Module 10-11

MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II)
Gaurav Dwivedi
Department of Mathematics
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus.
Module 10-11
Complex Integration
Chapter 4
Integrals
Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 3 / 67
The derivative of a complex
valued function
The derivative of a complex
valued function
Let w(t) = u(t) + iv(t) be a complex valued function of

a real variable t, where u(t) and v(t) are real-valued
functions of t. Then
w′ (t) = u′ (t) + iv ′ (t),
provided each of the derivatives u′ (t) and v ′ (t) exists at

t.
Recall: Mean Value Theorem for
Real Valued Functions
If f is a continuous function on the closed interval [a, b],

and differentiable on the open interval (a, b), then there
exists a point c ∈ (a, b) such that
f (b) − f (a)
f ′ (c) = .
b−a
If f is a continuous function on the closed interval [a, b],

and differentiable on the open interval (a, b), then there
exists a point c ∈ (a, b) such that
f (b) − f (a)
f ′ (c) = .
b−a
Remark The mean value theorem does not hold for

complex valued functions.
Example
Let w(t) = eit , 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π. Then w′ (t) = ieit and so
|w′ (t)| = 1 for all 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π.
Example
Let w(t) = eit , 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π. Then w′ (t) = ieit and so
|w′ (t)| = 1 for all 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π. Now
f (b) − f (a) e2πi − e0

= = 0.
b−a 2π − 0
Hence LHS ̸= RHS.
Definite Integral of w(t)
a real variable t. Then the definite integral of w(t) over
[a, b] is defined as
Z b Z b Z b
w(t) dt = u(t) dt + i v(t) dt,
a a a
where the individual integrals on the right exist.
a real variable t. Then the definite integral of w(t) over
[a, b] is defined as
Z b Z b Z b
w(t) dt = u(t) dt + i v(t) dt,
a a a
where the individual integrals on the right exist.
Thus Z b Z b
Re w(t) dt = u(t) dt,
a a
and Z b Z b
Im w(t) dt = v(t) dt.
a a
Example
Z 1 Z 1
2
(1 + it) dt = (1 − t2 + 2it) dt
0
Z0 1 Z 1
2
= (1 − t ) dt + 2i t dt
0 0
= 2/3 + i.
Some Definitions
Some Definitions
1. Curve. A set of points
z(t) = x(t) + iy(t),
where x(t) and y(t) are continuous functions of a real

variable t is called a curve in the complex plane.
Some Definitions
1. Curve. A set of points
z(t) = x(t) + iy(t),
where x(t) and y(t) are continuous functions of a real

variable t is called a curve in the complex plane.
We write
C : z(t) = x(t) + iy(t) or x = x(t), y = y(t).
2. Arc. The portion between any two points of a curve
is called an arc of the curve, i.e.,
C : z(t) = x(t) + iy(t), a ≤ t ≤ b,
is an arc.
3. Simple Arc or Jordan Arc. An arc C is said to be
simple (Jordan) if it neither touches nor crosses itself i.e.,
C : z(t) = x(t) + iy(t),
is simple if z(t1 ) ̸= z(t2 ) whenever t1 ̸= t2 .
3. Simple Arc or Jordan Arc. An arc C is said to be
simple (Jordan) if it neither touches nor crosses itself i.e.,
C : z(t) = x(t) + iy(t),
is simple if z(t1 ) ̸= z(t2 ) whenever t1 ̸= t2 .
4. Simple Closed Curve or Jordan Curve. When the

arc C is simple except for the fact that z(a) = z(b), then
is said to be a simple closed curve or a Jordan curve.
5. Differentiable Arc. An arc
z(t) = x(t) + iy(t), a ≤ t ≤ b,
is said to be differentiable if x′ (t) and y ′ (t) exist and

