Module 7

MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II)
Gaurav Dwivedi
Department of Mathematics
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus.
Module-7
Review of Complex Numbers
Text Book
J.W. Brown, R.V.

Churchill, Complex
Variables and Applica-
tions, Eighth edition,
Mcgraw -Hill )
Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) May 10, 2023 3/1
Complex Number
Complex Number
A complex number z is any number of the form
z = x + iy,√where x and y are real numbers and i is the
symbol for −1. i is called imaginary unit and it has the
property i2 = −1. The set of all complex numbers will be
denoted by C.
Real and Imaginary part of z

In z = x + iy,
x ia called real part of z and is denoted by Re z,
y is called imaginary part of z and is denoted by
Im z.
Algebra of Complex Numbers
Addition of Complex Numbers

For two complex numbers z1 = x1 + iy1 and
z2 = x2 + iy2 , we define
z1 + z2 = (x1 + iy1 ) + (x2 + iy2 )

= (x1 + x2 ) + i(y1 + y2 ).
Subtraction of two complex numbers is defined in the

same way i.e.,
z1 − z2 = (x1 − x2 ) + i(y1 − y2 ).
Multiplication of Complex Numbers

z2 = x2 + iy2 , we have
z1 z2 = (x1 + iy1 ).(x2 + iy2 )

= (x1 x2 − y1 y2 ) + i(x1 y2 + x2 y1 ).
The set C forms a vector space over C(i.e., scalars

are allowed to be complex numbers) with respect to
these operations.
Division of Complex Numbers

z2 = x2 + iy2 ̸= 0, we have
z1 x1 + iy1
=
z2 x2 + iy2
x1 + iy1 x2 − iy2
= .
x2 + iy2 x2 − iy2
x1 x2 + y1 y2 x2 y1 − x1 y2
= + i .
x22 + y22 x22 + y22
Properties
Identity Elements
The complex number 0 = 0 + i0 is the identity
element with respect to addition i.e.,
z + 0 = 0 + z = z.
The complex number 1 = 1 + i0 is the identity

element with respect to multiplication i.e.,
z.1 = 1.z = z.
Properties
Inverse Elements
The complex number −z is the inverse of z with
respect to addition i.e.,
z + (−z) = (−z) + z = 0.
The complex number z1 is the inverse of z (̸= 0)

with respect to multiplication i.e.,
1 1
z. = .z = 1.
z z
Properties
Commutative Law
Complex numbers z1 and z2 satisfy commutative laws
with respect to addition and multiplication i.e.,
z1 + z2 = z2 + z1 ,
z1 z2 = z2 z1 .
Associative Law
Complex numbers z1 , z2 and z3 follow associative laws
with respect to addition and multiplication i.e.,
(z1 + z2 ) + z3 = z1 + (z2 + z3 ),
(z1 z2 )z3 = z1 (z2 z3 ).
Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) May 10, 2023 10 / 1
Properties
Distributive Law
Complex numbers z1 , z2 and z3 follow left and right
distributive laws i.e.,
z1 (z2 + z3 ) = z1 z2 + z1 z3 ,
(z1 + z2 )z3 = z1 z3 + z2 z3 .
Complex Plane
Complex Plane
The complex plane is a geometric representation of the
complex numbers established by the real axis and the
imaginary axis.
It can be thought of as a modified Cartesian plane, with
the real part of a complex number represented by a
displacement along the x-axis, and the imaginary part by
a displacement along the y-axis.
Some Uses of Compex numbers
For some details about Schrodinger’s equation, you can

refer to this link.
Why complex numbers are essential in quantum physics.
Figure: Complex Plane or z-Plane
Modulus of a Complex Number
Modulus of a Complex Number
Let z = x + iy be a complex number, then
p
|z| = x2 + y 2 ,
is called the modulus or absolute value of z.

