4.

0_ ELECTRICITY and ELECTROMAGNETISM

4.1 ELECTRICITY
A:- ELECTROSTATICS
The study of charges at rest.
When a biro or plastic ruler or plastic comb is rubbed on hair or cloth, it can pick up dust and tiny
pieces of paper. The materials are said to be charged.

Types of Charges
There are two types of electric charges called the positive and negative charges.

Materials can be charged by friction. Friction causes transfer of electrons. Rubbing causes friction
which transfer of electrons. Amount of electrons lost by one material equals amount of electrons
gained by the other material by conservation of charge. In the diagram below charge lost by the
cloth equals charge gained by the cloth. The polythene rod gains negative charge while the cloth
gains positive charge. The positive charge on cloth is of same magnitude as the negative charge on
the polythene. ELECTRIC CHARGE IS ALWAYS CONSERVED IN A CLOSED SYSTEM.

EXPERIMENTS TO DEMONSTRATE EXISTENCE OF TWO TYPES OF CHARGES

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Conductors and Insulators

Conductors

Materials with free mobile electrons as charge carriers to conduct electricity through the materials. E
g copper, aluminium, tungsten, silver and iron.

Insulators

Materials with no free mobile electrons as charge carriers. All the electrons are bound to particular
atoms. E g wood, glass, rubber, polythene , nylon and paper.

Charging Methods

These include (i) friction as describe above

(ii) charging by contact

(iii) charging by induction

Charging by contact

Diagram below shows charging by contact. Sphere P is given a positive charge and is brought in
contact with an uncharged sphere Q, The charge flows to Q. If the spheres are separated, each has a
net positive charge. By conservation of charge, each has the same amount of charge.

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Charging by Induction

(a) Separating Conductors

Two spheres P and Q are placed in contact as shown below. A (negatively) charged rod is brought
near to sphere P. By repulsion and attraction, the positive charge in spheres is attracted to sphere P
and the negative charge is repelled to Q. The spheres are separated while the inducing rod is in
place. P has a net positive charge while Q has a net negative charge after separation.

(b) Earthing a Conductor

A (negatively) charged rod is placed close to sphere P Free electrons in the sphere flow away from
the rod to the far side of P and positive charge is attracted towards the rod as shown in (a). (b)
shows the far side of P earthed by touching it with a finger or with a wire. The electrons flow to
earth. When the earth connection is removed first and then the inducing rod then is removed,
sphere P is positively charged.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

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APPLICATIONS OF ECTROSTATIC PHENOMENA

Applications of electrostatic phenomena include:

 Electrostatic Spray Painting
 Smoke and Dust Extraction from Chimneys in industries
 Electrostatic Photocopying
 e.t.c

1 Electrostatic Spray Painting

 Metal products such as car bodies, refrigerators, and metal furniture are coated with paint
using electrostatic spray painting.
 The body to painted, such as a car body is earthed electrically to protect against shock and
electrocution. The body is connected to negative terminal of a high voltage supply. So the
body is at earth (zero) potential and negatively charged to attract paint droplets.
 The paint spray gun is fitted with a sharp needle at its nozzle.
 The needle is connected to the positive terminal of the high voltage supply, to create a very
strong electric field.
 During spraying, as the paint droplets emerge from the gun, they are charge positively. The
charged droplets travel to the in the electric field between the gun and the earthed metal
body and are attracted to the metal from all sides.
 The metal surface is coated evenly and smoothly from all sides to give a uniform and smooth
finish.

2 Smoke and Dust Extraction from Chimneys in industries

An electrostatic precipitator is used to extract smoke dust particles from waste gas emitted from the
chimneys of factories. The precipitator used consists of metal plates inside a brick wall and a wire
gauze/mesh as shown in the diagram below.

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  The metal plates are earthed and connected to negative terminal of eht supply and the wire
mesh is connected to the positive terminal of the supply. An electric field is created between
the metal plates and the wire mesh.
 AS air passes upwards in the chimney, it is ionized by the strong electric field. The charged
air ions get attracted to dust and smoke particles.
 The charged dust and smoke particles get attracted to wire mesh and to metal plates, thus
they are precipitated/extracted from the air.
 The accumulated dust and smoke particles are removed from plates and mesh intermittently
by either switching off electricity or mechanical shaking or by gravitation.

3 Electrostatic Photocopying
 In a photocopier an image of the document is formed on a charged plate of selenium – a
photoconductive material.
 Light reflected from the white areas of the document discharges the illuminated areas of the
plate, leaving a charge-image of the document.
 Charged particles of black printing ink are then attracted to the charged image.
 Finally, the ink is transferred by direct contact to the sheet of oppositely charged copy
paper.

How a Photocopier Works

Schematic overview of the xerographic photocopying process (step 1-4)

Photocopy machine:
• drum is charged positively
• image is focused on drum
• only black areas stay charged and therefore attract toner particles
• image is transferred to paper and sealed by heat

Charging: cylindrical drum is electrostatically charged with a positive charge by a high voltage wire
called a corona wire or a charge roller. The drum has a coating of a photoconductive
material. A photoconductor is a semiconductor that becomes conductive when
exposed to light.

Exposure: A bright lamp illuminates the original document. The white areas of the original
document reflect the light onto the surface of the photoconductive drum while the

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 black areas (printed words and pictures) do not reflect the light. The areas of the drum
that are exposed to light become conductive and discharge to the ground. The area of
the drum not exposed to light (those areas that correspond to black portions of the
original document) remains positively charged.

Developing: The toner is negatively charged. When it is applied to the drum to develop the image, it
is attracted and sticks to the areas that are positively charged (black areas).

Transfer: Bond paper is given a higher positive charge than that given to the drum. The toner image
on the surface of the drum is transferred from the drum onto a bond paper because it
has a higher positive charge than the drum.

Sealing: The bond paper with image is passed between heating rollers. The toner is melted and
bonded to the paper by heat and pressure rollers.

A negative photocopy inverts the colours of the document when creating a photocopy, resulting in
letters that appear white on a black background instead of black on a white background. Negative
photocopies of old or faded documents sometimes produce documents which have better focus and
are easier to read and study.

B:- ELECTRICITY
TYPES OF ELECTRICITY

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CHARGED PARTICLES.

Electric Current (I)

𝑄
Electric current (I) = 𝑡 where Q is electric charge and t is time. The SI unit of electric current is an
ampere (A).

The conventional direction of electric current I is the direction of motion of positive charge.
The current is the same for all cross-sections of a conductor of non-uniform cross-section.
If n charges each of charge q revolves in a circle with frequency f, the equivalent current I,
I = nqf

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(In a metallic conductor current flows due to motion of free electrons while in electrolytes and
ionized gases current flows due to electrons and positive ions.)
Types of Electric Current
According to its magnitude and direction electric current is of two types

(i) Direct Current (DC). Its magnitude and direction do not change with time. A ceil, battery
or DC dynamo are the sources of direct current.
(ii) Alternating Current (AC). An electric current whose magnitude changes continuously
and changes its direction periodically is called alternating current. AC dynamo is source
of alternating current.

Charge & Coulomb

Solve problems using the equation Q = It

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Resistance and Ohm

9
Solve problems using P = VI, P = I²R, V= IR

Resistance & Resistivity

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Resistivity

𝒍
Solving problems using:-R = ρ
𝑨

Potential difference and Volt

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 𝑾
Solving problems using V =
𝑸

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Ohm’s Law
If physical conditions of a conductor such as temperature remains unchanged, then the electric
current (I) flowing through the conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference (V)
applied across its ends.
I ∝ V or V = IR
where R is the electrical resistance of the conductor

Ohmic Conductors
Those conductors which obey Ohm’s law are called ohmic conductors e.g., all metallic conductors
are ohmic conductor and carbon in the form of graphite.
For ohmic conductors V – I graph is a straight line.

I-V Characteristics
I-V characteristics of a Metallic Conductor at constant temperature

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I-V characteristics of a Semiconductor Diode

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 I-V Characteristics of a Filament Lamp.

Electromotive force (e.m.f)

1. E.M.F in terms of the energy transferred by a source in driving unit charge round a complete
circuit
The e.m.f of a source is the electrical energy converted to other forms of energy when a
unit charge flows round a complete circuit.

𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒔𝒖𝒑𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝒔𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒄𝒆

𝐞. 𝐦. 𝐟 =
𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒘 𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅 𝒂 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆𝒕𝒆 𝒄𝒊𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒊𝒕
2. E.M.F in terms of energy conversion in the source

𝒏𝒐𝒏 − 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒔𝒖𝒑𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒐 𝒔𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒄𝒆

𝐞. 𝐦. 𝐟 =
𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒘 𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒈𝒉 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒄𝒆

The unit of e.m.f is J/C or Volt (V)

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Distinguish between e.m.f. and p.d. in terms of energy considerations
The electromotive force (e.m.f.) of a source is defined using the non-electrical energy converted to
electrical energy while the potential difference (p.d.) between two points is electrical energy
converted to non-electrical energy.

E.m.f p.d
1. Other forms energy converted to 1. Electrical energy converted to other
electrical energy. forms of energy
2. Deals with entire circuit 2. Deals with part of a circuit
3. E.m.f ≠ 0 when current I = 0 3. P.d = 0 when current I = 0
4. E.m.f > p.d 4. P.d < e.m.f

The effects of the internal resistance of a source of e.m.f. on the terminal

potential difference and output power.
In practice, no energy source (battery or generator) is perfect.
• Some of the electrical energy delivered by a source is always dissipated within itself.
• The source is said to have internal resistance. When the external load is large, the internal
resistance has negligible effect.
• When the external load is not large, the internal resistance can be depicted as a series resistor
within the source as shown in the diagram in below.