continuous in [a, b].
z(t) = x(t) + iy(t), a ≤ t ≤ b,

We write z ′ (t) = x′ (t) + iy ′ (t), a ≤ t ≤ b.
z(t) = x(t) + iy(t), a ≤ t ≤ b,

We write z ′ (t) = x′ (t) + iy ′ (t), a ≤ t ≤ b.
A differentiable arc is said to be smooth if
z ′ (t) ̸= 0, a < t < b.
6. Piecewise Smooth Arc or Contour. An arc
consisting of a finite number of smooth arcs joined end
to end is called a piecewise smooth arc or a contour.
6. Piecewise Smooth Arc or Contour. An arc
consisting of a finite number of smooth arcs joined end
to end is called a piecewise smooth arc or a contour.
When the initial and the final values of the contour are
the same, the contour is called simple closed contour (or
simple closed curve).
7. Length of a differentiable curve. Let
C : z(t) = x(t) + iy(t), a ≤ t ≤ b,
be a differentiable curve (arc). Then the length L of the

curve C is given by
Z b
L= |z ′ (t)| dt.
a
Contour Integrals
Contour Integrals
Let f (z) be piecewise continuous function on the curve
C : z(t) = x(t) + iy(t), a ≤ t ≤ b. Then, the integral
Z
f (z) dz,
C
is called the counter integral (or line integral) of f along

C (or over C). The integral can be calculated in terms
of the parameter t as
Z Z b
f (z) dz = f (z(t))z ′ (t) dt.
C a
Properties of Contour Integrals
1. Let C : z = z(t), a ≤ t ≤ b be a curve, then
Z Z
|f (z(t))z ′ (t)| dt.

f (z) dz ≤

C C
Z Z
|f (z(t))z ′ (t)| dt.

f (z) dz ≤

C C
2. For a constant z0
Z Z
z0 f (z) dz = z0 f (z) dz.
C C
Z Z
|f (z(t))z ′ (t)| dt.

f (z) dz ≤

C C
2. For a constant z0
Z Z
z0 f (z) dz = z0 f (z) dz.
C C
R R R
3. C [f (z) ± g(z)] dz = C f (z) dz ± C g(z) dz.
4. If contour C : z = z(t), a ≤ t ≤ b expanded from
z1 (t = a) to z2 (t = b) then the contour −C is expanded
from z2 to z1 i.e., −C : z = z(−t), −b ≤ t ≤ −a and
Z Z
f (z) dz = − f (z) dz.
−C C
5. Let C = C1 ∪ C2 where
C : z = z(t), a ≤ t ≤ b,
C1 : z = z(t), a ≤ t ≤ c,
C2 : z = z(t), c ≤ t ≤ b.
Then,
Z Z Z
f (z) dz = f (z) dz + f (z) dz.
C C1 C2
Question
Evaluate C z+2
R
z dz, where C is the semicircle
iθ
z = 2e , (0 ≤ θ ≤ π).
Question
Evaluate C z+2
R
z dz, where C is the semicircle
iθ
z = 2e , (0 ≤ θ ≤ π).
Sol. We have (by converting into parametric form)
Z Z π iθ
z+2 2e + 2
dz = iθ
2ieiθ dθ
C z 0 Z 2e
π
= 2i (eiθ + 1) dθ
0
= −4 + 2πi.
Question
R
Evaluate C f (z) dz, where
(
1 when y < 0,
f (z) =
4y when y > 0,
and C is the arc from z = −1 − i to z = 1 + i along the

curve y = x3 .
Question
R
Evaluate C f (z) dz, where
(
1 when y < 0,
f (z) =
4y when y > 0,
and C is the arc from z = −1 − i to z = 1 + i along the

curve y = x3 .
Sol. Take C = C1 ∪ C2 where C1 is the arc from
z = −1 − i to z = 0 along the curve y = x3 and C2 is
the arc from z = 0 to z = 1 + i along the curve y = x3 .
Then, we have (by converting into parametric form)
Z Z Z
f (z) dz = f (z) dz + f (z) dz
C C1 C2
Z 0 Z 1
2
= 1(1 + 3ix ) dx + 4x3 (1 + 3ix2 ) dx
−1 0
= 2 + 3i.
Lemma, page 137
If w(t) is a piecewise continuous complex-valued function
defined on interval a ≤ t ≤ b, then
Z b Z b

w(t)dt ≤ |w(t)|dt.

