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1. Which functions may nouns fulfil? What about noun clauses?

Nouns can be:
z Subjects
z Direct Objects
z Indirect Object
z Objects of prepositions [Prepositional Complement]
z Object complements
z Predicate nouns [Subject Complement]
z Appositives

Noun clauses can fulfil all the same functions.

2. Which is one of the problems that the words introducing noun clauses may pose?
The subordinating conjunctions that noun clauses usually begin with can also be triggers for
adjectives clauses (relative clauses) and adverb clauses as well.
Those subordinating conjunctions are: how, that, what, whatever, when, where, which,
whichever, who, whom, whomever, whose and why. (There may be more)
z The “shared” ones between nominal clauses and relative clauses =
WHO; THAT; WHICH; WHOSE; WHOM
z The “shared” ones between nominal clauses, relative clauses and adverbial clauses =
WHEN, WHERE, WHY

3. Which principle can help us to identify noun clauses and their function?
We need to look at how the clause functions in the sentence.
z Relative clauses can’t be replaced by nouns because they follow nouns.
z Relative clauses are post-modifiers and adverbial clauses are always adverbials.

4. Identify noun clauses, state their function and substitute them by nouns.

[Whatever looked good at the market] became Bruno’s dinner.

Subject: Milanesas

Many fans believed [that the Packers would be in the Super Bowl.]
Direct Object: the rumour

The DJ gave the tickets to [whomever showed up first.]

Object of preposition: the first people to arrive

[What the people didn’t know] was [that the dictator was arresting his opponents.]
Subject: The unknown information Subject complement: the arrest of the dictator’s opponents.
 ( )
THAT CLAUSES
15.3 Extraposition:
Extraposition is preferred when:
Y The superordinate [MAIN] clause is interrogative.
Is it possible [that you left your watch here?]
Y The superordinate [MAIN] clause is passive.
It was thought [that you had left your watch here.]
Y The object that-clause co-occurs with an Object Complement.
Their daughter’s success makes it very likely [that they will appear on TV.]

Extraposition is obligatory when:

Y The superordinate [MAIN] clause is exclamatory.
It’s amazing [that we are leaving early on Friday!]

Omission of THAT:
Whenever the subject of a ‘THAT’ clause is moved to initial position, the subordinator ‘THAT’ must be
suppressed.
✘Who did she hope that would be the winner?
✔Who did she hope would be the winner?
Who is the subject of “would be the winner”, that is to say it is the subject inside the ‘THAT’ nominal
clause.

It may be suppressed when the ‘THAT’ clause is direct object, complement, or extraposed.

But ‘THAT’ cannot be omitted:

YIn a subject clause.
(We say subject clause to refer to the position of the THAT nominal clause.)
[That you don’t know Russian] is a pity.
Y In a non-restrictive appositive clause.
Your criticism, [that no account….], is fully justified.
Y To clarify whether an adverbial belongs to the superordinate clause or the THAT clause.
They told us once again [that the situation was serious.] ≠ They told us [that once again the situation was
serious.]
Y To prevent a coordinated ‘THAT’ clause from being misinterpreted as a coordinated main
clause.
I realize that I’m in charge and [that everybody accepts my leadership] ≠ I realize [that I’m in charge], and
everybody accepts my leadership
Y When the object THAT-clause is fronted.
[That she ever said such a thing] I simply don’t believe.
Y When a clause or long phrase intervenes between the verb and the THAT-clause.
We decided, in view of his special circumstances, [that we would admit him for a probationary period.]
In which of the following sentences must you suppress THAT?
A- Who do you expect [that they have chosen?] ✔
B- She told me how she thought [that the machine worked.] ✔
C- They mentioned the name of the men who they knew [that you had spoken to.] ✔
D- They mentioned the name of the men who they knew [that had spoken to her.] ✘
E- Who do you think [that has phoned?] ✘
In sentence D WHO is the subject.
Who they knew had spoken to her = they knew somebody (WHO) had spoken to her.
In sentence E ‘WHO’ is the subject and it was moved to initial position. Therefore ‘THAT’ must be
suppressed.