The battery above is supplying a current I to an external circuit. The battery has a constant internal
resistance r.

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 𝐸
Current I = 𝑅+𝑟 so E = IR + lr But V=IR, Thus E = V + lr
∴V= E-lr (1)

Variation of V with current I

Note:
 When I is zero, V = E. In other words, when a battery is in open circuit (no external circuit),
the PD across its terminals is equal to its EMF
 As current I increases, lost voltage = Ir increases and terminal p.d V decreases.
 When R is zero, V is zero. In other words, when the battery is in short circuit (its terminals
directly connected), its output PD is zero. In this situation, the battery is delivering the
maximum possible current, Imax' which is equal to E/r. Also, the battery's entire energy
output is being wasted internally as heat.
 The gradient of the graph is numerically equal to the internal resistance of the battery.
Power output
Power supplied = IE Power outpower = I2R
𝑬 𝑬𝟐 𝑹
Current I = ∴Power output =
𝑹+𝒓 (𝑹+𝒓)𝟐

From the equation of the power output, the power from a source depends on the internal resistance
r of the source and on the resistance R in the external circuit (the load resistance). The graph below
shows how the power output varies with load resistance R.

Maximum power output occurs when the load resistance R = internal resistance r.

1. For values of R < r, power increases and reaches maximum when R = r

2. For values of R > r, power decreases

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4.2 D C CIRCUITS
Circuit symbols

Some of the common symbols that are used to represent components are
shown below. You should be able to know each of these symbols.

Kirchhoff’s laws
Kirchhoff’s First law / Current law / Junction rule

It states that at a junction in an electric circuit, the algebraic sum of the currents entering the
junction is equal to the algebraic sum of the current leaving the junction. This is illustrated below.

I1 + I2 + I3 = I4 + I5 + I6

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This law is based on the principle of conservation of charge because charge does not accumulate or is
not produced anywhere in an electric circuit except in a supply.

Second law / Voltage law / Loop rule

It states that round a closed loop, the algebraic sum of e.m.f.s is equal to the algebraic sum of the
products of current and resistance or sum of potential rises is equal to some potential drops.

This law is based on the principle of conservation of energy since energy supplied by a source must be
dissipated in the source resistance as well as in the external resistance.

Resistors in series

Diagram below shows three resistors that are connected in series.

When different resistors are connected in series:-

 the same current passes through each resistor, ie current is common in a series circuit
 the potential drop across them is different, supply voltage is shared among the resistors.

Applying Kirchhoff`s 2nd law then

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Resistors in parallel
Diagram below shows three resistors that are connected in parallel.

When different resistors are connected in parallel,

 they carry different currents ie current is shared in the branches of the parallel
arrangement. The total current IT branches into I1, I2 and I3
 the potential drop across the combination is the same ie voltage is the same across all the
branches of the parallel arrangement.

Applying Kirchhoff`s 1st law at the junction A:

PRACTISE QUE
1(a)

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(b)

In (a) and (b) , determine the net resistance if the value of R = 10Ω and in (c) find net resistance
between X and Y, R = 10Ω

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Applications of Kirchhoff`s laws
The branch method of solving circuits, ie the laws are used to solve problems in circit
networks.
HINTS
1. Identy at least two loops and designate direction to traverse the loops.
2. Identify a junction in the loops and form an equation using current law.
3. Using the loops, form two voltage equations with the voltage law.
4. Solve the equations simultaneously.
i. Currents into a junction are taken as positive and those leaving the junction are
taken as negative.
ii. In the direction chosen, if following current, ie traversing the loop in the direction of
current, all the potential differences encountered are negative and are positve when
opposing current.
iii. All supplies encountered from positive terminal to negative terminal, the emf is
negative and the emf is positve when the supply is encountered from the negative
terminal to positive terminal.

Worked Example
In the circuit diagram below, find the value of the currents I1, I2 and I3 and comment on the values
obtained.

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There are three loops: ACDBA, ABEFA and the entire loop CDBEFAC.

At junction B, applying Kirchhoff`s 1st law:

I1 = I2 + I3 ...........................................................................(1)

In loop ACDBA and applying Kirchhoff`s 2nd law:

10 + I1R1 – 4 + I2R2 = 0
10 + 2 I1 – 4 + I2 = 0
6 + 2 I1 + I2 = 0 ………………………………………………………………………(2)

In loop ABEFA and applying Kirchhoff`s 2nd law:

- I2R2 + I3R3 - 4 = 0
- I2 + 5 I3 - 4 = 0 ……………………………………………………………………..(3)

Substitute equation 1 into equation 2 and simplify.

6 + 2 (I2 + I3 ) + I2 = 0
6 + 3 I2 + 2I3 = 0 …………………………………………………………………….(4)

Multiply equation 3 by 3
-3 I2 + 15 I3 - 12 = 0 ………………………………………………………………(5)

Add equations 4 and 5 together

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17I3 = 6 6 + 3 I2 + 17
=0
6 38 6 38 32
I3 = 17
A I2 = − 17 𝐴 I1 = 17
A− 17 𝐴 = − 17 𝐴
Their directions of currents I1, I2 and I3 are taken as arbitrary. Don’t worry about guessing the
direction of the current incorrectly, when you work out for the current, the sign of the current will
tell you the actual direction in which the current is flowing.

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Practise Question

In the diagram below, determine the currents through the 2 Ω and 3 Ω resistors. Each cell has an
internal resistance of 1 Ω.

Potential Dividers

A POTENTIAL DIVIDER IS AN ARRANGEMENT OF ELECTRICAL APPLIANCES IN SERIES TO SHARE

SUPPLY VOLTAGE.

Fixed Potential Divider

A fixed potential divider consists of fixed resistors in series as shown below. As the resistors are in
series, they have the same current I through them but different p.d. across each of them. The across
each resistor depends on the resistance value.

A fixed potential divider gives a fixed p d.

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 𝐕𝐑𝟏 𝐕𝐑𝟐
V1 = IR1 V1 = and V2 =
𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐

The fractions V1 and V2 can be calculated in terms of the resistances and the total voltage V.
Expressions for V1 and V2 are called potential division formulae.

NB:- P.d across a resistor in a potential divider is equal to the resistance of resistor multiplied by
supply V divided by total potential divider resistance.

𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞 𝐑 𝐱 𝐬𝐮𝐩𝐩𝐥𝐲 𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐭𝐚𝐠𝐞 𝐕

P. d V =
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝑹𝑻

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Application of the potential division formula

Example 1
A 10 k Ω and a 6 k Ω resistor are connected in series with an 8 V battery as shown in the diagram
above. Find the potential difference across the 6 k Ω resistor is measured by connecting a voltmeter.
of resistance 75 k Ω across it.
Calculate
i. The voltmeter reading assuming that the voltmeter has infinite resistance

SOLUTION
6 𝑥8𝑉
i Voltmeter reading = 6+10
= 3V

75 𝑥6𝑘𝛺
ii Total resistance in the parallel combination of the 6kΩ and the voltmeter resistance =
6+75
= 5.56kΩ
5.56 𝑥8𝑉
Actual voltmeter reading = 5.56+10
= 2.86V

VALIDITY OF THE POTENTIAL DIVIDER RULE

The potential divider equation is only valid when the resistance of a load or voltmeter in parallel
with any one of the resistors in the potential divider is infinity. If the load resistance/voltmeter
resistance is low, total resistance for the parallel combination is to be calculated and then potential
divider rule is applied.

Example 2
In the example above the resistance of the voltmeter of the 75kΩ. Find the p.d across 6kΩ resistor.

SOLUTION
75 𝑥6𝑘𝛺
Total resistance in the parallel combination of the 6kΩ and the voltmeter resistance = 6+75
= 5.56kΩ
5.56 𝑥8𝑉
Actual voltmeter reading = = 2.86V
5.56+10

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Variable Potential Divider
These include potential dividers that a potentiometer and potential dividers that include
transducers like LDR (light dependent resistor) and thermistor.

LDR and Thermistors In Potential Dividers

LDR In Potential Dividers

Symbol for a LDR

LDR is a semiconductor device whose resistance decreases when light intensity falling on it increases
and vice versa when light intensity falling on it decreases.

LDRs can be used to switch on light automatically when intensity increases or decreases. The circuit
below demonstrates automatic switching on of lights.

 In the dark, LDR resistance is high, so p d across it is high and that across the 1000Ω resistor
is low.

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  Pd to lighting is high and the lights are automatically switched on.
 In light, LDR resistance is low, so p d across it is low and p d across the 1000Ω resistor is high.
P d to lighting is low and the lights are automatically switched off.

In day time, the LDR has low resistance so the lighting system will not get enough voltage to light up.
At night the LDR has a high resistance, so the lighting system will get enough voltage and will light
up. This type of circuit is used to light road or street lights.

Thermistors In Potential Dividers

A thermistor is a semiconductor device whose resistance decreases as its temperature increases.

Symbol for a thermistor

Thermistors are used to operate thermostats and fire alarms.

It is also used to measure temperature in an electronic thermometer
The resistance of a thermistor decreases sharply as the current raises its temperature.

The diagram below shows the circuit of a fire alarm. In normal temperature, the thermistor has high
resistance and viltage across it is high and the voltage across resistor is low. Alarm does not sound, it
has not enough voltage to switch it on. In high temperature or fire, the resistance of thermistor is
low and voltage across it low and resistor R gets more resistance and voltage, hence the fire alarm
starts to ringe.