a a
Z b
Proof. If w(t)dt = 0, the inequality is trivial.
a
(Why?)
Z b
a
(Why?)
Z b Z b
If w(t)dt ̸= 0, then assume that w(t)dt = r0 eiθ0 .
a a
Z b
a
(Why?)
Z b Z b
a a
This gives
Z b
r0 = e−iθ0 w(t)dt
a
Z b Z b
−iθ0
= Re e w(t)dt = Re[e−iθ0 w(t)]dt
a a
Z b
a
(Why?)
Z b Z b
a a
This gives
Z b
r0 = e−iθ0 w(t)dt
a
Z b Z b
−iθ0
= Re e w(t)dt = Re[e−iθ0 w(t)]dt
a a
Observe that
Re[e−iθ0 w(t)] ≤ |e−iθ0 w(t)| = |e−iθ0 ||w(t)| = |w(t)|
Observe that
Re[e−iθ0 w(t)] ≤ |e−iθ0 w(t)| = |e−iθ0 ||w(t)| = |w(t)|
Thus Z b
r0 ≤ |w(t)|dt.
a
This completes the proof.
M L-inequality
M L-inequality
Theorem
Let C be a contour of length L and f (z) is piecewise
continuous on C. If
|f (z)| ≤ M,
for all points z on C. Then

Z

f (z) dz ≤ M L.

C
Proof
Let z = z(t), a ≤ t ≤ b be the parametric representation
of C, then
Z Z b
f (z) dz = f (z(t))z ′ (t) dt,
C a
which gives
Z Z b
′

f (z) dz = f (z(t))z (t) dt

C a
Z b
≤ |f (z(t))||z ′ (t)| dt
a
Z b
≤M |z ′ (t)| dt = M L.
a
Question
Without evaluating the integral, show that
Z
dz π
z2 − 1 ≤ 3 ,

C
where C is the arc of the circle |z| = 2 from z = 2 to

z = 2i that lies in the first quadrant.
Question
Without evaluating the integral, show that
Z
dz π
z2 − 1 ≤ 3 ,

C
where C is the arc of the circle |z| = 2 from z = 2 to

z = 2i that lies in the first quadrant.
Sol. We have
|z 2 − 1| ≥ |z|2 − 1 = 3,
and so
1 1 1
|f (z)| = 2 = ≤ .
z − 1 |z 2 − 1| 3
Also L = π. Hence, by M L-inequality, we get the result.
Question
1 Let C be the arc of the circle |z| = 2 from z = 2 to

z = 2i that lies in the first quadrant. Then show
that Z
z − 2 4π
z 4 + 1 ≤ 15 .
dz

C
2 Let CR denote the semicircle z = Reiθ , 0 ≤ θ ≤ π
from z = R to z = −R, where R > 3. Then show
that Z
(z + 1)dz
lim = 0.
R→0 C (z 2 + 4)(z 2 + 9)
R
Question
Let C be the boundary of the triangle with vertices
0, 3i, −4 oriented with counterclockwise direction. Show
that Z
(ez − z̄) dz ≤ 60.

C
Question
Let C be the boundary of the triangle with vertices
0, 3i, −4 oriented with counterclockwise direction. Show
that Z
(ez − z̄) dz ≤ 60.

C
Sol. We have
L = Perimeter of the triangle = 12.
Also
|f (z)| = |ez − z̄| ≤ |ez | + |z̄| ≤ 1 + 4 = 5.
Hence, by M L-inequality, we get the result.
Antiderivative
Antiderivative
Let f (z) be a continuous function in a domain D. If

there exists a function F (z) such that
F ′ (z) = f (z) for all z ∈ D,
then F (z) is called an antiderivative of f (z) in D.
Antiderivative


Example
z3
F (z) = 3 is antiderivative of f (z) = z 2 .
Antiderivative


Example
3
F (z) = z3 is antiderivative of f (z) = z 2 .
F (z) = sin z is antiderivative of f (z) = cos z.
Antiderivative


