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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the metalworking by-product. For the British slang term for a
promiscuous woman, see Slut.

Molten slag is carried outside and poured into a dump

Slag is a by-product of smelting (pyrometallurgical) ores and used metals.[1] Broadly,

it can be classified as ferrous (by-products of processing iron and
steel), ferroalloy (by-product of ferroalloy production) or non-ferrous/base metals (by-
products of recovering non-ferrous materials like copper, nickel, zinc and
phosphorus).[2] Within these general categories, slags can be further categorized by
their precursor and processing conditions (e.g., blast furnace (BF) slags, air-cooled
blast furnace (ACBF) slag, basic oxygen furnace (BOF) slag, and electric arc
furnace (EAF) slag).

Global production of iron and steel, 1942–2018, according to USGS. [3]

Due to the large demand for these materials, slag production has also significantly
increased throughout the years despite recycling (most notably in the iron and
steelmaking industries) and upcycling efforts. The World Steel Association (WSA)
estimates that 600 kg of by-products (about 90 wt% is slags) are generated
per tonne of steel produced. [4]

Composition[edit]
Slag is usually a mixture of metal oxides and silicon dioxide. However, slags can
contain metal sulfides and elemental metals.
The major components of these slags include the oxides
of calcium, magnesium, silicon, iron, and aluminium, with lesser amounts
of manganese, phosphorus, and others depending on the specifics of the raw
materials used. Furthermore, slag can be classified based on the abundance of iron
among other major components.[5]

Ore smelting[edit]

The Manufacture of Iron – Carting Away the  Scoriæ (slag), an 1873 wood engraving

In nature, iron, copper, lead, nickel, and other metals are found in impure states

called ores, often oxidized and mixed in with silicates of other metals. During
smelting, when the ore is exposed to high temperatures, these impurities are
separated from the molten metal and can be removed. Slag is the collection of
compounds that are removed. In many smelting processes, oxides are introduced to
control the slag chemistry, assisting in the removal of impurities and protecting the
furnace refractory lining from excessive wear. In this case, the slag is
termed synthetic. A good example is steelmaking slag: quicklime (CaO)
and magnesite (MgCO3) are introduced for refractory protection, neutralizing
the alumina and silica separated from the metal, and assisting in the removal of
sulfur and phosphorus from the steel.[citation needed]
As a co-product of steelmaking, slag is typically produced either through the blast
furnace - oxygen converter route or the electric arc furnace - ladle furnace route.[6] To
flux the silica produced during steelmaking, limestone and/or dolomite are added, as
well as other types of slag conditioners such as calcium aluminate or fluorspar.

Classifications[edit]

Slag run-off from one of the open hearth furnaces of a steel mill, Republic Steel, Youngstown, Ohio,
November 1941. Slag is drawn off the furnace just before the molten steel is poured into ladles
for ingotting.
There are three types of slag: ferrous, ferroalloy, non-ferrous slags, which are
produced through different smelting processes.
Ferrous slag[edit]
Ferrous slags are produced in different stages of the iron and steelmaking processes
resulting in varying physiochemical properties. Additionally, the rate of cooling of the
slag material affects its degree of crystallinity further diversifying its range of
properties. For example, slow cooled BF slags (or air-cooled slags) tend have more
crystalline phases than quenched BF slags (ground granulated blast furnace slags)
making it denser and better suited as an aggregate. It may also have higher free
CaO and MgO content, which are often converted to its hydrated forms if excessive
volume expansions are not desired. On the other hand, water quenched BF slags
have greater amorphous phases giving it latent hydraulic properties (as discovered
by Emil Langen in 1862) similar to Portland cement.[7]
During the process of smelting iron, ferrous slag is created, but dominated by
calcium and silicon compositions. Through this process, ferrous slag can be broken
down into blast furnace slag (produced from iron oxides of molten iron), then steel
slag (forms when steel scrap and molten iron combined). The major phases of
ferrous slag contain calcium-rich olivine-group silicates and melilite-group silicates.
Slag from steel mills in ferrous smelting is designed to minimize iron loss, which
gives out the significant amount of iron, following by oxides
of calcium, silicon, magnesium, and aluminium. As the slag is cooled down by water,
several chemical reactions from a temperature of around 2,600 °F (1,430 °C) (such
as oxidization) take place within the slag.[5]

A path through a slag heap in Clarkdale, Arizona, showing the striations from the rusting corrugated sheets
retaining it.