Geometrically |z| is the distance of the point z from the
origin and so |z| ≥ 0 for all z.
Example
p
Let z = −3 + 4i, then |z| = (−3)2 + (4)2 = 5. Thus
the point z is 5 units apart from the origin.
Y
y
P z = (x+ iy)
q
x X
O
Remark
Two complex numbers are incomparable unless they are
equal i.e., z1 > z2 (z1 < z2 ) is meaningless. However, we
can compare their absolute values.
|z1 | > |z2 | means that the point z1 is farther from

the origin than the point z2 .
|z1 − z2 | is the distance between z1 and z2 .
1
z2
Properties of Moduli
For any two complex numbers z1 , z2 , we have

|z1 z2 | = |z1 ||z2 |.

z1 |z1 |
z2 |z2 | , z2 ̸= 0.
=
Complex Conjugates
Complex Conjugate
Let z = x + iy be a complex number, then z = x − iy is
called the complex conjugate or simply the conjugate of
z.
Properties of Complex Conjugate
z = z.
|z| = |z|.
zz = |z|2 .
z1 ± z2 = z1 ± z2 .
z1 z2 = z1 z2 .

z1 z1
= , z2 ̸= 0.
z2 z2
Properties of Complex Conjugate
z+z
z + z = 2x ⇒ x = .
2
z−z
z − z = 2iy ⇒ y = .
2i
z is real iff z = z.
iz = iz = −iz.
Re(iz) = − Im(z) and Im(iz) = Re(z).
z1 z2 = 0 ⇔ z1 = 0 or z2 = 0.
Triangle Inequalities
|z1 ± z2 | ≤ |z1 | + |z2 |.
|z1 ± z2 | ≥ |z1 | − |z2 |.
|z1 ± z2 | ≥ ||z1 | − |z2 ||.

Exercise: If z ∈ C is such that |z| = 2, find an upper
bound for

−1

z 4 + 3z 2 + 2
Exponential Form
Exponential Form of a Complex Number
Let z = x + iy ̸= 0 be a complex number. On
substituting
x = r cos θ and y = r sin θ,
z = r(cos θ + i sin θ) = reiθ is called the polar form of

complex number z.
r = |z|.
θ represent the angle the vector representing z
makes from positive x-axis.
Argument
Argument of a Complex Number
The directed angle θ measured from the positive x-axis
to the vector representing z is called the argument of z,
and we write θ = arg z.
The numeric value of θ is measured in radians and

is positive if measured counterclockwise.
For z = 0, θ is undefined.
θ has an infinite number of possible values, that
differ by integer multiples of 2π. Each value of θ is
called argument of z.
Principal Argument
Principal Argument of a Complex Number

When θ is such that −π < θ ≤ π, then such value of θ is
called principal value of arg z, and is denoted by
Θ = Arg z, if −π < θ ≤ π.
arg z = Arg z + 2nπ, n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . ..

If z1 = r1 eiθ1 and z2 = r2 eiθ2 then z1 = z2 iff
r1 = r2 and θ1 = θ2 + 2nπ, n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . .
Example
√
Let z = −1 + 3i, then Arg z =? and arg z =?
Sol. Let
√
z = −1 +
3i = r(cos θ + i sin θ),
√
which gives r cos θ = −1 and r sin θ = 3.
On squaring
√ and adding: r = 2 and on dividing:
tan θ = − 3 so Θ = Arg z = 2π/3.
Now
arg z = Arg z + 2nπ
= 2π/3 + 2nπ, n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . . .
Example
Let z = −2i, then Arg z =? and arg z =?
Sol. Let
z = −2i = r(cos θ + i sin θ),
which gives r cos θ = 0 and r sin θ = −2.
On squaring and adding: r = 2 and on dividing:
tan θ = −∞ so Θ = Arg z = −π/2.
Now
arg z = Arg z + 2nπ

= −π/2 + 2nπ, n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . . .
Product and Powers
Let z1 = r1 eiθ1 and z2 = r2 eiθ2 be any two complex

numbers in polar from, then
z1 z2 = (r1 eiθ1 )(r2 eiθ2 ) = r1 r2 ei(θ1 +θ2 ) .
z1 r1 eiθ1 r1 i(θ1 −θ2 )
= = e
z2 r2 eiθ2 r2
arg(z1 z2 ) = arg z1 + arg z2

z1
arg = arg z1 − arg z2 .
z2
Product and Powers
For z = reiθ , we have
z n = (reiθ )n = rn einθ , n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . .. In
particular if r = 1, then
z n = (eiθ )n = einθ ,
which gives
(cos θ + i sin θ)n = cos nθ + i sin nθ.
This identity is called de Moivre’s formula.