When that seems to be replacing the subject we should omit it.

WH-INTERROGATIVE CLAUSES
1. Why do these subordinate clauses resemble wh-questions (semantically and grammatically)?
Subordinate clauses resemble wh-questions semantically in that they leave a gap of
unknown information, represented by the wh-element.
I know [that] Caroline will be there.
Do you know who will be there?
Grammatically they’re similar in the way they both place the wh-element first. And in the case
of a prepositional phrase, we have the same choices as for the wh-element in wh-questions
(preposition before wh-element or at the end of the sentence).
I asked them on what they based their predictions. <Formal>
I asked them what they based their predictions on.

2. Why is it said that infinitive wh-clauses have an ‘OBLIGATIONAL’ sense?

Because to infinitive wh-clauses if paraphrased as finite ones require the presence of a modal.
I don’t remember [how to do it] = I don’t remember [how I SHOULD do it.]

3. Do these clauses usually have subject-operator inversion? When may this inversion occur?
It is not usual for these clauses to have subject-operator inversion (S-OP INV. is the question-
like order of elements) but it may occur when:
z The clause functions as complement and the superordinate [MAIN] verb is a form of the
verb be, or when it functions as appositive.
The problem is who can we get to replace her.
Your original question, why did he not attend the party, hasn’t yet been answered.

z The wh-element is subject complement or adverbial (in literary style).

She told us how strong was her motivation to engage in research.
It took me some time to discover in which village stood the memorial to our fallen comrades.
Yes-no and alternative interrogative clauses
1.
1. How is the yes-no clause introduced?
By the subordinators whether or if.
Do you know whether/if the banks are open?
d

2. How are alternative clauses formed?

With the correlatives whether…or/ if…or.
I can’t find out whether/if the flight has been delayed or whether/if it has been cancelled.
d

3. When is the subordinator repeated in alternative clauses?

1. Only when the second unit is a full clause:
I asked them if they wanted meat of fish  here it’s not repeated since fish is not a full
clause.
d

2. It can (may) also be repeated with to-infinitive clauses:

He didn’t tell us whether to wait for him or (whether) to go on without him.
d

3. But it cannot be repeated if the second clause is abbreviated by the omission of ‘to’:
He didn’t tell us whether to wait for him or go on without him.

2. Explain why ‘if’ is syntactically more restricted than ‘whether’?

IF cannot introduce:
YA subject clause:
[Whether he likes the food is not clear to me.]
d

YA to-infinitive clause:
[I don’t know whether to see my doctor today.]
d

YAn appositive clause:

[You have to answer my question, whether you’re coming or not, in order to RSVP.]
d

YA clause functioning as Cs (subj. compl. which is the same as predicative):

[My main problem is whether you’re coming to the party or not.]
d

YA clause functioning as prepositional complement:

[It all depends on whether to visit my friends today or the following week.]
d

YAnd it cannot be followed directly by or not:

[He didn’t say whether if or not he’ll be staying here.]

But or not can be postposed:

[He didn’t say if he’ll be staying here or not.]
Exclamative clauses
1. Which is the function of ‘what’ and which is the function of ‘how’ in exclamative clauses?
‘What’ is a predeterminer in a noun phrase and ‘how’ is an intensifier of an adjective, adverb or
a clause. The exclamative element is positioned initially regardless of its normal position in a
declarative clause.
2

2. [You can’t imagine what problems I have with my neighbours.] This sentence may be ambiguous
between exclamatory and interrogative interpretations.
1. Create a co-text to disambiguate it.
You can’t imagine the terrible problems I have with my neighbours.
You can’t imagine the kinds of problem I have with my neighbours.
2

2. Would it still be ambiguous if the noun problems were in the singular? Explain.
You can’t imagine what problem I have with my neighbours.
It would be interpreted as an interrogative clause since it would be talking about one
particular problem, therefore it would be ‘inviting’ the reader to wonder what is that one
problem about, or what kind of problem. Grammatically speaking, ambiguity
disappears because of the presence or absence of the indefinite article. If the
determiner is present we have an exclamative clause.

