 0, −2) (1)
−2 1 1 −2

Find the components of

(a) X µ ν
(b) X λ λ
(c) V µ Vµ Note: This is why the t-component of a dot product gets a
minus sign!
(d) Vµ X µν .

1
 Problem 3: The metric for flat space-time is given by (with lower indices)
 
−1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
ηµν =   (1)
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1

Here µ, ν = 0, 1, 2, 3. We will see why this is important in a while. Now, we can

write a space-time displacement (a 4-vector) as follows:

dsµ = (cdt, dx, dy, dz)

Note that we have used an upper index. This means that we are talking about a
4-vector. Here, the index µ refers to the µth element of the displacement. That
is
ds0 = cdt
ds1 = dx
ds2 = dy
ds3 = dz

Now, the invariant line element is given by

(ds)2 = −c2 dt2 + dx2 + dy 2 + dz 2

Now, we write our displacement as a column vector, that is

 
cdt
 dx 
dsµ =  dy 


dz

To find the line element, we do the following:

  
−1 0 0 0 cdt

 0 1 0 0  dx 
(ds) = cdt dx dy dz 
2
0
  (2)
0 1 0  dy 
0 0 0 1 dz

You can calculate and see that this gives you the line element indeed. Now, this
can also be written as
3 X
X 3
(ds)2 = dsµ ηµν dsν (3)
µ=0 ν=0

After you have convinced yourself that is indeed true, let us move forward. You
can see that µ appears twice, once as an upper index and once as a lower index
(as part of the metric ηµν ). Same for ν. Einstein, to shorten our expression

3
further suggested that we drop the big summation signs in front of the expression
and whenever we see an index that appears twice (once as a lower index and
once as an upper index), we sum over that index, going from values 0, 1, 2 and
3. Our expression has now reduced to

(ds)2 = dsµ ηµν dsν (4)

To summarize the above equation, (ds)2 is the product of the µth component of
ds, the µν th component of the metric, η and the ν th component of ds summed
over all µ and ν. Einstein convention is thus, we drop the summation signs and
wherever we see same upper and lower indices, we sum over them. The above
expression reads

(ds)2 = ds0 η00 ds0 + ds0 η01 ds1 + ds0 η02 ds2 + ds0 η03 ds3
+ ds1 η10 ds0 + ds1 η11 ds1 + ds1 η12 ds2 + ds1 η13 ds3
+ . . . [a total of 16 terms] (5)
0 0 1 1 2 2 3 3
= ds η00 ds + ds η11 ds + ds η22 ds + ds η33 ds
= −(ds0 )2 + (ds1 )2 + (ds2 )2 + (ds3 )2

We have used the fact that ηµν = 0 for all µ ̸= ν.

Now, for any 4-vector (with upper indices) given by

V µ = (V 0 , V 1 , V 2 , V 3 ) (6)

the dot product of the vector with itself is given by

V · V = −(V 0 )2 + (V 2 )2 + (V 3 )2 + (V 3 )2 (7)

Putting our knowledge of Einstein’s summation convention and the metric to

test, we can write this as
V · V = V µ ηµν V ν (8)
Here, µ and ν are being summed over. In matrix form, we can write this as
   0
−1 0 0 0 V

 0 1 0 0 V 1 
V ·V = V0 V1 V2 V3  0 0 1
  (9)
0 V 2 
3
0 0 0 1 V

Evaluating the row matrix to the left and the metric, we obtain
 0
V

 V 1
V · V = −V 0 V 1 V 2 V 3  
V 2  (10)
V3

4
The row matrix to the left is not the same as our original 4-vector V µ . We
define this new quantity as Vν = V µ ηµν (with a lower index). Our dot product
then becomes
V · V = Vν V ν
= V0 V 0 + V1 V 1 + V2 V 2 + V3 V 3
(11)
= V 0 η00 V 0 + V 1 η11 V 1 + V 2 η22 V 2 + V 3 η33 V 3
= −(V 0 )2 + (V 2 )2 + (V 3 )2 + (V 3 )2

So far, so good! This leads us to define ’lowering of indices’ and ’raising of

indices’. By now, you must have an idea. For each upper index that needs
lowering, we multiply that many times with our metric (the one with lower
indices). For example,