1 1 1 −iθ
z = reiθ = r e .
Root of a Complex Number
For z0 ̸= 0, there exist n values of z which satisfy
z n = z0 .
Let z = reiθ and z0 = r0 eiθ0 then z n = z0 gives

rn einθ = r0 eiθ0 ,
which gives
rn = r0 and nθ = θ0 + 2kπ, k ∈ Z.
or
θ0 + 2kπ
r = (r0 )1/n and θ = , k ∈ Z.
n
Root of a Complex Number
Note that the distinct values of θ are given by

θ0 + 2kπ
θ= , k = 0, 1, . . . , n − 1,
n
and so
θ0 +2kπ
ck = (r0 )1/n ei( n ) , k = 0, 1, . . . , n − 1.
ck are called the n-th roots of z0 .
Principal Root
Principal Root
If θ0 is the principal value of arg z0 , for k = 0, the
solution of the equation z n = z0 given by
θ0
c0 = (r0 )1/n ei n ,
is called the principal root.
Questions
In each question, find all of the roots and exhibit them

as vertices of certain regular polygons, and identify the
principal root:
√ 1 √
1 (1 − 3i) · (Ans. ± √3−i
2
2
)
1 √ √ √
2 (8) 6 . (Ans. ± 2, ± 1+√23i , ± 1−√23i )
Equation of a Circle
Let C be a circle with center z0 and radius ρ. Then such
a circle C can be represented by C : |z − z0 | = ρ.
C
z0 ÷ z - z 0÷ = r
Interior of a Circle
Consequently, the inequality
|z − z0 | < ρ, (1)
holds for every z inside C i.e., Eq. (??) represents the

interior of C.
r
z0
C
37
Neighborhood of a Point
Neighborhood of a Point
The set of all points
{z : |z − z0 | < ρ},
is called a ρ neighborhood (nbd) of z0 and we denote it

by Nρ (z0 ).
Thus a ρ-nbd of a point z0 is the interior of the circle
centred at z0 and radius ρ.
Deleted Neighborhood
Deleted Neighborhood
The set
{z : 0 < |z − z0 | < ρ},
is called deleted ρ-nbd of z0 . It consists of all points z in
a ρ-nbd of z0 , except the point z0 itself.
Interior Point
Interior Point
A point z0 is called an interior point of a set S if there
exists a ρ-nbd Nρ (z0 ) of z0 that contained in S i.e.,
z0 ∈ Nρ (z0 ) ⊆ S.
Exterior Point
Exterior Point
A point z0 is called an exterior point of a set S if there
exists a ρ-nbd Nρ (z0 ) of z0 that contains no point of S
i.e.,
Nρ (z0 ) ∩ S = ϕ.
Boundary Point
Boundary Point
A point z0 which is neither an interior nor an exterior
point of a set S is called a boundary point of S. Thus a
point z0 is called a boundary point for the set S if its
every ρ-nbd of z0 contains both interior and exterior
points of S.
The set of all boundary points of the set S is called the
boundary of S.
Open Set
Open Set
A set S is said to be open if all of its points are interior
points of S i.e., S is open if it contains none of its
boundary points.
Open
Examples
Examples
Closed Set
Closed Set
A set S is closed if it contains all of its boundary points.
Closed
Closure of a Set
Closure of a Set
Closure of a set S is the set consisting of all points of S
together with the boundary of S.
Examples
If S = {z : |z| < 1}, then Cl(S) = {z : |z| ≤ 1}.
If S = {z : 0 < |z| ≤ 1}, then