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The Potentiometer
A potentiometer can be used to measure p d and e.m.f. to a very high degree of accuracy. A
potentiometer gives a continuously varying p d.
Diagram below shows a circuit that incorporates a potentiometer.

The potentiometer circuit

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The driver cell E is used to maintain a constant p.d. across the ends of the wire AB.
The wire has a known resistance per unit length and acts as a potential divider.
When VAC > Vx, the galvanometer deflects to the left of the zero mark and when VAC < Vx, the
galvanometer deflects to the right of the zero mark.

The jockey or sliding contact is used to adjust the length of the wire until balance point is found.

NOTE: In a potentiometer, the positive terminal of the driver cell is connected to the positive terminal
of the supply of unknown emf Vx .

When no current is flowing through the galvanometer, the potentiometer is said to be balanced. The
galvanometer shows zero deflection i.e. the pointer does not move.

Theory Potentiometer
The length of wire AB = L. If r is the resistance per unit length of the wire AB, the total resistance of
wire = rL. Assuming that the driver cell has zero internal resistance, the p.d. across length L of the
wire is equal to the e.m.f. of the cell E. If the driver cell supplies current I then its e.m.f. E is given by

E = IrL ………………………………………………………… 1

For the unknown p d V1, the balance length is L1 and the total resistance of the balance length is rL1.
VAC = IrL1 …………………………………………………………………………… 2

At balance point, p d VAC across AC is equal to the emf Vx of the unknown supply.
VAC = Vx
Therefore Vx = IrL1 ……………………………………………………………………….. 3

𝑉𝑥 𝐼𝑟𝐿1
Dividing equation 3 by equation 1 then 𝐸
= 𝐼𝑟𝐿
𝐸𝐿1
Therefore Vx = 𝐿

Comparing E.m.f.s
The circuit is set up as shown below.

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With switch S at point 1, balance length L1 is located and recorded. Then the switch is moved to
point 2, and balance length L2 is located. E1 α L1 and E2 α L2

𝑬𝟏 𝑲𝑳𝟏 𝑳
So E1 = KL1 and E2 = KL2 Taking ratio = = 𝑳𝟏 If L1 = L2 then E1 = E2
𝑬𝟐 𝑲𝑳𝟐 𝟐
If L1 > L2 then E1 > E2

Advantages of the potentiometer

(i) It uses the null method, i.e. its adjustment does not depend on the calibration of the
galvanometer.
(ii) Since no current flows at balance, the potentiometer does not draw current from the source
whose p.d. is under investigation and so it does not affect the p.d. to be measured.
(iii) It is a voltmeter of infinite resistance.

Disadvantages of the potentiometer

(i) Since small distances can not be measured on the scale, the potentiometer cannot be used to
measure very small p d.
(ii) It is a bulk instrument and it is time consuming.
(iv) The wire may lose uniformity due to scratching by the jockey.

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Potential at a Point in a Circuit

Potential at a point = sum of potential differences and e.m.f.s from a source of emf or from an
earthed point. An earthed point has zero potential (0V).

In the circuit above current flowing from + terminal. In going round the circuit from the earthed
point, current is opposed, so p d across 4Ω-resistor is positive.

𝟏𝟎𝑽
Potential at point P, Vp = 0 +4I I=
(𝟒+𝟏𝟎+𝟔)𝜴
= 0.5A
Vp = 0 + 4 x 0.5 = 2V

In moving to points R and S, from the earthed point, current is followed, so potential differences
across R an S are each negative.
Potential at point R = 0 -0.5 x 10V = -5V and Potential at point S = 0 – 0.5 x 16
= -8V
PRACTISE QUE
In the circuit below, determine the p d across points X and Y, if R = 10Ω.

32
Current is flowing from left to right in the circuit. The graph shows how potential is varying along the
circuit. In a connecting wire potential is constant.

At the start up to 4Ω-resistor, potential is high and constant at 2V. Through the 4Ω-resistor potential
drops to zero and remains zero up to 10Ω-resistor. In the 10Ω-resistor potential drops to-5V and
remains at -5V until the 10V supply. Potential rises by 10V from -5V to 5V. The potential stays
constant at 5V in the connecting wire until the 6Ω-resistor where it drops to 2V. It stays the same in
the wire up to the end.

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4.3 ELECTRIC FIELDS
An electric field is the area around a charge where any other charge will experience a force. It is field
of electric force. We can model a field with field lines or lines of force.

Radial Fields

For a positive charge the field lines start at the charge and go out to infinity. For a negative charge
the field lines end at the negative point charge. The field lines become more spread out the further
away from the charge we go.

FIELD PATTERNS BETWEEN LIKE and UNLIKE CHARGES

ELECTRIC FIELD due to LIKE POINT CHARGES

+Q1 X +Q2

 A similar field pattern is obtained when negative point charges are used but arrows on field
lines are reversed, i e they point into the negative point charges.

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  The field lines will never meet. They show repulsion. Point X is called a neutral point, a point
where net force on a test charge is zero. Force F1 is equal and opposite to force F2. Electric
field strength E is therefore at point X zero.

Uniform Fields

The field lines are parallel in a uniform field. Between two conducting plates the field lines leave the
positive plate and enter the negative plate.

Electric Field Strength, E

The electric field strength at a point is a vector quantity and is defined as:

The force per unit positive/test charge taken from infinity to a point in an electric field.
The electric field strength E is represented by the equation:
𝑭
𝑬=
𝒒

Coulomb’s Law (Electric Force Between Point Charges)

The electrostatic force acts between all charged particles and can be attractive or repulsive. It is the
charges themselves that cause the force to exist. The force that acts between two charges, Q1 and
Q2, whose centres are separated by a distance of r is given by:

Like charges (-ve) Unlike charges( +ve and -ve) Like charges (-ve)

The proportional constant was found and the equation becomes:

35
When one of the charges is large, Q, the force between it and a test charge, q, whose centres are
separated by a distance of r is given by:

If the two charges are positive, (+Q)(+q) = + Qq A positive force means the charges repel.
If the two charges are negative, (–Q)(–q) = + Qq A positive force means the charges repel.
If one is negative and the other positive, (–Q)(+q) = – Qq A negative force means the charges attract.

The force between point charges follows inverse square law. If r doubles, the force F drops to one
quarter, and so on.

Electric Field Strength, E due to A point Charge

Point charge Q

r q (test charge/unit +ve charge

𝑸𝒒
Force between point charge Q and test charge q, F=
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝒐 𝒓𝟐

Varation of E-Field Strength with distance r

Single charge
Llike charges

36
For like charges:

Electric Field Strength, E at a point due to A Number of point Charges

Electric Field Strength, E at point due to A Number of point Charges is equal to the algebraic/vector
sum of the electric field strengths due to the individual point charges.

E. g. if two charges, +ve and –ve charges on a straight line as shown in the diagram 1 below, the E-
field strengths at A, B and C are shown in diagram 2

Diagram 1

x1 x2 x3 x4
x5
x6
Diagram 2
𝑸
E=
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝒐 𝒓𝟐
E1 B E2 C E3+ E5 A E6
due to +ve due to –ve E4- due to –ve due to +ve
Resultant Resultant Resultant
Er = E2 – E1 Er = E3+ + E4- Er = E6 + E5
To left because B is closer to toward –ve charge to the right because C is
+ve charge than to –ve charge reinforcing fields closer to –ve charge than to
+ve charge

37
 E1

D θ Er = √(𝑬𝟏 𝟐 + 𝑬𝟐 𝟐 + 𝟐𝑬𝟏 𝑬𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽)

E2

Electric Potential, V

The electric potential at a point r from a point charge is defined as:

The work done W PER UNIT POSITIVE CHARGE q moved from infinity to a point in electric field/
Electric potential at a point in an electric field is work done W in bringing a unit positive charge q
from infinity to the point.

𝐖
𝐕=
𝐪

Electric Potential due to a Point Charge

From Coulomb’s law, the force between two point charges Q1 and Q2 is given by:
𝑸𝒒
F=
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝒐 𝒓𝟐

38
Q1 is a +ve charge at point S and Q2 also a +ve charge at point T, so they repel each other with equal
and opposite forces F as shown in the diagram above. An external agent does work to move Q2
through a distance δx towards Q1 at S.

Work done W = Fδr. If δr = r then W = Fr

𝑸𝒒 𝑸𝒒
Substituting for F, W= x r ∴W = 𝟒𝝅𝜺
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝒐 𝒓𝟐 𝒐𝒓
𝑾 𝑸𝒒 𝟏
Electric potential V= = 𝟒𝝅𝜺 𝒙
𝒒 𝒐𝒓 𝒒
𝑸
∴V = 𝟒𝝅𝜺
𝒐𝒓

V will be positive when work is done against the field (when like charges are repelling) or when Q is
positive.
V will be negative when work is done by the field (when opposite charges attract) or when Q is
negative.

In both cases the potential at infinity is zero.

Electric potential is a scalar quantity and it is measured in Joules per Coulomb, (J C-1)
Electric Potential due to A Number point Charges
Electric potential at a point due to several point charges obeys the superposition principles. It is
equal to the sum of the potentials due to the individual point charges
i.e.

Three point charges Q1, Q2 and Q3 respectively of magnitudes 1 μC,-2 μC and 3 μC are fixed at the
positions shown in the diagram. The charges are in vacuum.

