Chapter 2

WHAT IS COMMUNICATION?
FOLUKE FATIMAYIN, PhD
School of Education,
National Open University of Nigeria,
Lagos
folukefatimehin@yahoo.com
+234-8033773268,
+234-8059341152
Introduction
Many scholars have tried to give a definitive meaning to communication. In the view of
the Association of Periopoerative Practice, communication originated from the Latin word
communis. Lunenberg (2010) agrees with them that communication has its root in Latin
from the word communis. However, he asserts that it means ‘common’, which suggests
that there must be a common understanding of the message between the source and the
receiver concerning the message being communicated.
The general view of communication is that it is an interaction within a social context.
Communication usually involves a sender (source) and a receiver. It involves the
interlocutors exchanging signals. These signals could be verbal or graphic, it could be
gestural or visual (photographic). In essence, communication involves using codes that are
done with the eyes, body movement or sounds made with the voice. Whichever way it is
done, there is always a process in which someone initiates a meaning intent that is passed
to the interlocutor (receiver). Daniel (2016) asserts that it is when feedback, which
involves the receiver responding to the signal by initiating another circle of meaning
exchange, has been sent to the sender (source) that the communication process has gone
full circle and become complete.
Giffin & Patten (1976) also state that communication is the process of creating meaning as
well as ascribing it. It is the exchange of ideas and interaction among group members. The
Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English (2004) defines communication
as the activity or process of expressing ideas and feelings or of giving people information.
One can safely say that communication is the act of transferring information and messages
from one place to another and from one person to another. In a related manner, the Online
Business Dictionary describes communication as a two way process. It involves
participants reaching a mutual understanding beyond merely encoding and decoding
information, news, ideas and feelings. It is important that they also create and share the
meaning content in the messages passed (see Daniel, 2013). In addition to this,
communication is also seen as a means of connecting people or places. It is also regarded
as an important key function of management because an organization cannot operate
without communication between levels, departments and employees (Online Business
Dictionary, 2010; Okenimpkpe, 2010).
Again, communication can be defined as a field of study concerned with the transmission
of information and broadcasting. It can involve any of the various professions, which have
to do with the transmission of information such as advertising, public relations,
broadcasting and journalism. The foregoing shows that communication is something
human beings do every day in different ways and through different means. That is, the
modern man communicates through different methods like speaking, using telephones,
blogging, television, art, hand and body gestures and facial expressions. This can happen
in closed intimate settings or over long distances. An example is the internet. The acts of
communication draw on a number of inter and intra-personal skills like observing,
speaking, questioning, analyzing and assimilating. It enables collaboration and
cooperation.
Above all, language is the basic level of communication between one human being and
another. It is the means by which we pass on our ideas, feelings, knowledge and requests.
Awoniyi (1982) affirms that without communication there would be chaos. He adds that
human existence and civilization as we know today would disappear without
communication. He further claims that there are at least five important elements of the
communicative process. This is shown in Table 2.1 below.
Table 2.1: Elements of communication

Sender Mes Medium Medium Receiver

(Encode sag of of (Decoder)
r) e Transmis Receipt
sion

Daniel (2016), following NOUN (2004), elaborates on how these elements of

communication interact to make communication happen. The process requires the sender
to encode message, through a medium of transmission, which the receiver receives and
decodes through the medium of receipt. In essence, the sender must encode the message
(i.e. the information being conveyed) into a form that is appropriate to the communication
channel and the receiver(s) decode the message in order to understand the meaning content
of the message. The goal of communication si for the reciver to understand the message
sent. This is explained as the ability to categorize sender’s intent, understand the message
sent and act upon it (Merriam-Webster Dictionary).
Human and Non- Human Communication
At this juncture, it is necessary to state that there is human and non-human
communication. Human communication may be classified as verbal, non-verbal, written
and other forms of electronic communication. Non-human communication includes animal
communication, communication among plants and fungi and bacteria quorum sensing.
Based on the foregoing, possible answers to the question- “What is communication?” may
be: the transmission, exchange of thoughts, messages or information through the medium
of speech, signals, signs, writing or behaviour. It can also be said to be the art and
technique of using words effectively to impart information or ideas. In simple terms,
communication means speaking to or with some other person near or far away,
either face-to-face through speech, telephone calls or text messages, body language,
signs and so on. It can be done by both human and non-human beings. However, it is
important to note that non-humans do not speak but are likely to communicate through
signals or symbolic behaviour. The essential point to observe here is that non-humans
communicate too.