Cl(S) = {z : 0 ≤ |z| ≤ 1}.
Connected Set
Connected Set
A set S is said to be connected if any two points in S can
be joined by a polygonal line, consisting a finite number
of line segments joined end to end, that lies entirely in S.
Connected Set
Connected Set
z1 · ·
·
z2 · ·
Connected
Remark As per the definition the circle |z| = 1 is not
connected.
Q. 5, Page - 33
Is the set S = {z : |z| < 1} ∪ {z : |z − 2| < 1}
connected?
z2 z1
0 1 2
Domain and Bounded Set
Domain
An open connected set is called a domain.
Bounded Set
A set S is called bounded if all of its points lie within a
circle (probably sufficiently large radius), otherwise it is
unbounded.
Q. 1,2,3(a), Page - 34 Sketch
S = {z : |z − 2 + i| ≤ 1} and determine whether (i) it is
a domain or not (ii) it is bounded or not (iii) it is open,
closed or neither.
Sol. We have
|z − 2 + i| ≤ 1
⇒|x + iy − 2 + i| ≤ 1
⇒(x − 2)2 + (y + 1)2 ≤ 1
Thus S contains the interior and boundary points of the
circle with center (2, −1) and radius 1. Therefore
S is not a domain (as it includes boundary points).
S is bounded (Why ?).
Q. 1,2,3(b), Page - 34
Sketch S = {z : |2z + 3| > 4} and determine whether (i)
it is a domain or not (ii) it is bounded or not (iii) it is
open, closed or neither.
Sol. We have
|2z + 3| > 4
⇒|2x + 3 + i2y| > 4
2
3
⇒ x+ + y 2 > 4.
2
Thus S contains the exterior points of the circle with

center (−3/2, 0) and radius 2.
Therefore
S is a domain.
S is unbounded (Why ?).
S
(-3/2, 0)
Example

Sketch S = z : z+1

< 1 and determine whether it is
z−1
a domain or not. Also determine whether it is bounded
or not.
Sol.
|z + 1| < |z − 1|
⇒|z + 1|2 < |z − 1|2
⇒|(x + 1) + iy|2 < |(x − 1) + iy|2
⇒(x + 1)2 + y 2 < (x − 1)2 + y 2
⇒x < 0.
Thus S is the left half complex plane.
Example
Therefore
S is a domain.
S is unbounded.
S
Exercises
Classify the following sets as open, closed, neither open

nor closed, connected, bounded? Also find their closure.
1 {z ∈ C : Im(z) = 1}
2 {z ∈ C\{0} : 0 ≤ arg(z) ≤ π4 }
3 {z ∈ C : |z − 4| ≥ |z|}
4 {z ∈ C : | Re(z)| < |z|}
5 {z ∈ C\{0} : −π < arg(z) < π}
6 {z ∈ C : Re(1/z) ≤ 12 }

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MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II)

J.W. Brown, R.V.

Real and Imaginary part of z

Addition of Complex Numbers

z1 + z2 = (x1 + iy1 ) + (x2 + iy2 )

Subtraction of two complex numbers is defined in the

Multiplication of Complex Numbers

z1 z2 = (x1 + iy1 ).(x2 + iy2 )

The set C forms a vector space over C(i.e., scalars

Division of Complex Numbers

The complex number 1 = 1 + i0 is the identity

The complex number z1 is the inverse of z (̸= 0)

For some details about Schrodinger’s equation, you can

is called the modulus or absolute value of z.

|z1 | > |z2 | means that the point z1 is farther from

For any two complex numbers z1 , z2 , we have

Re(iz) = − Im(z) and Im(iz) = Re(z).

|z1 ± z2 | ≤ |z1 | + |z2 |.

|z1 ± z2 | ≥ |z1 | − |z2 |.

|z1 ± z2 | ≥ ||z1 | − |z2 ||.

x = r cos θ and y = r sin θ,

z = r(cos θ + i sin θ) = reiθ is called the polar form of

The numeric value of θ is measured in radians and

Principal Argument of a Complex Number

arg z = Arg z + 2nπ, n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . ..

arg z = Arg z + 2nπ

Let z1 = r1 eiθ1 and z2 = r2 eiθ2 be any two complex

(cos θ + i sin θ)n = cos nθ + i sin nθ.

This identity is called de Moivre’s formula.

Let z = reiθ and z0 = r0 eiθ0 then z n = z0 gives

Note that the distinct values of θ are given by

ck are called the n-th roots of z0 .

is called the principal root.

In each question, find all of the roots and exhibit them

holds for every z inside C i.e., Eq. (??) represents the

is called a ρ neighborhood (nbd) of z0 and we denote it

If S = {z : 0 < |z| ≤ 1}, then

S is bounded (Why ?).

Thus S contains the exterior points of the circle with

Classify the following sets as open, closed, neither open

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