39
The total potential at point P is the scalar sum of the individual potentials; V1, V 2 and V3.

𝑄1 𝑄2 𝑄3
Vtotal = + +
4𝜋𝜀𝑜𝑟1 4𝜋𝜀𝑜𝑟2 4𝜋𝜀𝑜𝑟3

40
Uniform Electric Fields
In a uniform field like that between two conducting plates the field strength is constant.

Relationship Between Electric field strength E and Electric Potential V

Work is done when a charge +Q is moved from 0V to +1 400V plates by an external agent against E-
field. E-field does negative work when it moves the charge to a lower potential plate.

Work done by E-field W = -Fd F = QE so W = -QEd

𝑾 𝑾
E = - 𝑸𝒅 but 𝑸
=V

𝑽 𝑽
∴E = - = potential gradient
𝒅 𝒅

E = -ve potential gradient.

V is the potential difference between the plates and d is the separation of the plates.
Electric Field Strength can be measured in Volts per metre, V m-1

41
42
4.4 CAPACITORS

Definition of a Capacitor and Capacitance

A capacitor is an electrical component that stores charge on two separated metallic plates. An
insulator is placed between the plates to prevent the charge from travelling across the gap.

Functions of Insulator
To prevent charge from travelling across the gap between the plates
To increase the capacitance of the capacitor by polarizing in the electric field and effectively
increasing the charge stored on the plates.

Capacitance and Farad 𝐶,

Capacitance, C, is the charge stored, 𝑄, per unit potential difference, 𝑉. Therefore we can write
𝑸
𝐶 =
𝑽
Capacitance, C, is measured in Farads, F (CV-1). 1F = 1CV-1

A farad F is the capacitance of a capacitor when a p d V of 1V is across it and a charge of 1C is stored

on the capacitor plate

How to A Capacitor Charges.

When a capacitor is connected to a DC power supply, e.g. a cell or battery, there is a brief current
flow.
 Electrons flow from one plate to the dc supply and at the same time the same number of
electrons flow from the dc supply to other plate.
 This leaves the first plate with charge +𝑄 and the second with charge –𝑄.
 These charges will be equal in magnitude and opposite in sign due to the conservation of
charge.

Current will flow in the circuit until the potential difference between the plates is equal to that of
the electromotive force or e.m.f. of the power supply.

Electron flow

Capacitors in Series:-have same charge but different p d.

43
Kirchhoff’s voltage law states that the sum of the e.m.f.s in any closed loop in a circuit is equal to
the sum of the potential differences in the same loop (see section 4.3).
V = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3 + ⋯ + 𝑉N

𝑄 𝑄
From the equation 𝐶 = , it is clear that 𝑉 = , and so substituting this into the expression for
𝑉 𝐶
Kirchhoff’s voltage law gives

where 𝐶𝑇 is the combined capacitance of all the series capacitors. As 𝑄 is a constant it, can be
factorised out to give

Note that this equation is similar to the equation for the total resistance of a number of resistors in
parallel.
Capacitors in Parallel: have same voltage/p d but have different charges.

Kirchhoff’s current law states that the total current flowing into a node in a circuit must be equal to
the total current flowing out of that node. Therefore, we can state that

Charge can be stated as 𝑄 = 𝐼t, so using the above and factorising out the constant time,
𝑄𝑇 = 𝑄1 + 𝑄2 + 𝑄3 + ⋯ + 𝑄𝑁

𝑸
Finally, substituting the equation 𝐶 = and that the voltage is the same over each component in
𝑽
parallel we can write

44
Note that this equation is similar to the equation for the total resistance of a number of resistors in
series.

Capacitor Arrangements
C2

C1

C3

C2 and C3 are in parallel and the parallel arrangement is in series with C1. Total capacitance

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= +
𝑪𝑻 𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐 + 𝑪𝟑

C1 C2 C3

Three capacitors are in parallel. Total capacitance CT = C1 + C2 + C3

Practise Question

Calculate the effective capacitance

Energy Stored in a Capacitor

Work must be done by the power supply to deposit negatively charged electrons onto the negative
plate as like charges repel according to Coulomb’s law. Equally, work is done to remove electrons
from the positive plate as negative charges are attracted to positive regions.

The graph below shows the charge stored on a capacitor plates against the potential difference over
the device. As voltage is defined as the electrical potential energy per unit charge the area under
the graph must therefore represent the work done in charging up the capacitor and so the energy
stored in the capacitor.

45
Therefore

Half of the total energy supplied is stored in the capacitor. The other half is lost as heat in the
resistance of the connecting cables/wires. The energy is stored in the electric field between the
parallel plates.

Worked Examples
1 Two capacitors of capacitance 0.1 μF and 0.2 μF respectively are connected in series
with a 100V d.c. supply.

(a) Calculate the charge on each capacitor.

(b) Without discharging, the capacitors are disconnected from the supply and connected in
parallel. Calculate the potential difference across the capacitors

Solution
When charged capacitors or one charged and the other not charged are connected in
parallel, charge redistributes until they have same/common p d.
(a)

This is the charge on each capacitor

46
(b)

Practise Questions
1 A 2 μF capacitor is charged to a pd of 200 V and then isolated. When it is connected in
parallel with another capacitor which is initially uncharged, the common pd is 40 V.
Calculate the capacitance of the second capacitor.

2 (a) A 10μF capacitor is connected across the terminals of a 100 V d.c. power supply and
allowed to charge fully.

(i) Calculate the charge on the capacitor.

(ii) Calculate the energy stored by the capacitor.

(b) The fully charged capacitor is disconnected from the power supply and connected
via two wires across the terminals of an uncharged 10μF capacitor as shown in the
diagram.

The charge on the original 10μFcapacitor is shared equally between the capacitors in the
combination. Calculate
(i) The pd across the terminals of each capacitor;
(ii) The total energy stored by the two capacitors.

47
(c) Account for the difference between the energy stored by the two capacitors and that
stored by the original 10μF capacitor.

3 The diagram shows a network of capacitors connected to a 9 V battery.

Calculate
(a) The equivalent capacitance of the capacitors.
(b) The charge on each capacitor.
(c) The potential difference across each capacitor.

Applications of Capacitors
1. Capacitors are used to store and discharge large quantities of energy in a short time
period.
So they are useful for short pulses of energy such as camera flashes and touch
screens where a short finger press leads to a large build up of energy in a capacitor.

2. Capacitors are used in uninterrupted power supplies or UPSs

UPSs are used as backup power supplies when the mains electricity supply fails.
They are commonly found in data centres to protect the hardware and in hospitals
to maintain a constant power supply to life support machines.

3. Capacitors are used in smoothing circuits of a c rectification circuits.

So they can be used maintain a more constant current. The signal can then be passed
through another smoothing circuit and another until the voltage is effectively
constant.

48
Charging and Discharging Capacitors Through RC-Circuits

Charging Through RC-Circuit

A B

VO C

Circuit for charging and discharging a capacitor

When the switch is closed, at A in the diagram above, electrons flow from the negative
terminal of the battery onto the negative plate of the capacitor and from the positive plate of
the capacitor to the positive terminal of battery. The p.d across plates increases exponentially
as charge builds up. As the capacitor plates become more and more charged the flow of
electrons decreases and so the charging current decreases as charge builds up. Diagram
below shows the variation with time of the voltage, charge and current during charging.

Variation of voltage, charge and current during charging

49
At any time t the p.d. VC, across the capacitor and the charge QC on the capacitor are always
in phase. The capacitor charges and discharges through resistor R. P d VC and the charge QC
exponentially grow. Charging current I and p d VR are exponentially decrease and they are in
antiphase with VC and QC.

Discharging Through RC-Circuit

A B

VO C

Circuit for charging and discharging a capacitor

To discharge the capacitor the contact at A is opened so that the switch is closed at B in
circuit above
During discharge, electrons flow from the negative plate of capacitor to pass through the
resistor and move onto the positive plate of the capacitor. In this way, the plates become
neutralized. The p.d. across the capacitor decreases. The discharge current is initially high but
it becomes less and less as the capacitor discharges. Diagram below shows the variation with
time of the voltage, charge and current during discharging.

Variation of voltage, charge and current during discharging

50
The relationship between 𝑉, 𝐼or 𝑄 and 𝑡 is an exponential decay as seen in the graph on the right
below.
While charging a capacitor, at any time in the circuit e.m.f. (𝑉0) will be equal to the sum of the p.d.s
across the resistor (𝑉𝑅) and the capacitor (𝑉𝐶) by Kirchhoff’s voltage law.
𝑉 0 = 𝑉 𝑅 + 𝑉 C.

4.5 ELECTROMAGNETISM
Definition of the Magnetic Field
A magnetic field is a region of space in which moving charged particles and magnetic substances
like ferrous materials experience a magnetic force. A magnetic field is created by a moving charge,
flowing current through a conductor or coil and permanent magnet. It is the interaction of two
magnetic fields that produces magnetic force.

Magnetic Fields
(a) A Straight Current Carrying wire
The current flowing in the wire creates a circular magnetic field around the wire, as shown
below. The field is plotted using a compass needle.

The direction of the field is predicted by the right-hand grip rule:

Grip the wire with your right hand, with thumb pointing in the direction of the current.
Your fingers curl around in the direction of the magnetic field.

(b) Field due to a circular coil

The field pattern is as shown in the diagram below. At the centre of the coil the field lines
are straight and at right angles to the plane of the coil. The right-hand grip rule again gives
the direction of the field at any point.