Categories of Communication
Related to the above are various categories of communication. Of these categories, more
than one may occur at a given time. For example, if you are with a group of close friends
having a general conversation, you can at the same time be carrying on another tacit, non-
verbal or sign communication with someone of your choice, which others in the group
may not be aware of. Whatever the category or channel of communication, understanding
is the desired outcome or goal of any communication act. Senders and receivers are very
important in the communication process. There are many ways by which communication
can take place as well as many skills one can employ in the process of communication.
Another example is that a parent can communicate displeasure to a child over their
behaviour in the midst of people by sign language without breaking the flow of
conversation and without others being aware. These signs include frowning, clearing of
the throat or stepping on the child’s toes. This is very common among Nigerians as it is
said that a well trained child does not mis-interpret the sign language from the parent(s).
Of course, sign language here should not be confused with that used by those unable to
use vocal symbols to communicate; it usually means body language.
In addition to time tested traditional ones, another known medium of communication is
the internet, which has led to an explosion of information and communication possibilities.
It is noteworthy that whatever the category, level or channel, the communication process
must be complete as shown in Fig 2.1 below.
Fig.2.1 Communication process, verbal and non-verbal communications.
Source: 3.bp.blogspot.com
Fig 2.1 above shows that one can safely conclude that communication is carried out, to
not only pass on information but ultimately to get a feedback. Feedback is very important
in the communication process as it distinguishes communication form from information.
When there is feedback, the communication process is complete, making it meaningful
(cf. Daniel, 2016).
Oluwanisola (n.d.) states that it is the end result of an idea and makes communication
continuous. He further asserts that on decoding, after the dissemination of message, the
decoder is expected to give a response, whether verbal or non-verbal. This is because
feedback enables one to evaluate the effectiveness of the message sent. For example,
teaching is a form of communication and getting feedback in a classroom situation is
important for maintaining rapport, clarifying grey areas, knowing students weak/strong
points and ascertaining if the lesson is understood. Oluwanisola argues that feedback
could be instantaneous as in the case of verbal conversation, it could be relayed in formal
communication via letters and memo. It can also be in written or oral form or even both at
once. It could be in form of body language, gesture or paralanguage. He itemizes seven
points to show the importance of feedback in communication (in either formal or informal
setting). These are:

