LESSON 6  According to Louis Leon Thurstone,
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES intelligence is represented neither by “g” nor by
A. MEANING OF INTELLIGENCE
 Intelligence may be defined in terms of:
(a) function - ability to understand things accurately
and quickly. Ability to solve problems.
(b) origin and – nature and nurture controversy; fluid
and crystallized intelligence (Cattel)
(c) structure – e.g. structure of the intellect (Guilford)
Spiritual Intelligence (SQ) – Synchronous Processing, whole brain
Intellectual Intelligence (IQ) – Serial Processing, left brain
Emotional Intelligence (EQ) – Parallel Processing, right brain
B. THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE
1. General – Factor Theory of Intelligence (Spearman’s
g)
 By Charles Spearman
 Also known an Unifactor Theory
 studied whether intelligent behaviors have a
common factor
 The most important element of intelligence is the g
factor, defined as the ability to educe abstract
relationships, Individuals differ in the amount of
“g” they possess.
 g: generalized intelligence – reasoning,
problem-solving
 The meaning of intelligence is synonymous with g.
Specific factors, “s” are unique to each test of
intelligence tests and therefore of lesser value than
“g”.
 s: specific intelligence – specific mental
abilities
 found consistent data to support s, evidence of g
was limited
 Although the s factors are unique to each other,
some of them appear to correlate with each other.
Theses correlated specific factors are called group
factors.
 Spearman identified the two group factors as:
a. verbal ability
b. numerical ability.
2. Multi-Factor Theories of Intelligence
 This theory holds that there are different types of
intelligence. The number of different kinds of
intelligence depends on statistical methods used
to derive the basic abilities, called factors, as well
as on the beliefs of the proponent of the theory.
a. Thorndike’s Position
 Edward Lee Thorndike is considered the “father
of educational psychology” and is the proponent
of the learning theory called “connectionism”.
 Thorndike claimed that mental functions could be
classified into separate types of ability. These
abilities are:
a. Completion (C )
b. Arithmetic (A)
c. Vocabulary (V)
d. Directions (D)
b. Thurstone’s Position
 Influential on intelligence tests
multiple connections, as claimed by Thorndike
but a number of “primary abilities” which are
independent of each other. (thought Spearman
oversimplified the concept, found 9 factors –
primary mental abilities) These primary abilities
are:
a. Number (N)- ability to do calculations
accurately and rapidly (computing
numbers)
b. Verbal (V) – measured by vocabulary and
other verbal test (knowing the meaning of
words)
c. Word Fluency (W)- measured by the
number of words related in some way that
can be produced in a specific period of
time. (thinking of words quickly)
d. Space(S) Visual and Spatial Abilities-
ability to visualize patterns and objects
when they are rotated or when they are
part of a configuration change.
(visualizing forms and spatial
relationships)
e. Memory (M) – ability to memorize rote
material. (recalling information)
f. Reasoning (R) - primarily inductive
reasoning: inferring general rules from
specific examples
Deductive reasoning: deriving examples
from general rules
g. Perceptual Speed (P) – ability to note
visual details rapidly. (grasping perceptual
details rapidly, perceiving similarities and
differences between stimuli)
c. Guilford’s Position
 J.P. Guilford postulated a “structure of intellect”
which is composed of operations, products,
and content.
 developed the idea of specific intelligence
factors into a very detailed model beginning in
the 1950’s
 Operations are basic intellectual processes of
thinking used by individuals. These are:
a. Cognition – discovery, rediscovery,
recognition of information or
understanding
b. Memory – retention or the ability to bring
forth information learned previously
c. Divergent Production – searching for
multiple, creative, or novel solutions to a
problem
d. Convergent Production – searching for
correct solution to a problem
e. Evaluation- placing a value judgment on
knowledge and thought
 Content refers to the type of material or content
on which operations are performed. These are:
 a. Figural – concrete material as perceived
through the senses.
b. Symbolic – letters, digits, and other
conventional signs
c. Semantic – verbal meaning or ideas
d. Behavioral – knowledge regarding other
persons.