Example
3
F (z) = z3 is antiderivative of f (z) = z 2 .
F (z) = sin z is antiderivative of f (z) = cos z.
Remark
An antiderivative of a given function f is an analytic
function.
Remark
An antiderivative of a given function f is an analytic
function.
An antiderivative of a given function is unique
except for an additive constant.
Theorem, Page 141
Suppose that a function f (z) is continuous on a domain
D. Then the following statements are equivalent:
Theorem, Page 141
f (z) has an antiderivative F (z) throughout D.
Theorem, Page 141
The integrals of f (z) along contours lying entirely
in D and expanding from any fixed point z1 to
another fixed point z2 all have same value i.e.,
Z z2
f (z) dz = F (z2 ) − F (z1 ).
z1
Theorem, Page 141
The integrals of f (z) along contours lying entirely
in D and expanding from any fixed point z1 to
another fixed point z2 all have same value i.e.,
Z z2
f (z) dz = F (z2 ) − F (z1 ).
z1
The integral of f (z) around closed contours lying

entirely in D all have value zero.
Question
R i/2
Evaluate i eπz dz.
Question
R i/2
Evaluate i eπz dz.
Sol. Note that f (z) = eπz has an antiderivative
πz
F (z) = eπ . Therefore,
i/2 i/2
eπz
Z
πz
e dz =
i π i
1 iπ/2
h
iπ
i
= e −e
π
1+i
= .
π
Cauchy-Goursat Theorem
Cauchy-Goursat Theorem
Theorem
If a function f is analytic at all points interior to and on
a simple closed contour C, then
Z
f (z) dz = 0.
C
Example
If C is any simple closed contour, in either direction, then
Z
2
ez dz = 0,
C
2
because the function ez is analytic everywhere (in
particular analytic in and on C).
Questions
2
Evaluate C f (z) dz, where f (z) = ze−z and
R
1
C : |z| = 1.
Questions
2
R
1
C : |z| = 1.
Ans. 0.
Questions
2
R
1
C : |z| = 1.
Ans. 0.
2
Evaluate C f (z) dz, where f (z) = z z−3
sin z
R
2 and
C : |z| = 2.
Questions
2
R
1
C : |z| = 1.
Ans. 0.
2
Evaluate C f (z) dz, where f (z) = z z−3
sin z
R
2 and
C : |z| = 2.
Ans. 0.
Converse of CGT
The converse of Cauchy-Goursat theorem is not
true, i.e., if for a closed contour C
Z
f (z) dz = 0,
C
then f (z) may not necessarily be analytic in C.
Converse of CGT
The converse of Cauchy-Goursat theorem is not
true, i.e., if for a closed contour C
Z
f (z) dz = 0,
C
then f (z) may not necessarily be analytic in C.
Example
Z
1
2
dz = 0,
|z|=1 z
1
but z2 is not analytic in C.
Morera’s Theorem
Morera’s Theorem
Morera’s Theorem(Page 169)

If a function f is continuous in a domain D and if for
every closed contour C lying in D,
Z
f (z) dz = 0,
C
then f is analytic in D.
Simply Connected Domain

A domain D is said to be simply connected if every
simple closed contour within it encloses only points of D.

Example
The disk |z − z0 | ≤ R.

Example
The disk |z − z0 | ≤ R.
The interior of a rectangle (boundary include or
not).
Multiply Connected Domain

A domain which is not simply connected is called
multiple connected.

A domain which is not simply connected is called
multiple connected.
Examples
Figure: Domain 1
Examples
Figure: Domain 1 Figure: Domain 2
Examples
Figure: Domain 3
Examples