 It completes the process of communication and makes it continuous

 It sustains communication process
 It makes one know if one is really communicating or making sense
 It is the basis for measuring the effectiveness of communication
 It is good basis for planning on what next is to be done
 Communication will be useless without feedback
 Feedback paves the way for new idea generation.
He concludes by maintaining that feedback is the livewire of communication.
Why Do We Communicate?
People communicate to satisfy the needs for belonging, to be heard and be appreciated.
People communicate to keep in touch with and connect with others such as friends, family,
colleagues and business partners. In short, people communicate to socialize. The human
being is a social animal living and operating in a community peopled by other human
beings with whom they are in constant touch. The human is able to socialize because of its
ability to communicate. In addition, people communicate in order to get things done or
make their intentions and feelings known. Above all, people communicate with specific
purposes in mind.
There are four basic purposes of communication. Almost all of these purposes are better
served through verbal communication than other options like email or print messages.
Communication can be used to convey information. This can be done verbally or through
text based media to pass information such as time of meeting or policy statements from an
organisation’s administration to its employees.
Communication can be used to ask for help, which verbally triggers empathy. Like other
verbal communications, verbal requests mean a request can be stated clearly without any
misunderstanding. It can also be used to influence listener or audience, as used by
politicians; the most important aspect of which are the words used as these are the things
that would influence audience. It can include non-verbal cues like dressing and
appearance. It can also be useful for entertainment. This is manifest in the ability of
comedians in the country who make their living from live shows where they can readily
interact with their audience. This cannot be adequately done in text-based communication.
Types and Levels of Communication
There are many types and varieties of communication, depending on the medium used or
the way in which information is exchanged. For example, communication can be done
through the internet, telephone mobile phones), speaking, singing, dancing, sign language,
touch and eye contact, body language and even the way one dresses. All these inform the
types of communication that exist. Teaching is also a type of communication because a
teacher passes information to students through channels such as face-to-face in the class,
by means of speech, visual aids and experiments, through written notes, on the internet
which could be through Skype, video conferencing or blogging. In addition, there is
human (verbal, non-verbal, business or written) and non-human (occurring among
animals, plants and fungi, and bacteria) communication. Generally, the following are the
types of communication.
Verbal communication: This, as the name implies, is communicating using words. This
includes sounds, words, language and speaking. Speaking is an effective way of
communicating: it is classified into interpersonal communication and public speaking
(Aarti, 2011). Interpersonal communication occurs when one person speaks directly to
another. Here, communication would be informal: one can say what one really feels,
though this is bound by the social norms guiding the sender and the receiver. Public
speaking occurs when one person speaks to a large group. In this case, communication is
formal; rule bound and centred more on the speaker getting some kind of result. In all of
these, speakers may want to entertain, inform, persuade or argue. Verbal communication
can also be referred to as oral or spoken. It can make use of visual aids and non-verbal
elements to facilitate meaning and enhance rapport and achieve high level of
understanding by removing ambiguity and garnering immediate feedback.
Non-verbal communication: Non-verbal communication is the process of conveying
meaning in the form of non-word messages. It covers all information, messages and ideas
we convey without using words; making use of physical communication such as tone of
voice, touch, smell and body motion. Non-verbal communication includes music, dance,
painting, drama and sculpture. Symbols and sign language are also included (cf. Daniel,
2016). This is because body language, facial expressions, clearing of the throat, physical
contact and dress convey a lot of information. A good example of non-verbal
communication is sign language, which can be used by anyone at anytime. A non-verbal
sign such as bell ringing is a common sign you and I understand. By itself, ringing of a
bell means nothing. However, in recognized contexts, it may mean “time for school”,
“change of lesson”, “is somebody at home”, “end of lesson”, or “second hand goods for
sale.” According to Wilson (1972), not only can almost anything be used as a sign, but
almost every sign can be used to communicate several different things. He explains further
that everything depends on agreement about and understanding of the ways in which we
use signs. To him, the significance of any sign depends on the context in which it is used.
Written communication: This means communicating with other people through written
words. Good written communication is practised in many different languages. Email and
text messages, reports, articles and memos are some of the ways of using written
communication, both for business and personal purposes. An advantage of written
communication is that it can be edited and amended many times before it is finally sent to
the person intended. Writing is a human invention. There are as many legends and stories
on the invention of writing as there are on the origin of language. Legend has it that
Cadmus, the prince of Phoenicia, invented the alphabet and brought it to Greece. Stories
also have it that the early drawings by ancient humans formed the seeds of present day
picture writing. Many such drawings are clearly picture writings in pictograms.
Historically, written communication first emerged through the use of pictograms, which
were made on stone (Yule,2010). Later, writing began to appear on paper, papyrus, clay
and wax. Now, communication is carried on by the transfer of information through
controlled waves and electronic signals. Note that the four language skills (listening,
speaking, reading and writing) are used in communication but writing is the most
complex. Each of these skills is discussed extensively in the subsequent chapters.
Visual communication: This is a visual display of information such as topography,
photography, signs, traffic codes, symbols and designs. Television and video clips are the
electronic form of visual communication (Aarti, 2011).
Intra-personal communication is a level of communication that is general to all types of
communication. It is described by Answers.com as language use or thought that is internal
to the communicator. Daniel (2016) graphically presented this as “communicating with
yourself” (p.32). In essence, talking to yourself is not always about being ‘crazy’ or
‘loony’, she avows. She notes that we do it all the time. To her, it is about tha kind of
information that involves the speaker also being the receiver of the message but which
most of us are not conscious of even doing. As such, when you write a shopping list, you
are engaging in intra-personal communication. In addition, when you daydream or pep-
talk yourself, these can also be classified as intra-personal communication. The additional
types of intra-personal communication that Daniel (2016) identified include soliloquising,