Based on a case study at the Hopewell National Historical Site

in Berks and Chester counties, Pennsylvania, USA, ferrous slag usually contains
lower concentration of various types of trace elements than non-ferrous slag.
However, some of them, such as arsenic (As), iron, and manganese, can
accumulate in groundwater and surface water to levels that can exceed
environmental guidelines.[5]
Non-ferrous slag[edit]
Non-ferrous slag is produced from non-ferrous metals of natural ores. Non-ferrous
slag can be characterized into copper, lead, and zinc slags due to the ores'
compositions, and they have more potential to impact the environment negatively
than ferrous slag. The smelting of copper, lead and bauxite in non-ferrous smelting,
for instance, is designed to remove the iron and silica that often occurs with those
ores, and separates them as iron-silicate-based slags. [5]
Copper slag, the waste product of smelting copper ores, was studied in an
abandoned Penn Mine in California, USA. For six to eight months per year, this
region is flooded and becomes a reservoir for drinking water and irrigation. Samples
collected from the reservoir showed the higher concentration of cadmium (Cd)
and lead (Pb) that exceeded regulatory guidelines.[5]

Applications[edit]
Slags can serve other purposes, such as assisting in the temperature control of the
smelting, and minimizing any re-oxidation of the final liquid metal product before the
molten metal is removed from the furnace and used to make solid metal. In some
smelting processes, such as ilmenite smelting to produce titanium dioxide, the slag
can be the valuable product.[8]

Early slag from Denmark, c. 200-500 CE

Ancient uses[edit]
During the Bronze Age of the Mediterranean area there were a vast number of
differential metallurgical processes in use. A slag by-product of such workings was a
colorful, glassy material found on the surfaces of slag from ancient copper foundries.
It was primarily blue or green and was formerly chipped away and melted down to
make glassware products and jewelry. It was also ground into powder to add to
glazes for use in ceramics. Some of the earliest such uses for the by-products of
slag have been found in ancient Egypt.[9]
Historically, the re-smelting of iron ore slag was common practice, as improved
smelting techniques permitted greater iron yields—in some cases exceeding that
which was originally achieved. During the early 20th century, iron ore slag was also
ground to a powder and used to make agate glass, also known as slag glass.
Modern uses[edit]
Construction[edit]
Utilization of slags in the construction industry dates back to the 1800s, where BF
slags were used to build roads and railroad ballast. During this time, it was also used
as an aggregate and had begun being integrated into the cement industry as
a geopolymer. [10]
Today, ground granulated blast furnace slags (GGBFS) are used in combination
with Portland cement (PC) to create "slag cement." GGBFS react
with portlandite (Ca(OH)2), which is formed during cement hydration, via
the pozzolanic reaction to produce cementitious properties that primarily contribute
to the later strength gain of concrete. This leads to concrete with reduced
permeability and better durability. Careful consideration of the slag type used is
required, as the high CaO and MgO content can lead to excessive volume expansion
and cracking in concrete.[11]
These hydraulic properties have also been used for soil stabilization in roads and
railroad constructions.[12]
Granulated blast furnace slag is used in the manufacture of high-performance
concretes, especially those used in the construction of bridges and coastal features,
where its low permeability and greater resistance to chlorides and sulfates can help
to reduce corrosive action and deterioration of the structure. [13]
Slag can also be used to create fibers used as an insulation material called slag
wool.
Slag is also used as aggregate in asphalt concrete for paving roads. A 2022 study in
Finland found that road surfaces containing ferrochrome slag release a highly
abrasive dust that has caused car parts to wear at significantly greater than normal
rates.[14]
Wastewater treatment and agriculture[edit]
Dissolution of slags generate alkalinity that can be used to precipitate out metals,
sulfates, and excess nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus) in wastewater treatment.
Similarly, ferrous slags have been used as soil conditioners to rebalance soil
pH and fertilizers as sources of calcium and magnesium.[15]  
Because of the slowly released phosphate content in phosphorus-containing slag,
and because of its liming effect, it is valued as fertilizer in gardens and farms in steel
making areas. However, the most important application is construction. [16]
Emerging applications[edit]
Slags have one of the highest carbonation potential among the industrial alkaline
waste due their high CaO and MgO content, inspiring further studies to test its
feasibility in CO2 capture and storage (CCS) methods (e.g., direct aqueous
sequestration, dry gas-solid carbonation among others). [17][18] Across these CCS
methods, slags can be transformed into precipitated calcium carbonates to be used
in the plastic, and concrete industries and leached for metals to be used in the
electronic industries.[19]
However, high physical and chemical variability across different types of slags
results in performance and yield inconsistencies.[20] Moreover, stoichiometric-based
calculation of the carbonation potential can lead to overestimation that can further
obfuscate the material's true potential. [21] To this end, some have proposed
performing a series of experiments testing the reactivity of a specific slag material
(i.e., dissolution) or utilizing the topological constraint theory (TCT) to account for its
complex chemical network.[22]

Health and Environmental impact[edit]

See also: Particulates §  Controlling technologies and measures

Pile of steelmaking slag at the Cleveland-Cliffs Indiana Harbor steelmaking facility.