Cauchy-Goursat Theorem for a
Cauchy-Goursat Theorem for a
Theorem
If f is analytic throughout a simply connected domain
D, then Z
f (z) dz = 0,
C
for every closed contour C in D.
Cauchy-Goursat theorem
for multiply connected domain
Suppose that
1 C is a simple closed contour described in the
counterclockwise direction,
Suppose that
2 Ck (k = 1, 2, . . . , n) are finite number of simple
closed contours interior to C described in the
counterclockwise direction, that are disjoint and
whose interiors have no point in common.
Suppose that
2 Ck (k = 1, 2, . . . , n) are finite number of simple
closed contours interior to C described in the
counterclockwise direction, that are disjoint and
whose interiors have no point in common.
If f is analytic in and on C except the points interior to
Ck . Then,
Z Xn Z
f (z) dz = f (z) dz.
C k=1 Ck
Corollary
Let C1 and C2 denote positively oriented simple closed
contours, where C1 is interior to C2 . If a function f is
analytic in the closed region consisting of those contours
and all points between them, then
Z Z
f (z) dz = f (z) dz.
C1 C2
Cauchy-Integral Formula
Let f be analytic everywhere in and on a simple closed
contour C, taken in the positive sense. If z0 be any point
interior to C, then
Z
1 f (z)dz
f (z0 ) = .
2πi C z − z0
Cauchy-Integral Formula
Let f be analytic everywhere in and on a simple closed
contour C, taken in the positive sense. If z0 be any point
interior to C, then
Z
1 f (z)dz
f (z0 ) = .
2πi C z − z0
An extension of the Cauchy’s integral formula is

Z
(n) n! f (z)dz
f (z0 ) = (n = 1, 2, . . .).
2πi C (z − z0 )n+1
Question
Let C denote the positively oriented boundary of the

square whose sides lie along the lines x = ±1 and
y = ±1. Evaluate the following integral:
Z
cos z
2
dz.
C z(z + 8)
Sol. We have
cos z/(z 2 + 8)
Z Z
cos z
dz = dz.
C z(z 2 + 8) C z
Here f (z) = cos z/(z 2 + 8) is analytic in and on C,

therefore by using Cauchy-integral formula
cos z/(z 2 + 8)
Z
dz = 2πif (0) = πi/4.
C z
Question
dz
R
Evaluate C z 2 +4 where C : |z − i| = 2.
Question
Evaluate C z 2dz+4 where C : |z − i| = 2.

R
Sol. We have
Z Z
dz 1/(z + 2i)
2
= dz·
C z +4 C z − 2i
Here f (z) = 1/(z + 2i) is analytic in and on C, therefore

by using Cauchy-integral formula
Z
1/(z + 2i)
dz = 2πif (2i) = π/2.
C z − 2i
Question
dz
R
Evaluate C (z 2 +4)2 where C : |z − i| = 2.
Question
Evaluate C (z 2dz
R
+4)2 where C : |z − i| = 2.
Sol. We have
1/(z + 2i)2
Z Z
dz
2 2
= 2
dz·
C (z + 4) C (z − 2i)
Here f (z) = 1/(z + 2i)2 is analytic in and on C,

therefore by using Cauchy-integral formula
1/(z + 2i)2
Z
2
dz = 2πif ′ (2i) = π/16.
C (z − 2i)
Question
Let C be any simple closed contour, described the
positive sense in the z-plane and write
z 3 + 2z
Z
g(z0 ) = 3
dz·
C (z − z0 )
Show that
g(z0 ) = 6πiz0 ,
when z0 is inside C and that
g(z0 ) = 0,
when z0 is outside C.
Sol. When z0 is inside C, the given integral is of the form
Z
f (z)
g(z0 ) = 3
dz,
C (z − z0 )
where f (z) = z 3 + 2z is analytic in and on C.
Sol. When z0 is inside C, the given integral is of the form
Z
f (z)
g(z0 ) = 3
dz,
C (z − z0 )
where f (z) = z 3 + 2z is analytic in and on C.