writing in one’s diary, thinking through a problem and scolding oneself for making a
gaffe: all these form part of intra-personal communication, she asserts..
Non-human communication
Non-human communication essentially has to do with the communication that does not
involve human beings. This is usually described as extra communication. It does suggest
that plant and animal communication can be put in this category. In the same vein, cellular
communication among micro-organisms could be described in this manner. One could
safely describe the transfer of chemical reactions among bacteria and fungi as non-human
communication. Even the transfer of viruses as well as the multiplication of cancer cells
could be categorised as this kind of communication. I am certain that it is such
communication that made the Ebola virus travelled so fast and wide and killed many
people along the way during the period it was raging in West Africa recently.
Animal communication can be defined as any behaviour of one animal that affects the
behaviour of other animals within the same environment, either now or at a later time.
Zoosemiotics is the name that has been used to describe scholarship in this category. It is
considered important to the development of the study of animal cognition. Nonetheless,
Martinelli (2010:vii) asserts that there is still “a certain curiosity” which surrounds it. This
attitude is said to manifest in scepticism and ‘exoticism’. This does not remove the fact
that it exists as its fifty years of practice (Martinelli, 2010:vii) appears to affirm.
As noted above, communication is observed within the plant organism. Communication
between plant cells, between plants of the same or related species, and between plants and
non-plant organism also occurs. These are possible because of the apparent decentralised
‘nervous system’ of plants (Witzany, 2006). This shows that plant also communicate with
other plants, especially, when exposed to attack behaviour from plants within their
vicinity. In this way, they are actually warning neighbouring plants of possible danger
around them. It could therefore be said that communication is not an instrument exclusive
for use by only humans, plants and animals, but also available to microorganisms like
bacteria. One may be right to relate this to what happens with viral spread such as when an
infection is shared within the body of a victim of viral of viral attack. You will agree that
such communication may result into the victim’s ailment or, sometimes, even death.
Mass Communication
Daniel (2016) describes mass communication as massive. This is because it is usually
from a single source to a very large group or audience. The message sent out is not limited
to one or two people as with the interpersonal kind of communication. As the name
suggests, its audience is usually a very large group of people. For this reason, such media
as the newspapers, radio, television or the internet are used to pass the message. Simply
then, we can say that mass communication is another means of communicating
information, ideas, and messages through various print or electronic media to a large
number of people.
Nonetheless, we need to also note that mass communication, also refers to a course of
study. For example, in the National Open University of Nigeria, there is a department of
Mass Communication. In the same vein, many institutions of higher learning offer it s a
course. This is the course that is studied and helps to train many media practitioners
around us.
Codes of communication
Lawal (2004,18) affirms that language is comprehensively a communication code, a
signalling or semiotic system. The Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current
English defines code as a system of words, letters, numbers or symbols that represent a
message or records information secretly. Craig (2000) is of the opinion that
communication can be classified according to code, medium or channels through which it
occurs and that language is a primary code(or, in different perspectives, a medium or
channel) of human communication. He asserts further that code refers to the way a sign
system is structured to constitute a particular correlation of signs to meaning. Language is
therefore a primary code as well as a medium and channel of communication.
Human spoken and pictorial languages can be described as a system of symbols. These are
usually set in patterns of communication, which are called grammars. Many languages of
the world make use of patterns of the sound or graphs for symbols, which enable
communication with others around them (cf. Yule,2010; Daniel,2011). Yule (2010)
actually describes sign language in details. And it is obvious that some broadcasting
houses in Nigeria and elsewhere also see that using sign language as a sub-sect of their
news broadcast is an important part of connecting with their audience, no matter their
physical needs. One cannot but agree with them.
Other codes of communication include signs such as traffic codes, kinesics (gesture, facial
expression and body movement), haptics (touch), and paralanguage (vocal pitch,
intonation).
Communication channels
A communication channel, is the term given to the way in which we communicate. Daniel
(2010) describes it as a medium. There are many examples of channels of communication.
These include face-to-face conversations, telephone calls, text messages, email messages,
the internet (which has to do with social media such as Facebook, LinkedIn, Twitter,
Skype, Twoo, Badoo, etc.), radio, television, written letters, brochures and reports. Craig
(2000) explains that channel refers to a selection from a particular array of options for
sending and receiving information while medium refers to a particular configuration of
physical, technological and institutional characteristics that constitute a distinct form of
communication such as face-to-face interaction, commercial television or electronic mail.
The different channels as outlined by Craig include the five senses of vision, hearing,
touch, and the telephone, fax, letter, email, interview and/or a set of different television
channels, the use of which may or may not involve the use of different media and codes
for communication. Other channels of communication include music, dance, drama, art,
signs, oral, visual, Braille, drums (talking drums, djembe, log drum) and names given to
people. Of all known channels of communication, we will talk briefly about the talking
drums and birth names.
Speaking about drums, Sexton (2006:1) asserts that “African talking drums are more than
just a musical instrument; they are the world’s first portable phones.” The types of African
drums used for communication include - the Talking Drum, the Log Drum, the Atumpan,
and the Djembe.
(1). The Talking Drum comes in various types and sizes. It is hour glass shaped, with a
drum at each end. The talking drum is held under the left arm and squeezed as the drum is
hit with a bent stick. They are used for communication in Africa and especially, in
Nigeria. The drums are said to “talk” because of their being able to produce different high
and low sounds which are interpretable by listeners. According to Sexton (2006,1)
“talking drums can be used to approximate the spoken language and under the most ideal
condition, complex dialogues can take place between drummers positioned as much as
twenty miles apart”. Talking drums can be used to mimic the pitch and syllabic structure
of languages. In Nigeria, the Yoruba call it “dundun”, “iyailu” or “gangan” and the Hausa
call it “kalangu.”
Other variations of the talking drum among West African ethnic groups include: “Tama”
(Wolof of Senegal), “Dondo” (Ashanti of central Ghana) and “Lunna” (Dagomba of
northern Ghana). By whatever names they are called, talking drums have the same
hourglass shape as seen in the figures 2.2a,2.2b and 2.2c.
 Fig.2.2a—en.wikipedia.org