Slags are transported along with slag tailings to "slag dumps," where they are
exposed to weathering, with the possibility of leaching of toxic elements and
hyperalkaline runoffs into the soil and water, endangering the local ecological
communities. Leaching concerns are typically around non-ferrous or base metal
slags, which tend to have higher concentrations of toxic elements. However, ferrous
and ferroalloy slags may also have them, which raises concerns about highly
weathered slag dumps and upcycled materials.[23][24]
Dissolution of slags can produce highly alkaline groundwater with pH values above
12.[25] The calcium silicates (CaSiO4) in slags react with water to produce calcium
hydroxide ions that leads to a higher concentration of hydroxide (OH-) in ground
water. This alkalinity promotes the mineralization of dissolved CO2 (from the
atmosphere) to produce calcite (CaCO3), which can accumulate to as thick as 20 cm.
This can also lead to the dissolution of other metals in slag, such
as iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), nickel (Ni), and molybdenum (Mo), which become
insoluble in water and mobile as particulate matter. The most effective method
to detoxify alkaline ground water discharge is air sparging.[25]
0:13
Particulate emission when using modern electrical power tool during home broadband installation, Tai Po,
Hong Kong

Fine slags and slag dusts generated from milling slags to be recycled into the
smelting process or upcycled in a different industry (e.g. construction) can be carried
by the wind, affecting a larger ecosystem. It can be ingested and inhaled, posing a
direct health risk to the communities near the plants, mines, disposal sites, etc.[23][24]
According to the 2019 International Energy Agency (IEA) report, the iron and steel
industry directly contributed 2.6 Gt to global CO2 emissions and accounted for 7% of
global energy demand.[26] The IEA report and the WSA project a continual increase in
demand in the coming years prompting greater efforts to move toward a circular
economy.

See also[edit]
 Calcium cycle
 Circular economy
 Clinker (waste)
 Dross
  Fly ash
 Ground granulated blast furnace slag
 Heavy metals
 Mill scale
 Pozzolan
 Slag (welding)
 Spoil tip
 Tailings