Therefore, the Cauchy-integral formula gives
z 3 + 2z
Z
2πi ′′
g(z0 ) = 3
dz = f (z0 ) = 6πiz0 .
C (z − z0 ) 2!
3
z +2z
When z0 is outside C, the integrand (z−z 0)
3 is analytic in
and on C and therefore, the Cauchy-Goursat theorem

gives
z 3 + 2z
Z
g(z0 ) = 3
dz = 0.
C (z − z0 )
Question
Show that if f is analytic within and on a simple closed
contour C and z0 is not on C, then
f ′ (z)
Z Z
f (z)
dz = 2
dz·
C z − z0 C (z − z0 )
Question
f ′ (z)
Z Z
f (z)
dz = 2
dz·
C z − z0 C (z − z0 )
Sol. Consider two cases:
Question
f ′ (z)
Z Z
f (z)
dz = 2
dz·
C z − z0 C (z − z0 )

Case I. z0 lies inside C. In this case evaluate both sides
(which will be equal to 2πif ′ (z0 )) using Cauchy-integral
formula.
Question
f ′ (z)
Z Z
f (z)
dz = 2
dz·
C z − z0 C (z − z0 )

Case I. z0 lies inside C. In this case evaluate both sides
(which will be equal to 2πif ′ (z0 )) using Cauchy-integral
formula.
Case II. z0 lies outside C. In this case both sides are
zero using Cauchy-Goursat theorem.
The Derivative of an
Analytic Function
Analytic Function
Theorem 1(Page 168)

The derivative of an analytic function is also analytic i.e.,
Analytic Function
Theorem 1(Page 168)

The derivative of an analytic function is also analytic i.e.,
If f is analytic at a given point, then its derivatives of all
orders are analytic there too.
Cauchy’s Inequality
Cauchy’s Inequality(Page 169)

If f is analytic in and on CR : |z − z0 | = R and
|f (z)| ≤ MR on CR , then
n!MR
|f (n) (z0 )| ≤ , n = 1, 2, . . . .
Rn
Cauchy’s Inequality(Page 169)

If f is analytic in and on CR : |z − z0 | = R and
|f (z)| ≤ MR on CR , then
n!MR
|f (n) (z0 )| ≤ , n = 1, 2, . . . .
Rn
Proof. Use Cauchy’s integral formula.
Question
Let f be entire function such that |f (z)| ≤ A|z| for all
z, where A is a fixed positive number. Show that
f (z) = a1 z, where a1 is a complex constant.
Question
Sol. Let CR be the circle |z − z0 | = R, then we have
Z
2! f (z)
f ′′ (z0 ) = dz,
2πi CR (z − z0 )3
Question
Sol. Let CR be the circle |z − z0 | = R, then we have
Z
2! f (z)
f ′′ (z0 ) = dz,
2πi CR (z − z0 )3
which gives
Z
1 f (z)
|f ′′ (z0 )| =

3
dz
πi CR (z − z0 )
Z
1 f (z)
= dz
π CR (z − z0 )3
Now we try to apply M L inequality to estimate the
integral on the right. Let z be a point on CR ,
|f (z)| ≤ A|z| = A|z − z0 + z0 |

≤ A(|z − z0 | + |z0 |) = A(R + |z0 |)
Thus for all z on CR ,

f (z) A(R + |z0 |)
(z − z0 )3 ≤ .

R3
The length of CR , L = 2πR.

|f (z)| ≤ A|z|
≤ A(|z − z0 | + |z0 |) = A(R + |z0 |)

f (z) A(R + |z0 |)
(z − z0 )3 ≤ .

R3

|f (z)| ≤ A|z| = A|z − z0 + z0 |

≤ A(|z − z0 | + |z0 |) = A(R + |z0 |)
|f (z)| ≤ A|z| = A|z − z0 + z0 |

≤ A(|z − z0 | + |z0 |) = A(R + |z0 |)

f (z) A(R + |z0 |)
(z − z0 )3 ≤ .

R3
|f (z)| ≤ A|z| = A|z − z0 + z0 |

≤ A(|z − z0 | + |z0 |) = A(R + |z0 |)

f (z) A(R + |z0 |)
(z − z0 )3 ≤ .