Fig2.2b-----www.normans.com

Fig.2.2c----African drums-www.africaimports.com
 (2). Log drums are made by cutting slits in a hollow piece of wood. A certain type of
African log drum used for communication is called a “slit gong”. It is also sometimes
referred to as “message drum”. The question then is: How is this drum constructed.
Essentially, it is constructed by making hollows in a large log through a slit. Through
this, an all-wood instrument is created. This is used to produce two different pitches, one
from each side of the slit. These pitches, which are high and low sounds, can generally
be heard over significant distances. These combinations of the high and low sounds can
then be used to transmit messages. The larger the log, the louder the sound it makes, in
the same vein, the further it can be heard. Fig 2.3 shows what a log drum looks like.

Fig 2.3: folkmusiccenter.com

(3). The Atumpan is a form of talking drum traditional to Ghana. The drum plays a
leading role in a musical ensemble. It is also used to communicate and transmit messages
as the drummer uses the drum head to produce falling or descending pitches through
drum strokes. Figs 2.4a and 2.4b below show examples of this.
 Fig.2.4a

Fig 2.4b:ghanaorigin.com
(4). The Djembe is a large drum with a single skin head stretched over a wooden body
and fastened with ropes. It is believed to have originated from Mali. The drummer plays
the drum, positioned between their legs. Djembe drums are used for communication and
as an accompaniment to dancers or as part of community gatherings, celebrations and
rituals (ehow.com/print/info). Samples of the Djembe are shown in figs 2.5a and 2.5b
below.