References[edit]
1. ^ Piatak, Nadine M.; Parsons, Michael B.; Seal, Robert R. (2015). "Characteristics and
environmental aspects of slag: A review". Applied Geochemistry.  57: 236–
266.  Bibcode:2015ApGC...57..236P. doi:10.1016/j.apgeochem.2014.04.009. ISSN 0883
-2927.
2. ^ Stroup-Gardiner, Mary; Wattenberg-Komas, Tanya (2013-06-24). Recycled Materials
and Byproducts in Highway Applications—Summary Report, Volume
1. doi:10.17226/22552.  ISBN  978-0-309-22368-3.
3. ^ "Iron and Steel Statistics and Information".  www.usgs.gov. Retrieved 2021-11-27.
4. ^ "worldsteel | Steel industry co-products position paper".  www.worldsteel.org.
Retrieved 2021-11-27.
5. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e Piatak, Nadine M.; Parsons, Michael B.; Seal, Robert R.
(2015).  "Characteristics and environmental aspects of slag: A review".  Applied
Geochemistry. 57: 236–
266.  Bibcode:2015ApGC...57..236P. doi:10.1016/j.apgeochem.2014.04.009. ISSN 0883
-2927.
6. ^ Fruehan, Richard (1998). The Making, Shaping, and Treating of Steel, Steelmaking
and Refining Volume, 11th Edition. Pittsburgh, PA, USA: The AISE Steel Foundation.
p. 10.  ISBN  0-930767-02-0.
7. ^ Cwirzen, Andrzej (2020-01-01), Siddique, Rafat (ed.), "10 - Properties of SCC with
industrial by-products as aggregates",  Self-Compacting Concrete: Materials, Properties
and Applications, Woodhead Publishing Series in Civil and Structural Engineering,
Woodhead Publishing, pp.  249–281,  ISBN  978-0-12-817369-5, retrieved 2021-11-26
8. ^ Pistorius, P.C. (2007). "Ilmenite smelting: the basics"  (PDF).  The 6th International
Heavy Minerals Conference 'Back to Basics': 75–84.
9. ^ "The chemical composition of glass in Ancient Egypt by Mikey Brass (1999)".
Retrieved 2009-06-18.
10. ^ Netinger Grubeša, Ivanka; Barišić, Ivana; Fucic, Aleksandra; Bansode, Samitinjay S.
(2016-01-01), Netinger Grubeša, Ivanka; Barišić, Ivana; Fucic, Aleksandra; Bansode,
Samitinjay S. (eds.),  "4 - Application of blast furnace slag in civil engineering: Worldwide
studies", Characteristics and Uses of Steel Slag in Building Construction, Woodhead
Publishing, pp.  51–66,  ISBN  978-0-08-100368-8, retrieved 2021-11-27
11. ^ Ortega-López, Vanesa; Manso, Juan M.; Cuesta, Isidoro I.; González, Javier J. (2014-
10-15).  "The long-term accelerated expansion of various ladle-furnace basic slags and
their soil-stabilization applications".  Construction and Building Materials. 68: 455–
464.  doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2014.07.023.  ISSN  0950-0618.
12. ^ Grubeša, Ivanka Netinger; Barišić, Ivana (2021-08-04),  "CHAPTER 7:Diverse
Applications of Slags in the Construction Industry",  Metallurgical Slags, Chemistry in the
Environment, pp. 194–233, doi:10.1039/9781839164576-00194, ISBN 978-1-78801-
887-6, S2CID  238965391, retrieved 2021-11-27
13. ^ "High Performance Cement for High Strength and Extreme Durability by Konstantin
Sobolev". Archived from  the original on 2009-08-03. Retrieved 2009-06-18.
14. ^ "Autojen jakohihnojen rikkoutumisen taustalla ferrokromikuonan eli OKTO-murskeen
aiheuttama kuluminen". Geological Survey of Finland. Retrieved 20 September  2022.
15. ^ Gomes, Helena I.; Mayes, William M.; Ferrari, Rebecca (2021-08-04), "CHAPTER
8:Environmental Applications of Slag", Metallurgical Slags, Chemistry in the
Environment, pp. 234–267, doi:10.1039/9781839164576-00234, ISBN 978-1-78801-
887-6, S2CID  238967817, retrieved 2021-11-27
 16. ^ O'Connor, James; Nguyen, Thi Bang Tuyen; Honeyands, Tom; Monaghan, Brian;
O'Dea, Damien; Rinklebe, Jörg; Vinu, Ajayan; Hoang, Son A.; Singh, Gurwinder;
Kirkham, M.B.; Bolan, Nanthi (2021). "Production, characterisation, utilisation, and
beneficial soil application of steel slag: A review". Journal of Hazardous Materials. 419:
126478. doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2021.126478.  ISSN  0304-3894. PMID 34323725.
17. ^ Doucet, Frédéric J. (2010-02-01).  "Effective CO2-specific sequestration capacity of
steel slags and variability in their leaching behaviour in view of industrial mineral
carbonation".  Minerals Engineering. Special issue: Sustainability, Resource Conservation
& Recycling.  23  (3): 262–269.  doi:10.1016/j.mineng.2009.09.006.  ISSN  0892-6875.
18. ^ Romanov, Vyacheslav; Soong, Yee; Carney, Casey; Rush, Gilbert E.; Nielsen,
Benjamin; O'Connor, William (2015).  "Mineralization of Carbon Dioxide: A Literature
Review". ChemBioEng Reviews. 2  (4): 231–
256.  doi:10.1002/cben.201500002. ISSN 2196-9744.  OSTI  1187926.
19. ^ Ragipani, Raghavendra; Bhattacharya, Sankar; Suresh, Akkihebbal K. (2021). "A
review on steel slag valorisation via mineral carbonation".  Reaction Chemistry &
Engineering. 6  (7): 1152–1178. doi:10.1039/D1RE00035G. ISSN 2058-
9883.  S2CID 236390725.
20. ^ Brand, Alexander S.; Fanijo, Ebenezer O. (2020-11-19).  "A Review of the Influence of
Steel Furnace Slag Type on the Properties of Cementitious Composites". Applied
Sciences.  10  (22): 8210.  doi:10.3390/app10228210. ISSN 2076-3417.
21. ^ "Some Effects of Carbon Dioxide on Mortars and Concrete". ACI Journal
Proceedings. 53 (9). 1956.  doi:10.14359/11515. ISSN 0002-8061.
22. ^ La Plante, Erika Callagon; Mehdipour, Iman; Shortt, Ian; Yang, Kai; Simonetti, Dante;
Bauchy, Mathieu; Sant, Gaurav N. (2021-08-16).  "Controls on CO2 Mineralization Using
Natural and Industrial Alkaline Solids under Ambient Conditions".  ACS Sustainable
Chemistry & Engineering.  9 (32): 10727–
10739. doi:10.1021/acssuschemeng.1c00838. S2CID  238670674.
23. ^ Jump up to:a b Ettler, Vojtěch; Kierczak, Jakub (2021-08-04),  "CHAPTER
6:Environmental Impact of Slag Particulates", Metallurgical Slags, Chemistry in the
Environment, pp. 174–193, doi:10.1039/9781839164576-00174, ISBN 978-1-78801-
887-6, S2CID  238952198, retrieved 2021-11-27
24. ^ Jump up to:a b Ettler, Vojtěch; Vítková, Martina (2021-08-04),  "CHAPTER 5:Slag
Leaching Properties and Release of Contaminants", Metallurgical Slags, Chemistry in the
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887-6, S2CID  238945892, retrieved 2021-11-27
25. ^ Jump up to:a b Roadcap, George S.; Kelly, Walton R.; Bethke, Craig M.
(2005).  "Geochemistry of Extremely Alkaline (pH > 12) Ground Water in Slag-Fill
Aquifers".  Ground Water.  43  (6): 806–816.  doi:10.1111/j.1745-
6584.2005.00060.x.  ISSN  0017-467X.  PMID  16324002. S2CID  12325820.
26. ^ "Direct CO2 emissions in the iron and steel sector by scenario, 2019-2050 – Charts –
Data & Statistics".  IEA. Retrieved  2021-11-23.