 Products refer to the results of performing
operations on content. It indicates the form of
thought produced by the individual.
a. Units- production of a single word,
definition, or isolated bit of information
b. Classes- production of a concept or the
noting of similarities
c. Relations- production of an analogy, an
opposite, or any other form of relationship
d. Systems- production of internally
consistent set of classifications of various
forms or content
e. Transformation- production of change
of meaning, arrangement, or organization.
f. Implications- production of information
beyond the given data
3. Hierarchical Models
 Phillip Vernon attempted to reconcile the different
views on intelligence by proposing a hierarchical
model of intelligence.
 At the top of the hierarchy is the broadest factor
analogous to Spearman’s “g”. The major group
factors constitute the next line of specificity and
include verbal-educational factors and a spatial-
mechanical factor. These factors can be further
subdivided into minor group factors such as verbal
and numerical; and mechanical reasoning, spatial,
and manual abilities.
4. CATTELL’S FLUID AND CRYSTALLIZED
INTELLIGENCE
 Fluid Intelligence - more biological or genetically
determined and consequently non-verbal and culture
free. It changes less over short time periods and is
more affected by brain injury.
 Crystallized Intelligence- develops from the
application of fluid intelligence to a specific or
environment context. It is used more on tasks where
habits become fixed.
5. TRIARCHIC THEORY OF INTELLIGENCE
This theory was developed by Robert Sternberg. The theory
holds that there are three important parts of intelligence: (1)
componential, (2) experiential, and (3) contextual
a. Componential Intelligence - measured by intelligence
tests. People who score high in componential
intelligence may get good grades in school but they
may not be outstanding in thinking of new, original
ideas or in every-day street-smart intelligence.
b. Experiential Intelligence - focuses on how people
perform on tasks with which they have either no
previous experience or great experience. A person with
high experiential intelligence can solve a new problem
easily even with no prior experience. Also, he or she
can figure out how familiar tasks can be performed
more automatically.
c. Contextual Intelligence - intelligence in everyday life-
street smarts. Contextual intelligence requires adapting
to, selecting, and shaping one’s real- world
environment (or context). Part of contextual
intelligence is practical intelligence. This skill involves
knowing the pathway to success in your culture or
environment. Another part of contextual intelligence is
social intelligence: the ability to understand others and
interact successfully with them.
6. GARDNER’S THEORY OF MULTIPLE
INTELLIGENCES
 Gardner’s Theory of is based on his belief that that
the brain has evolved separate systems for different
adaptive abilities, talents, or mental skills that he
calls “intelligences”.
o Logical
o Visual
o Musical
o Intra-Personal
o Inter-Personal
o Kinesthetic
o Naturalistic
o Linguistic
COGNITIVE TESTS
 Cognitive Tests measures mental capacity (intelligence),
aptitude and achievement Tests
A. ACHIEVEMENT TEST
 Achievement tests measure the level of knowledge, skill, or
accomplishment in an area or
endeavor. Achievement tests are designed to measure the
degree of learning that has taken place as a result of
exposure to a relatively defined learning experience.
 The basic function of achievement tests is to determine how
much the learners know about certain topics or how well
they can perform certain skills. Achievement testing
involves the assessment of achieved competence.
 Achievement tests may be standardized nationally,
regionally, locally or it may not be standardized at all.
Teacher-Made Tests
 Designed by teachers to measure achievement of students
in terms of current educational objectives of a certain
school or teacher.
 Tests are designed in accordance with the teacher’s syllabi
or the school’s educational program.
Summative and Formative Evaluation
1. Summative evaluation – calls for administering an
achievement test at the end of a unit or course of study to
determine whether the students have attained the objectives
of instruction.
 2. Formative evaluation – testing and other methods of
assessing educational progress take place continuously
during the process of instruction.
Purposes of Achievement Testing
1. Assessment of Achieved Competence
2. Diagnosis of Strengths and Weaknesses
3. Assignment of Grades
4. Certification and Promotion
5. Advanced Placement and Credit by Examination
6. Curriculum and Program Evaluation
7. Accountability
8. Information for educational policy
B. APTITUDE TEST
 Aptitude is a measure of future performance. The most
important characteristic of an aptitude test is its ability to
predict success prior to instruction or training.
 A person’s aptitudes are assessed for purposes of academic
and career or occupational counseling and placement.