Fig. 2,5a
Fig. 2.5b: www.threeworlds.com.au

In Africa, people have used drum telegraphy to communicate with one another for
centuries. Davis (2011) affirms that an African message can be transmitted at the speed of
one hundred miles an hour.
In addition to the above channels and in a very unique manner, Nigerian names
communicate a lot about the bearer or the circumstances of such a person’s birth. African,
and especially Nigerian names, have meaning and children are given names, not only
because it is expected but because there are meanings, wishes, messages attached to them.
Some names are prayers and supplications; some are given to show the kind of lineage the
bearer belongs to, while others indicate the family occupation.
Ajileye (2002) disputing the claims of scholars such as Lyons (1968), Palmer (1976),
Kempson (1977), who all claimed that names are mere labels with no connotations, asserts
that Yoruba names communicate fact about the natural attributes and character of the
bearer. He concludes by insisting that Yoruba names play a significant role in the society.
They have communicative significance about virtue (Iwalewa), religious beliefs
(Olufunmilayo), reincarnation and ancestors (Babatunde, Iyabo), family occupation
(Ayanwale, Agbede), royal lineage (Adenike, Adeoti), and so on. This is also evident
among the Igbos. For example, Chukwudi means “God exists”, Nkechinyere means
“God’s gift” and Chibuike means “God is my strength” while Ndidi means “Patience.”
Ajileye went on to assert that names connote meaning even outside Nigeria. The Hebrew
names Naomi means “sweetness” while Ruth means “companion or friend.” Names
therefore communicate a lot about the bearer.
Communication in the Digital Age
The information and communication technologies have grown tremendously in recent
decades; and they continue to evolve. This revolution has made information readily
available and transferable from one medium to various others. These days, almost
everything is carried out by means of electronic channels. In the digital age, we have the
internet through which communication is fast and sure, such as through email, Skype,
Twitter, Facebook, Badoo, Twoo, Google+, Yahoo, Blogs, chat rooms, and lots more.
The proliferation of mobile phones and smart phones has also made communication
easier, whereby one can use them to speak with people in very distant places, either
through telephone calls or text messages. Craig (2000) posits that technological changes
are reshuffling the levels and functions of communication. Technology has turned the
world into a global village, making communication easier, faster and possible through
many different channels. It is worthy of note that whatever channel one chooses, the four
language skills of listening, speaking, reading and writing are vital and come into use at
one point or another in the process of communication.
The Essence of Communication
Being able to communicate well is the most important of all skills. Every communication
process produces one sort of consequence or the other, whether it is intended consequence
or not. However, it becomes effective when it achieves the purpose it is intended for. To
Daniel (2016), effective communication is the one that lacks any kind of noise in the
communication process. It is effective because the communication process results in what
the communicator wants or intended. It generates the desired effect, serving the purpose
for which it was planned. Some of the purposes may include informing some audience or
moving them to act in a particular way, such as making consumers to buy a company’s
products; it may also be to make clear issues of confusion or make clear a position taken,
as seen in the letter of President Obasanjo to President Buhari in his most recent missive to
his current successor in office.
Communication is the key factor in the success of any relationship and, for this reason,
these elements are important for effective communication. They will help guard against
the communication process being distorted. Some of these include the choice and medium
of communication, clarity of message and choice of words, correctness in rules and
conventions of spelling, and social and cultural appropriateness. Above all, in the opinion
of Westin (2012), since we do not have direct access to other people’s thoughts and
opinions, we must rely on communication to convey messages to us. Such communication
has to be effective and easily understood by all concerned, especially, the participants in
the communication event and process.
Some Impediments to Effective Communication
Effective communication is essential but some factors can hinder it. Effective
communication requires that a number of simple conditions are met. First, Flamand (n.d.)
asserts that speakers should express themselves accurately, clearly and correctly; listen
carefully to one another and decode message correctly. According to Breshears (n.d.),
possible barriers to communication include physical barriers, psychological barriers,
cultural barriers and language barriers. Saxena (2008) lists five impediments to
communicating effectively as unfamiliar language, relationships, bad timing, attitude and
differences such as age, gender, intelligence, and race. There are many more other
impediments as stated by various authors (see Daniel, 2016 for some others).
Nevertheless, the bottom line is to guard against all impediments in order to ensure
effective communication. Once there is any sort of impediment, the communication can no
longer be effective.
Conclusion
There are a plethora of languages used in the world. Even within the same language,
people have different conceptions of the same word. Of all types of communication,
verbal communication allows for the most immediate feedback and clarification of words.
However, no matter the mode, type, channel and style of communication, the important
thing is for a message to be sent through an acceptable channel and for it to be decoded
and understood correctly. It is only after the sender’s intended meaning has been correctly
decoded by the receiver and the expected kind of feedback given that one can boldly say
that the communication process has been effective
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Acknowledgement
This is to acknowledge the additional extensive input made by Daniel, I.O.A.Ph.D. to sections
of this chapter