51
 (c) Field due to a solenoid
A solenoid is a long cylindrical coil. It produces a field similar to that of a bar magnet. The diagram P
below shows a magnetic field due to a solenoid. The end A behaves like a North-pole and end B like
a South-pole. The polarity can be found by applying the right-hand grip rule to as shown in diagram
Q. The solenoid is held in the palm of the right hand. The fingers of the right hand grip the solenoid
in the direction of the current, the thumb points to the N pole.

Magnetic field lines within solenoid are parallel that the field is uniform and the field strength is the
same.

Effect of Ferrous Core in Solenoid

 The strength of the magnetic field can be increased (by about 1000 times) by adding a
ferrous (iron) core inside the solenoid.

Two possible reasons to explain this effect

 Ferrous material has a higher permeability than air;- stronger ability to support the
formation of a magnetic field within itself.
 Ferrous materials are magnetic and become magnetized when placed into the
solenoid, thus contributing to overall magnetic field strength of the solenoid.

Electromagnets
Electromagnets are made from solenoids.

Principle of Electromagnets:- act as bar magnets when an electric current passes through them.
When current stops from flowing the electromagnets lose their magnetism, they
cease to be magnets.

How to enhance an electromagnet

 The electromagnet is enhanced by inserting a soft iron core into the solenoid. The soft iron
core is very permeable to magnetism. So it causes an induced field in the core and this
greatly enhances the magnetic field produced by the coil.
 Magnetic field strength of electromagnet can also be increased by increasing the number of
turns in an electromagnet.

52
 Electromagnets are used in:
1 circuit breakers to disconnect a circuit and then reconnect it at a later time.
2 an electric bell
3 loudspeaker and relay

FORCE ON A CURRENT-CARRYING CONDUCTOR:

A current-carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field experiences a magnetic force. This is the
motor effect.

The current in the conductor produces a magnetic field around the same conductor. So two
magnetic fields (a permanent magnetic field and one due to current) are superposed. The two
magnetic fields interact and produce a magnetic force on the conductor. The conductor is seen
moving to one direction. If the current is alternating current, the wire vibrates.

The direction of the force is given by Fleming’s left hand rule, as shown below.

The magnitude of the force depends on:

 the size of the current I

 the length l of conductor in the field
 the angle θ the conductor makes with the field
 the magnetic flux density B

The force F is given by the expression:

F = BIlsinθ
When θ is zero, the force F is zero. F = 0 and F is maximum when θ = 90o. Fmax = BIl.

This expression can be used define magnetic flux density B.

53
 𝑭
Magnetic flux density B, is the FORCE PER UNIT CURRENT-LENGTH. B = 𝑰𝒍

SI unit of flux density B is a tesla (T). 1T = 1NA-1m-1

A tesla is the magnetic flux when a force of 1N acts on a conductor of length of 1m carrying a
current of 1A.

QUESTION:- Explain how motion and rotation are produced in an electric motor.

Measuring Flux Density

The force on a current-carrying conductor can be used to measure the flux density of a magnetic
field using a current balance. A current balance consists of a metal frame supported on pivot. One
side of the balance is placed in a magnetic field as shown below.

Small weights = 𝑚𝑔 Force due to current = 𝐵𝐼𝑙

Let x be the distance of the small weights from pivot and that of the magnetic force from pivot from
pivot be y.

By the principle of moments: 𝑚𝑔x = 𝐵𝐼𝑙y

𝒎𝒈𝒙
∴𝑩=
𝒍𝑰𝒚

54
Force Between Two Straight Parallel Current-carrying Conductors

Any electric current has a magnetic field around it. Two straight parallel current-carrying conductors
are placed near to each other as shown below. In (a) currents Ix and Iy (“unlike currents”) are in
opposite directions while in (b) currents Ix and Iy (“like currents”) the same direction. The current-
carrying conductors create magnetic fields for each other. Each conductor is a current-carrying
conductor in a magnetic field, so it experiences a magnetic force. The magnetic fields interact and
produce magnetic force on each conductor.

Ix Iy Ix Iy

X Y X Y
(a) (b)

55
Observations

The interactions cause:- 1 repulsion between conductors carrying current in opposite directions (a)
2 attraction between conductors carrying current in the same directions (b)

These conductors resemble Newton’s third law. They experience equal and opposite forces.

Explaining the forces

The currents in the conductors create magnetic field for each other.

In the first diagram (a), the magnetic fields, for two unlike (anti-parallel) currents are shown.
 The magnetic fields around the two current-carrying conductors reinforce each other
between the conductors, so in the space between the wires there is an extra-strong field and
cancel each other outside the conductors, so in the space outside the wires there is an extra-
weak field.
 Their magnetic field lines are squashed together in the space between the wires, and the
result is that they push the wires apart.
 The diagram shows the resultant field and the repulsive forces on the two wires.

In the second diagram (b), the same idea is shown, but for two like (parallel) currents.
 In the space between the two wires, the magnetic fields cancel out.
 The wires are pushed together.
 The diagram shows the resultant field and the attractive forces on the two wires.

Force on a Moving Charge

A charge moving through a magnetic field behaves like a current flowing in a current-carrying
conductor placed in a magnetic field. It experiences a magnetic force. The force on the charge is
derived from the expression of force on a conductor carrying a current in magnetic field:
𝑞
𝐹 = 𝐵𝐼𝑙sinθ and 𝐼 = 𝑡
𝑞𝑙 𝑙
So 𝐹=𝐵 sinθ But v=
𝑡 𝑡

∴ 𝐹 = 𝐵q𝑣sinθ

If particle is moving at an angle 𝜃 = 90o to the magnetic field, the velocity ⊥ to magnetic field is 𝑣sin𝜃
=𝑣
And the force is F = Bqv.

56
Direction of the Force
The direction of the force on a charge moving in a magnetic field is given by Fleming’s left hand rule.
The angle θ determines the type of path the charged particle will take when moving through a uniform
magnetic field.

 If θ = 00, or 1800 the charged particle takes a straight path since it is not deflected (F = O).
The particle is moving parallel or anti-parallel to the field as shown below.
B

+Q v

 If θ = 900, the charged particle takes a circular path since the force at every point in the path is
perpendicular to the motion of the charged particle as shown below. Velocity v of the particle
is always at a tangent to the circular path.
 The force F is always perpendicular to velocity v

Therefore when a charged particle moves at right angles to a uniform magnetic field, magnetic
force F is always perpendicular to its velocity, hence F acts as a centripetal force (force directed
towards the centre of the circle. CHARGED PARTICLE THROUGH A UNIFORM MAGNETIC
FIELD DESCRIBES A CIRCULAR PATH OF RADIUS R

 So magnetic force on a charged particle moving through a magnetic field is always a

deflecting force, ie it is providing centripetal force. Thus moving charged particles are
deflected by magnetic field into circular path.

Radius of the Circular Path

B-field into page.

𝑚𝑣 2 𝒎𝒗
Magnetic force provides centripetal force Bqv = . ∴r = .
𝑟 𝑩𝒒
𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎
But mv = momentum. ∴r =
𝑩𝒒

57
 𝒎𝒗
The equation r = shows that:
𝑩𝒒
 Faster moving particles move in bigger circles (r α v)
 Particles with bigger masses move in bigger circles, due to more inertia (r α m)
1
 Stronger field makes particles to move in tighter circles (r α 𝐵)

The Hall Effect

Hall effect:- the separation of charge carriers to opposite faces of a conductor when a current
flows through the conductor at right angles to a magnetic field.
The Hall Effect results in the production of voltage across the conductor.

 The Hall probe is made of semiconductor material. A semiconductor material has fewer
electrons travel than a metal, therefore has greater Hall Effect.
 If a small current flows through the probe and a magnetic field is applied perpendicular to
the current in the probe, positive and negative charge carriers are pushed (separated) to
opposite faces of the probe by the magnetic force. This is the Hall Effect. The charge carriers
accumulate on the opposite faces, hence producing a small voltage called Hall voltage.
 The greater the flux density, the greater the Hall voltage.

58
Expression for The Hall Voltage
An electric field is set up in the probe as there is a difference in voltage between a distance 𝑑 so

As a single electron travels with drift velocity 𝑣, it experiences a force to the left due to the
magnetic field 𝐵𝑞𝑣 and a force to the right due to the electric field 𝐸𝑞
Soon an equilibrium is reached hence forces equated 𝐸𝑞 = 𝐵𝑞𝑣
Substitute for 𝐸

Current is related to mean drift velocity by = 𝑛𝐴𝑣𝑞 where 𝐴 = 𝑡𝑑 is cross sectional area
and 𝑛 is number density of conducting particles
𝑞𝑉𝐻 𝐵𝑞𝐼 𝐵𝐼
Substitute for 𝑣 and rearrange = 𝑛(𝑡𝑑)𝑞 ∴VH =
𝑑 𝑛𝑡𝑞

MEASUREMENT OF FLUX DENSITY

 A calibrated Hall probe is used to measure flux density. Hall probe is placed in a
magnetic field of known flux density Bo and Hall voltage Vo is measured.
Vo 𝛼 Bo, i. e. Vo = kBo

 Then the probe is placed in a magnetic field of unknown flux density B and Hall
voltage V is measured. V = kB.
𝑽𝒐 𝑩 𝑩 𝑽
 Taking ratio of Hall voltages = 𝑩𝒐 ∴ 𝑩 = 𝑽𝒐
𝑽 𝒐
Practise Question

A thin rectangular slice of aluminium has sides of length 65 mm, 50 mm and 0.10 mm, as
shown in Fig. 2.1

Fig. 2.1 (not to scale)

Some of the corners of the slice are labelled.