 Aptitude measures are of value only if they correlate highly
with criteria.
 Aptitude measures must have high predictive validity.
 Aptitude tests are called Tests of Special Abilities.
 Examples of Aptitude Tests are the Differential Aptitude
Test (DAT) and the General Aptitude Test Battery (GATB)
Reasons for Using Aptitude Tests
 Selecting Individuals
 Placing individuals
 Feedback
General and Specific Abilities
1. General aptitude- represents a composite of cognitive
abilities that can be used to forecast achievement and other
behaviors in a wide range of situations.
2. Specific aptitude – represents a special or specific ability
that can be enhanced through training.
C. INTELLIGENCE TEST
D. TYPES OF INTELLIGENCE TESTS
1. Group Intelligence Tests
 Intelligence tests that that can be administered to
many examinees at a time.
 Some group intelligence tests are the following:
1. Raven’s Progressive Matrices (RPM)
 The RPM is a nonverbal group test typically used
in educational settings. It is a test used in
measuring abstract reasoning and regarded as a
non-verbal estimate of fluid intelligence. It is the
2. Individual Intelligence Tests
most common and popular test administered to
 Intelligence tests that can be administered only to one
groups ranging from 5-year-olds to the elderly.
The test was originally developed by John C.
Raven in 1936.
a. Wechsler Scales
2. Culture Fair Intelligence Test
 The Culture Fair Intelligence Test (CFIT) was
created by Raymond Cattell in 1949 as an attempt
to measure cognitive abilities devoid of
sociocultural and environmental influences. It is
available in 3 scales: Scale 1 for Children, Scale
2 for “normal” adults and Scale 3 for Superior
Adults.
 It is composed of four subtests: Series,
Classification, Matrices, and Topology
(Conditions)
3. SRA Verbal Form
 The SRA Verbal Test is a test of general ability,
and measures an individual's adaptability and
flexibility in problem solving. Due to its verbal
nature, it was recommended only to be used with
people who are familiar with the English
language. The results could be utilized in
personnel placement or in educational placement.
 The educational interpretation provides 3 scores:
the L score (total linguistics score), the Q score
(quantitative - math), and the T score (total
score).
4. MD-5 (MacKenie Davey & Co.)
 The test was first developed in 1972 and is
described as a test of mental ability for staff
selection and placement at managerial and
supervisory levels. Its prime concern is with the
abilities to deduce relationships and to apply the
rules governing them.
5. Purdue Non-Language Test (PNLT)
 The PNLT aims to measure mental ability. It is an
abstract reasoning test applicable to all and can
be used effectively to people with different
cultural backgrounds.
6. Neo Mental Ability Test
 A measure of verbal mental ability intended
mainly for people who finished high school or
college. It can be used for in the educational
setting such as in placement, counseling and
screening of students. It can also be used in the
selection and placement of personnel in the
industrial setting.
7. Panukat ng Katalinuhang Pilipino (PKP)
 The PKP was developed to measure the mental
ability of Filipinos whose aged 16 and Above.
 The test is intended for use in school, business
and industry as well as other situations where
assessment of intelligence of adult Filipinos is
called for.
 Its subtests are:
a. Talasalitaan (Vocabulary) – measures
ability to deal with words as used in a
sentence.
b. Ugnayan (Analogy) – measures skill in
perceiving relationships.
c. Kakayahan sa Bilang (Numerical Ability)
– measures basic mathematical concepts and
processes in various problem-solving
situation within the sphere of Filipino
experiences.
examinee at a time are the Wechler Scales and the Stanford-
Binet Intelligence Scale.
 David Wechsler designed a series of individual
intelligence tests to measure the intelligence of people
from pre-school through adulthood.
 The test intended for pre-school is called Wechsler
Pre-school and Primary Scale of Intelligence
(WPPSI) which has undergone a series of revision.
Latest edition is the WPPSI III.
  The test intended for elementary and secondary school
students is the Wechsler Intelligence Scale (WISC)
which has also undergone a series of revision. Latest
version is the WISC IV.
 The Wechsler test intend for adults is the Wechsler
Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS). The latest revision is
known as the WAIS-IV.