15.6 NOTE Ambiguity

L They didn’t know what a crime he had committed.
Exclamatory interpretation  it was a very serious crime.
L They didn’t know what crime he had committed.
Interrogatory interpretation  they didn’t know the type of crime.
L They didn’t know what crimes he had committed.
Ambiguous interpretation  it was a very serious crime or they didn’t know the type of crime.

Nominal relative clauses

1.
A- Why do these clauses resemble wh-interrogative clauses?
Nominal relative clauses resemble wh-interrogative clauses in that they are also
introduced by a wh-element.
2

B- Why are they different?

They are different because they have no gap for information. They are also more like
noun phrases in that they can refer to concrete entities as well as abstract entities.
2

2. It is said these clauses can be analysed as noun phrases modified by relative clauses,
A- Why is this so?
Because we may replace the wh-element by a noun followed by a relative pronoun
introducing a relative clause. (The wh-element it’s merged with its antecedent)
2

B- What does the wh-element stand for?

The wh-element stands for the noun phrase and its relative pronoun. It may be a
pronoun, a determiner or an adverb.
Whoever did that should admit it frankly.
[the person/ who did that] ≠ [noun phrase + relative clause]
2
 3. Are there to-infinitive nominal relative clauses? Which functions are they restricted to?
To-infinitive clauses may be nominal relative clauses, but they seem to be restricted to the
functions of subject complement and prepositional complement.
Subject complement: That’s where to go for your next holiday. […‘the place to go…’]
Prepositional complement: The book is on how to use a computer. […‘the way to use…’]

4. Which meanings may the wh-element express?

The wh-element may express either a SPECIFIC MEANING (where the -ever suffix isn’t allowed) or
a NONSPECIFIC MEANING (generally indicated by the presence of the suffix -ever).
Specific meaning: May is when she takes her last examination. […the time when she takes…]
Nonspecific meaning: I’ll send whatever is necessary. […anything that is necessary.]

5. Provide your own example of a sentence in which a subordinate clause may be ambiguous
between a nominal relative and an interrogative interpretation.
L What she wrote was a mystery.
Relative interpretation  she wrote a mystery story.
Interrogatory interpretation I don’t know what she wrote.

15.8 NOTE Ambiguity

Do you remember when we got lost?
Relative interpretation: Do you remember the exact time when we got lost?
Interrogative interpretation: I don’t remember when we got lost.

To-infinitive clauses
1. How is the subject of a to-infinitive clause introduced?
With a preceding ‘for’.

2. Which case is used if the subject is a pronoun?

Y If the subject is a pronoun that distinguishes between subjective and objective cases, the
objective case is used:
For your country to be neutral in this conflict is out of the question.
It is out of the question for your country to be neutral in this conflict.

When the clause is a direct object ‘for’ is generally absent before the subject:
He likes for everyone to relax.
2

3. 2 Which other types of nominal to-infinitive clauses are there?

Other types of nominal to-infinitive causes are included in wh-interrogative clauses, yes-no
and alternative interrogative clauses, and nominal relative clauses.
-Ing clauses
1. Which case is used if the clause has a pronominal subject? [PRONOMINAL=PRONOUN]

Y The genitive case [‘s] is preferred when:

K The subject is a pronoun;
K The noun phrase has a personal reference;
K The style is formal;
K The subject is initial in the sentence.
I object to his/Jeremy’s receiving an invitation.

It is avoided when the noun phrase is lengthy and requires a group genitive:
Do you remember the students and teachers protesting against the new rule?
Y In a more informal way you would use objective case.
I object to him/Jeremy receiving an invitation.

Bare infinitive clauses

1. Which are the most common functions of nominal bare infinitive clauses?
As subject or subject complement in a pseudo-cleft sentence (or a variant of it), where the
other subordinate clause has the substitute verb DO.
Turn off the tap was all I did.

The ‘to’ of the infinitive is optional when the clause is subject complement.
What the plan does is (to) ensure a fair pension for all.

A bare infinitive clause may function as object complement with few main verbs:
They made her pay for the damage.

It may follow prepositions of exception:

She did everything but make her bed.