Further reading[edit]
 Dimitrova, S.V. (1996). "Metal sorption on blast-furnace slag". Water
Research. 30 (1): 228–232. doi:10.1016/0043-1354(95)00104-S.
 Roy, D.M. (1982). "Hydration, structure, and properties of blast furnace
slag cements, mortars, and concrete". ACI Journal Proceedings. 79 (6).
 Fredericci, C.; Zanotto, E.D.; Ziemath, E.C. (2000). "Crystallization
mechanism and properties of a blast furnace slag glass". Journal of Non-
Crystalline Solids. 273 (1–3): 64–
75. Bibcode:2000JNCS..273...64F. doi:10.1016/S0022-3093(00)00145-9.

External links[edit]
 Types of Slag
 Electric Arc Furnace (EAF) Slag, US EPA
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Slag.

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Extractive metallurgy

Metallurgical assay Non-ferrous extractive metallurgy

Mineral  Geological survey

processing  Natural resources
(by physical means)  Ore 
o Economic geology

o Mineral

o Base metal

Extraction o Precious metal

 Mining 
o Surface

o Underground in hard rock

o Underground in soft rock

 Recycling 
o Scrap

 Stamp mill

 Arrastra

 Crusher 
o AG mill

Comminution o SAG mill

o Pebble mill

 Ball mill 
o Rod mill

o IsaMill

Sizing  Ore sorting

 Vanning

 Hydrocyclone

 Trommel
  Cyclonic separation

 Gyratory equipment

 Mechanical screening

 Froth flotation

 Jameson cell

 Panning

 Jig concentrators

Concentration  Gravity Concentration

 Magnetic separation (Magnetation)

 Rocker box

 Dry washing

 Buddle pit

 Iron smelting

 Lead smelting

 Zinc smelting
Smelting
 Flash smelting

 ISASMELT furnace

 Refractory linings

Pyrometallurgy  Cupellation

(by heat)  Parkes process

Refining  Bottom-blown oxygen converter

 Poling
 IsaKidd process

 Calcination

Other  Roasting

 Liquation

Hydrometallurgy  Lixiviant
(by aqueous  Heap leaching
solution)  Dump leaching

 Tank leaching
Leaching
 In situ leaching

 Gold chlorination

 Gold cyanidation

 Bayer process
  Patio process
Amalgamation
 Pan amalgamation

 Electrowinning

Electrometallurgy  Hall–Héroult process

Electrolysis
(by electricity)  Castner process

 Downs cell

 Tailings

 Gangue

 Slag

Co-products  Clinker

 Chat

 Red mud

 Stamp sand

Authority control:  Germany

National   Japan
Categories: 
 Amorphous solids
 Materials with minor glass phase
 Steelmaking
 Smelting
 By-products
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