4. Phenomenological theories – personality is understood by
analyzing the immediate, personal subjective experiences of
a person. Personality is understood based on how the
person responds to the world in terms of his or her unique,
private perception of it.
5. Social Learning Theory- views personality as developed
through observation, modeling and reinforcement.

b. Stanford Binet Intelligence Scale (SBIS) PERSONALITY INVENTORIES

 The SBIS V (latest edition ) was designed to  Self-report inventories consist of questionnaire-type
assess intelligence of examinees as young as 2- statements requiring a limited form of response such as
year old and as old as 85 or older. might be found in true-false or multiple-choice items.
 Psychometric soundness indicate very high  Personality inventories are constructed using three general
reliability (internal consistency & test-retest) as techniques:
well as content and predictive validity. a. Rational technique- refers to the selection of items
 The test is composed of 10 subtests under five (5) that appear to measure some personality traits. This
factors. approach attempts to logically sample items from
some universe of behaviors.
INTERPRETING INTELLIGENCE b. Empirical technique – refers to the construction of
 Results of intelligence tests are interpreted based on a
items that discriminate among various criterion
norm. This norm can be in the form of Deviation IQ (DIQ)
and Percentiles. groups ( e.g. normal, neurotic, psychotic)
 The Wechsler Scale and the SBIS propose similar levels of c. Factor analysis- refers to the selection of items
intelligence but there are slight variations in the based on correlations among the items. This
terminologies. approach is used for both selection of items and
 Generally, in interpreting intelligence, the following may be factor labeling.
used:
 Some popular personality inventories are Minnesota
IQ LEVEL % of Percentile Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI), Edwards
Population Personal Preference Schedule (EPPS) and the 16
130 + Very Superior 2.2 98 & above Personality Factor Test (16 PFT).
120 – Superior 6.7 91 - 97
129
110 – High (Above) 16.1 75 - 90
119 Average 16 F TEST
90 – Average 50.0 25 - 74  Developed by Raymund B. Cattell and company.
109  Based on the Trait theory of Personality.
80 – 99 Low (Below) 16.1 9 – 24  Cattel and his Associates used factor analysis to discover
Average and measure the source traits of human personality. The
70 – 79 Border Line 6.7 2- 8 questionnaire measures 3 response styles, 16 primary
Below Extremely 2.2 Below 2 traits and 5 global factors.
70 Low (Mentally
 The 16PF Test can be used:
Deficient)
a. For vocational guidance to identify occupations
for which the individual is suited for.
b. For personnel selection and career development.
LESSON 7 c. For clinical diagnosis, prognosis and therapy
LEARNER DIFFERENCES: PERSONALITY AND INTEREST planning. The 16PF helps clinicians with a
normal-range measurement of anxiety, adjustment
PERSONALITY
and behavioral problems.
 Personality came from the Greek word “ Persona” which
d. For identification of personality factors that may
means mask.
predict martial compatibility and satisfaction.
 Personality inventories are constructed to measure
e. For identifying students with potential academic,
theoretical beliefs, affective states and perceptions.
emotional, and social problems.
 Personality inventories consist of items concerning
personal characteristics, thoughts, feelings, and behavior.
The 16 Primary Factors
FACTOR LOW STEN HIGH STEN
THEORIES OF PERSONALITY
SCORE(1– 3) SCORE (8 – 10)
1. Type Theories – adhere to the notion that there are fixed
categories of types of people. A. WARMTH Reserved, distant, Outgoing, likes
2. Trait Theories - views personality as consisting of cautious and prefers people, easy going
dynamic organization of traits that determine a person’s working alone and warmhearted
unique adjustment to the environment. B. REASONING Less intelligent, More intelligent,
3. Psychoanalytic theory – believes that personality develops concrete thinker, abstract thinker, fast
through a series of psychosexual stages and that it is a result lower reasoning learner, higher
of the interaction among the three components of ability reasoning ability
personality, the id, ego and super ego. C. EMOTIONAL Emotionally less Emotionally more
STABILITY stable, easily upset, stable, high
 easily frustrated, frustration tension by tension, restless
reactive and easily tolerance, when made to wait
affected by feelings emotionally calm THE EPPS
and relaxed,
proactive  The EPPS was designed for research and counseling
E. DOMINANCE Cooperative, Domineering, purposes to provide convenient measure of 15 relatively
humble, obedient, forceful, bossy and normal personality variables. It consists of 225 pairs of
avoids conflict, stubborn, critical, statements pertaining to individual likes and feelings.