R3
Therefore by M L inequality:
Z
′′ 1 f (z) 2A(R + |z0 |)
|f (z0 )| ≤ dz ≤ .
π CR (z − z0 )3 R2
Z
′′ 1 f (z) 2A(R + |z0 |)
|f (z0 )| ≤ dz ≤ .
π CR (z − z0 )3 R2
Since f is entire so we can take the circle of large radius

(R → ∞) which gives f ′′ (z0 ) = 0.
Z
′′ 1 f (z) 2A(R + |z0 |)
|f (z0 )| ≤ dz ≤ .
π CR (z − z0 )3 R2

(R → ∞) which gives f ′′ (z0 ) = 0. Since z0 is an
arbitrary point, so we must have f ′′ (z) = 0 for all z and
hence f (z) = a1 z + b.
Z
′′ 1 f (z) 2A(R + |z0 |)
|f (z0 )| ≤ dz ≤ .
π CR (z − z0 )3 R2

(R → ∞) which gives f ′′ (z0 ) = 0. Since z0 is an
arbitrary point, so we must have f ′′ (z) = 0 for all z and
hence f (z) = a1 z + b. Now |f (z)| ≤ A|z| gives f (0) = 0
and so b = 0. Hence f (z) = a1 z.
Liouville’s Theorem
A bounded entire function is a constant.
Proof. Take n = 1 in Cauchy’s inequality.
Example
Show that sin z is unbounded.
Example
Show that sin z is unbounded.
Sol. We know that sin z is entire. If it is bounded then
by Liouville’s theorem it must be a constant. Thus, we
get a contradiction and hence sin z is unbounded.
Question
Suppose f (z) is entire and u(x, y) ≤ u0 for all points

(x, y) in xy-plane. Show that u(x, y) must be a constant
throughout the xy-plane.
Question
Suppose f (z) is entire and u(x, y) ≤ u0 for all points

(x, y) in xy-plane. Show that u(x, y) must be a constant
throughout the xy-plane.
Sol. Since f is entire so ef is also entire. Now
|ef | = |eu+iv | = |eu | ≤ eu0 .
Therefore using Liouville’s theorem ef is a constant

throughout the plane and so f is a constant throughout
the plane. Hence, u is a constant throughout the plane.
Question
Suppose f (z) is entire and that v(x, y) = Im[f (z)] > 0.

Show that f (z) must be a constant throughout the
plane.
Question
Suppose f (z) is entire and that v(x, y) = Im[f (z)] > 0.

Show that f (z) must be a constant throughout the
plane.
Sol. Since f is entire so eif is also entire. Now
|eif | = |eiu−v | = |e−v | ≤ 1.
Therefore using Liouville’s theorem eif is a constant

throughout the plane and so f is a constant throughout
the plane.
Fundamental Theorem of Algebra
Fundamental Theorem of Algebra
Any polynomial
P (z) = a0 + a1 z + · · · + an z n , (1)
of degree n ≥ 1 has at least one zero. That is, there

exists at least one point z0 such that P (z0 ) = 0.
Corollary: P (z) given by Equation of (1) can be written
as
P (z) = c(z − z1 )(z − z2 ) . . . (z − zn ),
where c and zk (k = 1, 2, . . .) are complex constants.
Exercise I
Z
z+1 π π
1 Show that 4 3
dz = − + i, where C is
C z + 2iz 4 2
the circle |z| = 1, in a positive direction.
Z
2 Use Cauchy’s integral formula to evaluate (z)2 dz,
C
where C is the circle with center at z = 1 and
radius 1 in positive direction.
3 Without using Cauchy-GoursatZ theorem for multiply
1
connected domain, show that 2
dz = πi,
C z(z + 1)
where C : |z + i| = 23 .
Exercise II
Z
3z + 1
4 Show that 2
dz = −πi, where C is the
C z(z − 2)
following contour
5 Show that if f is entire and |f (z)| ≤ A + B|z|α for

all z, for some fixed constants A, B and
0 ≤ α < 1, then f (z) is a constant.
Exercise III
6 Show that if f is entire and |f ′ (z)| ≤ |z| for all z,
then f is of the form a + bz 2 with |b| ≤ 1/2.
7 Suppose f and g are entire functions such that
|f (z)| ≤ |g(z)| for all z. Prove or disprove whether
f (z) = kg(z) for some constant k.
8 Show that if c is a complex number and f is entire
function such that |f (z) − c| > M > 0 for all z,
then f (z) is a constant.
9 Let f be an entire function and suppose that there
is constant M, and R > 0, and an integer n ≥ 1
such that |f (z)| ≤ M |z|n for |z| > R. Show that f
is a polynomial of degree at most n.
Exercise IV
10 Let f (z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) be an entire function

such that au + bv ≥ ln(ab), a > 1, b > 1. Then
Z
f (z)
evaluate 2021
dz, where C is an equilateral
C (z − 1)
triangle of side 1 with centroid at z = 1.