A current I of 3.8 A is normal to face RSXY of the slice.
In aluminium, the number of free electrons per unit volume is 6.0 × 10 28 m−3.
A uniform magnetic field of magnetic flux density B equal to 0.13 T is normal to face QRYZ of
the aluminium slice in the direction from Q to P.
A Hall voltage VH is developed across the slice and is given by the expression

(a) Use Fig. 9.1 to state the magnitude of the distance t. [1]
(b) Calculate the magnitude of the Hall voltage VH. [2]

59
4.6 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION:
Magnetic Flux and Flux Linkage
Magnetic Flux
Magnetic flux is a measure of how many magnetic field lines are passing normally through an area A.

Coil of N loops/turns

P Q

Key: B-magnetic filed lines.

Normal –line perpendicular to the area A of coil
θ/Ø - the angle that the normal to the area A makes with the field lines.

The magnetic flux through an area A in a magnetic field of flux density B is given by:

Φ = BAcosθ where Acosθ is component of area of coil normal to magnetic

field/ Bcosθ is component of magnetic flux normal to area A of
coil.
In diagram P, θ = 0 so Φ = BA

Magnetic Flux is measured in Webers ( Wb) 1Wb = 1Tm2

A weber is a magnetic flux of flux density 1T passing normally through an area A of 1m2

The more field lines passing through area A, the greater the concentration and the stronger the
magnetic flux.

The equation of flux shows that the amount of flux flowing through a loop of wire depends on the
angle it makes with the field lines.

Flux Linkage
-product of magnetic flux Φ and number N of turns/loops in a coil.

The magnetic flux linkage is a measure of the flux in the whole coil of N loops/turns. So it is the sum
of the magnetic flux through each turn/loop of the coil (i.e. to say the product of the magnetic flux
and the number of turns/loops in the coil).

The amount of magnetic flux through a coil of wire of one loop/turn is:

Φ = BAcosθ

If the coil has N loops/turns of wire the total magnetic flux is given by:- NΦ = BANcosθ

60
The total amount of flux, NΦ, is called the Magnetic Flux Linkage; this is because we consider each
loop of wire to be linked with a certain amount of magnetic flux.

Magnetic Flux Linkage is measured in Webers, Wb

LAWS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION:

Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction
Electromagnetic induction is the production of an emf or a current due to a change in or cutting of a
magnetic flux linkage.

Faraday’s law deals with magnitude of the induced emf. It states that:- The MAGNITUDE of the
induced e.m.f. is proportional to the rate of change of magnetic flux linkage

∆𝑁∅
where E is the induced e.m.f. and ∆𝑡
is the rate of
change of magnetic flux linkage.

Three Experiments Demonstrating Electromagnetic Induction

First Experiment.

An ammeter registers a current in the wire/ loop when the magnet is moving

 Setup above shows a conducting loop connected to a sensitive ammeter.

 Because there is no battery or other source of emf, there must be no current in the circuit.
 If a bar magnet is moved towards the loop, a current suddenly appears momentarily/briefly
in the circuit. The current disappears when the magnet stops.
 If the magnet is moved away from the loop, a current again suddenly appears, but now in
the opposite direction.

Observations
 A current appears only if there is relative motion between the loop and the magnet (one
must move relative to the other); the current disappears when the relative motion between
them ceases.
 Faster motion produces a greater current.
 Moving the magnet’s North Pole toward the loop causes an anticlockwise current and
moving the North Pole away causes an clockwise current.

61
  Moving the South Pole towards or away from the loop also causes currents, but in
the reversed directions to those by N-Pole, ie same effects are obtained using S-
pole.

Work done in moving the magnet in and out of coil is converted to electrical energy.
If magnet is stationary but the coil;/loop is moving, the same results are obtained.

Second Experiment.

Circuit 1 Circuit 2
Setup above shows two conducting loops (circuits 1 and 2) close to each other with common axis.
 If switch S is closed, to turn on a current in circuit 2, the meter suddenly and momentarily
registers a current—an induced current—in circuit 1.
 If the switch is opened, another sudden and momentary induced current appears in the
circuit 1, but in the opposite direction.

An induced current (i e an induced emf) is obtained only when the current in circuit 2 is changing
(either turning on or turning off) and not when it is constant (even if it is large). A steady dc does not
cause induction of emf. A changing dc causes induction of emf.

EXPLANATION
 A current has a magnetic effect.
 On switching on and off current grows from zero to maximum on switching on and decays
from maximum to zero on switching off.
 Magnetic field associated with the current changes as the current grows or decays.
 This changing magnetic field links circuit 1 and induces an emf in circuit 1. When current is
steady, magnetic field associated with this current is also steady, so no emf is induced in
circuit 1.

This principle is used in the operation of a transformer;- a changing current in the primary coil
induces an emf in the secondary coil.

Third Experiment
If a wire is moving, cutting through a magnetic field or the wire is in a varying magnetic field strength
with time, an ammeter connected to the wire shows momentary deflections in opposite directions.

62
  The diagram above shows a flexible wire without any current flowing through it. The wire is
moving downwards at right angles to a magnetic field. An ammeter connected to the wire
shows a momentary deflection in one direction. Moving the upwards the ammeter shows
deflections in the opposite direction. Moving the wire back and forth with an oscillating
motion will cause an alternating current to be generated in the wire. The deflections show
presence of an induced current flowing in the wire. Using Fleming’s right-hand rule, the
induced current produced is towards the right.
 When the direction of motion of wire is reversed, the induced current is in the opposite
direction.

THESE EXPERIMENTS SHOW THAT AN EMF IS INDUCED IN A COIL OR CONDUCTOR WHEN

MAGNETIC FIELD THROUGH COIL CHANGES OR CONDUCTOR CUTS THE MAGNETIC FIELD.

Moving conductor in magnetic field.

Diagram below shows a conducting rod, of length L, being moved with a velocity v in a uniform
magnetic field of flux density B.
The rod moves a distance x in the magnetic field

Area in the magnetic field swept by the rod, A = Lx

Magnetic flux Φ = BA = BLx

𝚽 𝐁𝐋𝐱 𝐱
By Faraday’s law E = = but = velocity v
𝒕 𝒕 𝑡
∴E = BLv

63
Polarity on the rod is determined by Fleming’s left

hand rule on an electron in the rod. An electron in the rod is moving to the left with speed v in a
magnetic field, so it experiences magnetic force upwards. Thus the upper end of the rod has -ve
charge hence a -ve potential and the lower end has a +ve potential. The induced current in the rod is
downwards.

Example: Problem 1.
Figure 1.1 shows a metal rod of length L, resistance R and mass m that can freely slide, without
friction, on two parallel metal tracks of negligible resistance. The tracks are connected at one end so
that a closed circuit is formed with the rod. The frame is in a uniform magnetic field of flux density B.
Initially the rod is at rest at a distance xo from the connected ends of the rails. The area enclosed in
the frame changes at a constant rate/steadily.

Express the (i) current induced in the frame

(ii) acceleration of the rod at this instant in terms of the given quantities.
(i) The magnetic flux [Ф] enclosed by the rod and the tracks at time t = 0 s is given by
Ф = BLxo

The magnetic field is increasing with a constant rate, and consequently the enclosed
𝒅∅ 𝒅(𝒙−𝒙𝒐 )
magnetic flux is also increasing: 𝒅𝒕
= BL 𝒅𝒕

Faraday's law of induction can now be used to determine the induced emf:

𝒅∅ 𝒅(𝒙−𝒙𝒐 )
Emf 𝑬 = 𝒅𝒕
= BL 𝒅𝒕

𝒅(𝒙−𝒙 )
𝒐
But 𝒅𝒕
= v ∴ emf 𝑬 = BLv
As a result of the induced emf a current, I, will flow through the rod with a magnitude
equal to
𝐸 BLv
I = 𝑅 = 𝑅

64
 (ii) The direction of the current is along the wire, and therefore perpendicular to the
magnetic field. The force exerted by the magnetic field on the rod is given by
𝐸 BLv 𝒗𝑳𝟐 𝑩𝟐
F = BIL I = = ∴F =
𝑅 𝑅 𝑹

The acceleration, a, of the rod at time t = 0 s is therefore equal to

𝐹 𝑣𝐿2
a = 𝑚
= 𝑚𝑅B2

2 EMF FOR A COIL

If one end of a bar magnet is moved into a
coil, as shown in the opposite diagram, an
emf is generated in the coil. This effect is
called electromagnetic induction. The emf
makes a current to flow in the cicuit.
the induced emf is increased if:
 themagnet is moved faster
 there are more turns in the coil
N-pole of magnet-left to right deflection is to
 a stronger magnet is used
the right. If S-pole is approaching from the left,
deflection is the left.

𝒅Ф
By Faraday’s law, the induced emf E =𝑵
𝒅𝒕
Lenz’s Law
The direction of the induced EMF will control the direction of the induced current. The direction of
the induced EMF follows from Lenz’s Law

Lenz’s law states that the direction of the induced current is in such a way to oppose the cause
producing it.

The “cause” in this case is the change in magnetic flux linkage with the coil/the cutting of magnetic
flux by a conductor and the “it” is the induced current. This law is the origin of the negative sign in
Faradays Law

The direction of the induced current is determined by using Fleming’s right-hand rule as shown
below.