Aµ ηµν = Aν
B µν ηµρ = B νρ (12)
µν
C ηµρ ηνσ = Cρσ

Recall that we defined our ηµν with lower indices. Now, we want to find the
matrix, indices of which were lowered to give us ηµν . That is, we want to find
η µν such that
η µν ηµρ ηνσ = ηρσ (13)
Solving this, we will find that
 
−1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
η µν =
0
 (14)
0 1 0
0 0 0 1

Now, we can use this to ’raise indices’. For example

Aµ η µν = Aν
Bµν η µρ = Bνρ (15)
µρ νσ ρσ
Cµν η η =C

Another interesting thing to note is that

η µσ ησν = δ µν (16)

The guy on the right hand side is just identity, that is,
 
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
µ
δν =   (17)
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1

5
 Thus, the matrices η µν and ηµν are just inverses of each other. Now, we get
back to our question :).

We have,  
2 0 1 −1
−1 0 3 2
X µν =
−1

1 0 0
−2 1 1 −2
and
V µ = (−1, 2, 0, −2)
1. Find the components of X µν : There are two ways to do this problem (they
are both essentially the same)

We learnt how to lower indices. In this case, we have

X µν = X µσ ησν

Now, we can either determine all the sixteen components one-by-one by

evaluating the above expression for all µ, ν. That is (note that σ will run
through 0, 1, 2, and 3 but I have only included the non-zero components)

X 00 = X 0σ ησ0 = X 00 η00 = −X 00 = −2
X 01 = X 0σ ησ1 = X 01 η11 = X 01 = 0
X 02 = X 0σ ησ2 = X 02 η22 = X 02 = 1
...
[a total of 16 terms since X µν has 4 × 4 = 16 components.]
Or we can calculate all at once by matrix multiplication
X µν = X µσ ησν
  
2 0 1 −1 −1 0 0 0
−1 0 3 2 0 1 0 0
= −1 1 0
 
0  0 0 1 0
−2 1 1 −2 0 0 0 1
 
−2 0 1 −1
1 0 3 2
= 1 1 0

0
2 1 1 −2
You can verify and see that both the methods give the same answer.
2. Find X λλ : Now, we can see that the index λ is repeated. This means that
we must sum over it. We get
X λλ = X 00 + X 11 + X 22 + X 33
= −2 + 0 + 0 + (−2) = −4

6
 3. Calculate V µ Vµ : We know how to deal with this problem. We exploit the
fact that V µ ηµν = Vν
V µ Vν = V µ ηµν V ν
= V 0 η00 V 0 + V 1 η11 V 1 + V 2 η22 V 2 + V 3 η33 V 3
= −(V 0 )2 + (V 1 )2 + (V 2 )2 + (V 3 )2
= −(−1)2 + (2)2 + 0 + (−2)2 = 7

4. Find the components of Vµ X µν : We can see that µ is the repeated index,

so, it gets summed over. But what about this ν? ν, here, is a free index.
So, this equation basically gives us 4 values, one for each ν.
• ν=0
Vµ X µ0 = V0 X 00 + V1 X 10 + V2 X 20 + V3 X 30
= V 0 η00 X 00 + V 1 η11 X 10 + V 2 η22 X 20 + V 3 η33 X 30
= −1 × −1 × 2 + 2 × 1 × −1 + 0 + −2 × 1 × −2
= 2 + (−2) + 4 = 4
• ν=1
Vµ X µ1 = V0 X 01 + V1 X 11 + V2 X 21 + V3 X 31
= V 0 η00 X 01 + V 1 η11 X 11 + V 2 η21 X 20 + V 3 η33 X 31
= −1 × −1 × 0 + 2 × 1 × 0 + 0 + −2 × 1 × 1
= −2

The same process for ν = 2 and ν = 3. This can also be seen from matrix
multiplication as follows:
Vµ X µν = V σ ησµ X µν
  
−1 0 0 0 2 0 1 −1

 0 1 0 0 −1 0 3 2
= −1 2 0 −2     
0 0 1 0 −1 1 0 0
0 0 0 1 −2 1 1 −2
 
2 0 1 −1

−1 0 3 2 
= 1 2 0 −2  
−1 1 0 0 
−2 1 1 −2


= 2−2+0+4 0+0+0−2 1+6+0−2 −1 + 4 + 0 + 4


= 4 −2 5 7
Thus, values of the expression corresponding to ν = 0, 1, 2, 3 are 4, -2, 5,
and 7, respectively.
I hope this was helpful. If you have any doubts, just drop me an email at
des7@hi.is. :)