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MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II)

Let w(t) = u(t) + iv(t) be a complex valued function of

w′ (t) = u′ (t) + iv ′ (t),

provided each of the derivatives u′ (t) and v ′ (t) exists at

If f is a continuous function on the closed interval [a, b],

If f is a continuous function on the closed interval [a, b],

Remark The mean value theorem does not hold for

f (b) − f (a) e2πi − e0

1. Curve. A set of points

z(t) = x(t) + iy(t),

where x(t) and y(t) are continuous functions of a real

1. Curve. A set of points

z(t) = x(t) + iy(t),

where x(t) and y(t) are continuous functions of a real

C : z(t) = x(t) + iy(t) or x = x(t), y = y(t).

C : z(t) = x(t) + iy(t), a ≤ t ≤ b,

C : z(t) = x(t) + iy(t),

is simple if z(t1 ) ̸= z(t2 ) whenever t1 ̸= t2 .

C : z(t) = x(t) + iy(t),

is simple if z(t1 ) ̸= z(t2 ) whenever t1 ̸= t2 .

4. Simple Closed Curve or Jordan Curve. When the

z(t) = x(t) + iy(t), a ≤ t ≤ b,

is said to be differentiable if x′ (t) and y ′ (t) exist and

z(t) = x(t) + iy(t), a ≤ t ≤ b,

is said to be differentiable if x′ (t) and y ′ (t) exist and

z(t) = x(t) + iy(t), a ≤ t ≤ b,

is said to be differentiable if x′ (t) and y ′ (t) exist and

C : z(t) = x(t) + iy(t), a ≤ t ≤ b,

be a differentiable curve (arc). Then the length L of the

is called the counter integral (or line integral) of f along

and C is the arc from z = −1 − i to z = 1 + i along the

and C is the arc from z = −1 − i to z = 1 + i along the

Re[e−iθ0 w(t)] ≤ |e−iθ0 w(t)| = |e−iθ0 ||w(t)| = |w(t)|

Re[e−iθ0 w(t)] ≤ |e−iθ0 w(t)| = |e−iθ0 ||w(t)| = |w(t)|

for all points z on C. Then

where C is the arc of the circle |z| = 2 from z = 2 to

where C is the arc of the circle |z| = 2 from z = 2 to

1 Let C be the arc of the circle |z| = 2 from z = 2 to

Let f (z) be a continuous function in a domain D. If

F ′ (z) = f (z) for all z ∈ D,

then F (z) is called an antiderivative of f (z) in D.

Let f (z) be a continuous function in a domain D. If

F ′ (z) = f (z) for all z ∈ D,

then F (z) is called an antiderivative of f (z) in D.

Let f (z) be a continuous function in a domain D. If

F ′ (z) = f (z) for all z ∈ D,

then F (z) is called an antiderivative of f (z) in D.

Let f (z) be a continuous function in a domain D. If

F ′ (z) = f (z) for all z ∈ D,

then F (z) is called an antiderivative of f (z) in D.

The integral of f (z) around closed contours lying

then f (z) may not necessarily be analytic in C.

then f (z) may not necessarily be analytic in C.

Morera’s Theorem(Page 169)

Simply Connected Domain

Simply Connected Domain

Simply Connected Domain

Multiply Connected Domain

Multiply Connected Domain

Figure: Domain 1 Figure: Domain 2

Figure: Domain 1 Figure: Domain 2

Figure: Domain 1 Figure: Domain 2

Figure: Domain 3 Figure: Domain 4

An extension of the Cauchy’s integral formula is