65
The Principle of Conservation of Energy
Lenz’s law is based on the principle of conservation of energy.

The current induced in a coil/conductor (due to a magnetic flux change through the coil/cutting of
flux by the conductor) will always be such that it opposes the change that caused it. Put in another
way: Any induced current in a coil/conductor will produce a magnetic flux that is opposite to the
original changing magnetic flux/cut magnetic flux.

1 That is, as shown in the diagram below, if a wire is pushed downwards into the magnetic field,
the current in the wire will be in the direction that produces a force on the wire to oppose its
motion into the magnetic field i.e. it will produce a current to the right which via Fleming’s left-
hand rule will cause the wire to be forced upwards.

2(a). If, in diagram (a), the North-pole of a magnet is moved toward a conducting loop, the induced
current produces a North Pole pointing toward the magnet’s North Pole. This creates a
repulsive force opposing the change that caused the current. Work is done to overcome
repulsion. The work done is converted to electrical energy.

(b) If, in diagram (b), the North-pole of a magnet is pulled away from a conducting loop, the
induced current produces a South-pole near the magnet’s North-pole. The result is an attractive
force opposing the motion of the magnet. Work is done against attraction.

Bar magnet into coil Bar magnet out of coil

(a) (b)

𝒅Ф
Faraday’s and Lenz’s laws can be combined to form:- E =- 𝑵 where the minus sign here is
𝒅𝒕
a statement of Lenz’s law.

WAYS OF INCREASING INDUCED EMF IN A COIL

𝒅Ф 𝒅(𝐁𝐀𝐜𝐨𝐬𝛉)
E =- 𝑵 Φ = BAcosθ ∴E =- 𝑵
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕

66
Here are the general means by which the emf induced in a coil can be changed:

1. Change the magnitude B of the magnetic field within the coil.

2. Change either the total area of the coil or the portion of that area that lies within the
magnetic field (for example, by expanding the coil or sliding it into or out of the field).
3. Change the angle between the direction of the magnetic field and the plane of the coil (for
example, by rotating the coil so that field is first perpendicular to the plane of the coil and
then is along that plane).
4. Increase number N of turns in the coil
5. Increase rate of change of the magnetic flux linkage.

QUE: The graph gives the magnitude B(t) of a uniform magnetic field that exists throughout a
conducting loop entering and moving steadily through a magnetic field of flux density B, with
the direction of the field perpendicular to the plane of the loop. Rank the five regions of the
graph according to the magnitude of the emf induced in the loop, greatest first

The emf from such a graph (e g graph of magnetic flux, current or flux density) is
always the negative gradient of the graph (taking cognizance of Faraday’s and Lenz’s
laws).
Region a-no magnetic flux through coil. Emf = 0
Region b- magnetic flux is changing steadily (increasing steadily), so emf constant and negative.
Region c:- flux through coil is constant. Change ∆𝛷 = 0 so emf = 0
Region d and e: - flux through coil is steadily decreasing. Emf = constant and positive.

Graph below shows variation of the induced emf with time.

67
EDDY CURRENTS and MAGNETIC DAMPING

If a solid mass /sheet of metal moves relative to a magnetic field, a current called eddy current is
induced in the mass/sheet. The direction of this eddy current is opposes the change causing it.
An eddy current is a swirl of current that is induced in a solid conducting mass/sheet moving
in a magnetic field.

The diagram above shows a metal disc rotating between poles of a magnet. The disc is seen to slow
down in its rotation. WHY?

As the disc rotates in the magnetic field, its radius cuts magnetic field lines. An emf is induced the
disc. The emf drives a current, called eddy current in the disc.

 By Lenz’s law, the eddy current flows in such a way to oppose the roation of the disc.
 The current also causes joule heating in the disc and energy of rotation is dissipated as heat.
 Loss of enery causes damping of the disc, a phenomenon called magnetic damping.

NB:-If the permanent magnet is replaced by an electromagnet, the spinning disc will be slowed down
only when there is a current flowing in the electromagnet. This is the principle behind
electromagnetic braking, applied in fast moving trains. The advantage of this braking sytem over
conventional brakes is that there is no phsical contact with the spinning disc, so the does not wear by
friction. The disadvantage of electromagnetic braking is that, as the disc slows down, the induced
eddy currents will be getting smallerand smaller. Therefore the braking gets less and less efficient.

A BAR MAGNET OSCILLATING IN MAGNETIC FIELD

68
In setup P the magnet oscillates in SHM and its motion is as shown in graph X. An emf V is induced
in the coil but amplitude of oscillation of magnet remains constant because there is no induced current
flowing in the coil to oppose the motion of the magnet. This is because a voltmeter does not allow
flow of current due to its infinity or very high resistance.

In setup Q, the oscillating magnet experiences magnetic damping. As the magnet oscillates, it induces
an current in the coil. Because an ammeter allows flow of current, the induced current flows in such a
way producing it, by Lenz’s law. The magnet loses energy. The induced emf varies as shown in graph
Y, where amplitude is decreasing.

4.7 ALTERNATING CURRENT

An alternating current (ac) is a current that repeatedly reverses its direction.

Sinusoidal excitations
A c is represented as a sinusoidal function as shown in the graph below.

In one cycle of an alternating current, the charge carriers move one way in the circuit, then reverse
direction, then re-reverse direction.

A sinusoidal function f(t) is a periodic function whose:-

 Period (T) is defined as the time taken to complete one oscillation/cycle.
1
 Frequency (f) is the number of complete oscillations/cycles generated unit time (i.e.), T = 𝑇.
 Angular frequency (ω) is related to the frequency, f by   2f.
 Peak value (amplitude) is the maximum +ve or –ve value that can be reached from the
equilibrium (zero) position by an ac quantity.

69
The ac current and voltage are expressed as:
I = Im sint
VVmsin t where I and V are instantaneous values and Im and Vm are peak values.

The current and voltage are in step/in phase with each other because they vary identically with time.
Because the current and the voltage reach their maximum values at the same time, they are said to
be in phase
The peak value of an alternating current (or pd) is the maximum current (or pd) in either direction.
In the graph below, the peak voltage is 325V and its period is 0.02s.

Peak-to-peak values: The peak-to-peak current (Ipp) or voltage (Vpp) is the difference between the
positive peak value and negative peak value ( i e.), Ipp = IP – (-Ip) = 2Ip or Vpp = Vp – (-Vp) = 2Vp.

AVERAGE AC VALUE and RMS VALUE

 The average value of the current over one cycle is zero.

 This is because the current is maintained in one direction (the positive direction)
for the same amount of time and at the same magnitude as it is in the opposite
direction (the negative direction).

However, the direction of the current has no effect on the behavior of the resistor in the circuit: the
collisions between electrons and the fixed atoms of the resistor result in an increase in the resistor’s
temperature regardless of the direction of the current.

The rate at which electrical energy is dissipated in a resistor, the power, is given by:
P = I2R
where I is the instantaneous current in the resistor.

The equation above shows that the heating effect of a current is proportional to the square of the
current. It makes no difference whether the sign associated with the current is positive or negative.
It is always positive due to squaring effect.

However, the heating effect produced by an alternating current with a maximum value of Imax is not
the same as that produced by a direct current of the same value. The reason is that the alternating
current has this maximum value for only an instant of time during a cycle, i e, at maximum positive
and negative points.

70
The important quantity in an AC circuits is the rms value;- a special kind of average current/voltage.

Root mean square (rms) - the direct current that dissipates the same amount of energy in a
resistor that is dissipated by the actual alternating current.

𝑰𝒎 𝑽𝒎
The rms values for current and voltage are respectively given by Irms = and Vrms  .
√𝟐 √𝟐

To find the rms value, 1 square the current(s)/voltage(s),

2 find its average/mean value, and
3 take the square root of this average/mean value.

For example:
If I I m sint, show that (a) the average value of I measured over a complete cycle is zero.
𝑰𝒎
(b) Irms =
√𝟐

(a) The graph below shows variation of ac current with time. Sum of currents in area A= +I

Area A Area B

Sum of currents in area B = -I Therefore total current over a cycle = +I + (-I) = 0.

Therefore average current over a complete cycle = 0.

(b) I =Iosinωt 𝐼 2 = 𝐼𝑜2 sin2ωt

The graph below shows the variation of I2 against time t

71
 < 𝐼 2 > is the 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠

From the graph, Maximum 𝐼 2 = 𝐼𝑜2 Since sin2ωt = 1 Minimum 𝐼 2 = 0 Since sin2ωt = 0

𝐼𝑜2 +0 𝐼𝑜2
Mean value of 𝐼 2 = =
2 2

2 𝐼𝑜
𝐼 𝐼𝑜
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = √𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝐼 2 = √ 𝑜 = ∴ 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 =
2 √2 √2

MEAN POWER IN AC

I = Im sint
VVmsin t and Power = IV = 𝐼𝑚 𝑉𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜔𝑡
2
Power delivered/dissipated in a resistor = I2R = ( 𝐼𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜔𝑡 )R

The graph below shows how the power varies with time. The power is never negative because of
squaring effect. Maximum power = 𝑰𝟐𝒎 R and Minimum power = 0

𝒎𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓+𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝑰𝟐𝒎 𝑹

Mean power = = (Im = √𝟐 Irms)
𝟐 𝟐

Variation of power with time for on alternating current

72
For a sinusoidal current, the mean power over a full cycle is half the peak power.

𝟏 𝟐
The mean power Pmin = 𝑰 R
𝟐 𝒎
= 𝑰𝟐𝒓𝒎𝒔 R

𝑰𝒎 𝑽𝒎 𝑰𝒎𝑽𝒎
Mean power IV = Irms Vrms = = x =
√𝟐 √𝟐 𝟐

Distinguishing rms values from peak values

𝒑𝒆𝒂𝒌 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆
 Rms value is equal to peak value divided by root 2 i e Rms value =
√𝟐
 Peak value of ac is the maximum ac value (voltage/current) while root mean square value is
the dc value that has the same heating effect in a given resistor as the ac value.
 Peak value occurs at peak points in a complete cycle while rms value is constant and occurs
throughout a complete cycle
 The peak value is larger than rms value.

The transformer
Advantages of ac over dc
1. A c can be transformed by a transformer, i e a c can be stepped up or down by a
transformer.
2. A c can be transmitted over long distance as high voltage-low current.
3. A c can be generated at the site of raw materials

The transformer rule

 A transformer is a device that changes an alternating pd from one peak value to a
different peak value.
 A transformer consists of two coils: the primary coil and the secondary coil. The two coils
have the same laminated iron core. The symbol for the transformer is in the diagram below.

73
SIMPLE OPERATION OF A TRANSFORMER
A transformer operates on the principle that a changing current in primary coil induces an emf in the
secondary coil.

 When the primary coil is connected to a source of alternating pd, an alternating magnetic
field is produced in the core. The field passes through/links the secondary coil. So an
alternating emf is induced in the secondary coil by the changing magnetic field.

The soft iron core is used to ensure that all the magnetic flux produced by the primary coil passes
through the secondary coil ie it is used to enhance magnetic flux through coil.

TRANSFORMER EQUATION
Let ∅1 = the flux in the core passing through each turn at an instant when an alternating pd VP is
applied to the primary coil.

• The flux linkage in the secondary coil = Ns∅1, where Ns is the number of turns on the
𝚫∅𝟏
secondary coil. From Faraday's law, the induced emf in the secondary coil, Vs = Ns .
𝚫𝒕

• The flux linkage in the primary coil= Np∅𝟏 , where Np is the number of turns on the primary
𝚫∅𝟏
coil. From Faraday's law, the induced emf in the primary coil VP = Np
𝚫𝒕

The induced emf in the primary coil opposes the pd applied to the primary coil, VP. So all the applied
𝚫∅
pd acts against the induced emf in the primary coil, the applied pd is Vp = Np 𝚫𝒕𝟏.
Dividing the equation for Vs by the equation for VP gives

 A step-up transformer has more turns on the secondary coil than on the primary coil. So the
secondary voltage is stepped up compared to the primary voltage.
 A step-down transformer has fewer turns on the secondary coil than on the primary coil. So
the secondary voltage is stepped down compared to the primary voltage.

The alternating current in the primary coil is not in phase with the alternating emf induced in the
secondary coil:

 Current in primary coil gives rise to a changing magnetic field. This alternating magnetic field
is in phase with the current in the primary coil.

74
  The changing magnetic flux links/passes through the secondary coil. The changing flux
induces an emf in the secondary coil. The induced emf is proportional to the rate of change
of the magnetic flux linkage so it is not in phase with the current in primary coil.

VP and VS have a phase difference of 90o or πrad with IS, IP and Ø as shown in the graphs below.

Energy Loss in a Practical Transformer

 Some power is lost due to resistance in the coils of transformers causing them to heat up.
This is corrected by using thicker copper wire
 Some power is lost as the magnetic flux flows back and forth. To minimize this, a soft
magnetic material is used where magnetic flux direction can change easily
 Losses also occur in the core due to eddy currents:-induced currents flow through the iron
core & dissipate energy due to its resistance. Currents can be reduced by making core out of
thin laminated sheets; flux can easily flow but eddy currents cannot.

An IDEAL transformer is one which is 100% efficient i e one in there are no energy losses. Power
input is equal to power output.

75
USE OF TRANSFORMER OIL

Transformer oil is used to:

i. insulate transformer’s core and windings.
ii. stop arcing and corona discharge in the transformer.
iii. dissipate the heat of the transformer i e it is used as a coolant
iv. preserve the transformer’s core and windings

(An arc is a luminous current discharge formed when a large current forces a dielectric gap to
conduct the large current between two electrodes.
A corona discharge is an electrical discharge brought on by ionization of a fluid such as air
surrounding a conductor that is electrically charged. A corona occurs when an electric field strength
around a conductor is high enough to form a conductive region but not high enough to cause
breakdown or arcing to nearby objects.
The main difference between arcing and corona is that; in corona, the accumulation of charges is
sustained, resulting in a breakdown. In arcing, a surge in current causes an immediate breakdown of
the dielectric, releasing huge energy).

76
POWER TRANSMISSION

The transmission of power over long distances is by high voltage-low current than at low voltage –
high current to reduce power loss by joule heating in the resistance of the cables. The reason is that
the current needed to deliver a certain amount of power is reduced if the voltage is increased. To
𝑷
deliver power P at voltage V, the current needed is I = 𝑽. If the resistance of the cables is R, power
𝑷𝟐 𝑹
lost in the cables by joule heating is I2R = 𝑽𝟐

Therefore, the higher the voltage is , the smaller the ratio of the wasted power to the power
transmitted is.

For example, for transmission of 1MW of power through the cables of resistance 500Ω at 25kV, the
1 000 000
current necessary would be 25 000
= 40A. So power dissipated = (402 x 500) =800 000W =0.8MW
Therefore power delivered = (1 000 000 – 800 000) = 0.2MW.

1 000 000
At 400Kv, current = 400 000
= 2.5A, so power lost = (2.52 x 500)W = 3 125W
Power delivered = (1 000 000- 3 125) = 996 875W = 0.997MW.

Hence the need for high voltage transmission.

Practise question
1 Electrical energy is supplied by a high voltage power line which has a total resistance of 4.0 Ω.
At the input to the line, the root-mean-square (r.m.s.) voltage has a value of 400 kV and the
input power is 500 MW.

Calculate the (a) power delivered to consumers

(b) value of the r.m.s. current in the power line.
(c) power loss on the line.
Hence explain why it is an advantage to transmit the power at a high voltage.

(𝟓𝟎𝟎 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟔 )𝟐 𝒙 𝟒.𝟎

1(a) Power delivered to customers = 500 x 106W - (𝟒𝟎𝟎 𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟑 )𝟐
∴Power delivered to customers = 494.75MW
𝑷 𝟓𝟎𝟎 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟔
(b) Irms = 𝑽 = 𝟒𝟎𝟎 𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟑
=1.25 x 103A

(c) Power lost in power line = i2R = (1.25 x 103)2 x 4.0 = 6.25 x106W

To reduce power loss by joule heating.

77
RECTIFICATION:- process of converting ac to dc.
Most electronic equipment requires d.c. For these, the alternating mains must be converted
to d.c. A diode is the most important component that allows current to flow in one direction.

Types of Rectification 1 Half-wave rectification

2 Full wave rectification
Half-wave rectification.

Half wave rectification uses one diode. The diagram below shows a circuit for half wave
rectification, together with a graph to show the effect. For one half of the time the voltage is
zero, and this means that the power available from a half-wave rectified supply is reduced.

The output voltage is always positive, but it goes up and down. This is still technically direct
current, because the current only flows in one direction.

Full wave rectification:- uses four (4) diodes is a bridge rectifier circuit as shown below.

The graph shows the output from the diode bridge. In both halves of the input voltage an
output is obtained across the load R.

The way in which a diode bridge works is shown in the table below.

78
  During the first half of the a.c. cycle, terminal A is positive. Current flows through
diode 2, downwards through R and through diode 4 to terminal B , because diodes 2
and 4 are forward biased. In this half cycle, current cannot flow through diodes 1 or
3 because they are reverse biased.
 In the second half of the cycle, terminal B is positive. Current flows through diode 3,
downwards through R, and through diode 1 to terminal A. Diodes 2 and 4 do not
conduct because they are pointing in the wrong way.
In both halves of the cycle, current flows the same way (downwards) through R, so the top
end of R must be positive. The output is a FLACTUATING or a ‘BUMPY’ unidirectional output
voltage.

Smoothing
In order to produce steady d.c. from the ‘bumpy’ d.c. that results from rectification, a smoothing
capacitor must be incorporated in the circuit, in parallel with the load resistor R as shown in the
circuit below.

The effect of the single capacitor is to reduce the fluctuations in the unidirectional output.

The capacitor charges up and maintains the voltage at a high level across load R. It charges on the
rise of the output voltage from the rectifier and discharges across the load on the fall of the output

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from the rectifier. The result is an output voltage with ‘ripple’. Ripple voltage is the difference
between the peak output voltage and the lowest discharge voltage.

 The amount of ripple can be controlled by careful choice of the values of C and R, ie by
controlling time constant T = CR. Increasing values of R and C, the capacitor discharges for a
very long time.
o A large capacitor discharges more slowly than a small capacitor, so will give less
ripple. Similarly, if R has a large value, C will discharge more slowly.

The greater the values of the quantity R × C, the smoother the rectified output voltage. This might
cause damage to rectifier circuit.

o A small capacitor discharges more rapidly than a large capacitor and gives rise to a greater ripple
in output
o If the load resistor is small, the capacitor will also discharge rapidly
o 𝐶𝑅 is the time constant of a capacitor resistor: time taken for charge to fall to 37% of the original
value
o Value of CR should be much greater than the period of a.c. supply so capacitor does not have
sufficient time to discharge significantly

In general, the greater the value 𝑅 × 𝐶, the smoother the rectified a.c.

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