submissive vocal and pushy  The EPPS was based on the theory of Henry Murray on
F. LIVELINESS Restrained, Happy-go-lucky, Manifest Needs.
introspective, cheerful, and lively,
 The EPPS can be administered individually or to a large
serious but expressive,
group and can be manually or machine scored.
sometimes boring, impulsive,
 In the inventory, the personality variables are presented in
less playful attention-seeking
pairs. The respondent is asked to select which between the
G. RULE Non-conforming, Conscientious,
personality variables is more reflective of his preference or
CONSCIOUSNESS disregards rules, hardworking,
choice.
unconventional, persevering and rule
Example:
careless bound, can be
1. A. To be loyal to friends
inflexible and
B. To be treated with kindness
righteous
2. A. To be the leader of a group
G. SOCIAL Shy, socially timid, Adventurous, less B. To accomplish a task requiring skill & effort
BOLDNESS easily intimidated, afraid of social  The test has a scale to measure the consistency of the
may experience situations, responses on preferred personality variables (consistency
“stage fright”. uninhibited and scale)
initiates social  Raw scores are converted into percentile and T-scores.
contact, thick-
skinned.
PERSONALITY INDICATORS
I. SENSITIVITY Tough-minded and Tender-minded and VARIABLE
self-reliant, rough, sensitive, aesthetic,
Achievement (Ach) To do one’s best to be successful; to
no-nonsense, intuitive, subjective
accomplish tasks requiring skill and
objective and more refined in
effort.
tastes
Deference (Def) To get suggestions form others; to
L. VIGILANCE Trusting and Vigilant but
find out what others think; to follow
accepting; expects suspicious and
instructions; to do what is expected.
fair treatment, distrusting;
Order (Ord) To have clear and organized work.
loyalty and good skeptical and feels
Autonomy (Aut) To be able to come and go as
intentions from misunderstood or
desired; to say what one thinks
others taken advantage of.
about things.
M. Practical and Imaginative and
Affiliation (Aff) To be loyal to friends; to form new
ABSTRACTEDNES conventional; absent-minded;
friendships ; to share things with
S down-to-earth, ideas are
friends; to write letters to friends.
grounded impractical
Intraception (Int) To analyze one’s motives and
N. PRIVATENESS Genuine and Discreet and non-
feelings; to absorb and understand
unpretentious, naïve disclosing,
what others feel; to analyze other
and self-revealing personally guarded,
people’s behavior.
shrewd and
polished. Succorance (Suc) To have others provide help when
in trouble; to seek encouragement
Q1. OPENNESS Conservative and Liberal and
from others; to have a great deal of
TO CHANGE traditional; likes experimenting, free-
affection from others; to have
routine and thinking, critical
others feel sorry if one gets sick.
predictable life. and analytical
Dominance (Dom) To argue one’s point of view; to be
Q2. SELF- Group-oriented and Independent-
a group leader; to be elected
RELIANCE dependent; a joiner minded and
chairperson of a committee.
and likes to do resourceful; prefers
things with others to make decisions Abasement (Aba) To feel guilty when one does
on his own and something wrong; to accept blame
individualistic. when things go wrong; to feel the
need for punishment; to feel timid
Q3. Careless of social Perfectionist, does
in the presence of superior.
PERFECTIONISM rules, lax and not leave anything
tolerates disorder; to chance, socially Nurturance (Nur) To help friends who are in trouble;
leaves more things precise, disciplined to treat others with kindness and
to chance; and organized sympathy.
comfortable in Change(Chg) To do new things and different
disorganized things; to travel and meet new
settings. friends; to experience novelty and
Q4. TENSION Cool and relaxed; Irritable and change in daily routine; to
patient and not impatient; driven experience and try new things.
easily affected by and easily affected Endurance (End) To keep a job until finished; to
complete a job undertaken; to work
 hard at a given task. 4 Psychopathic Deviate Shows repeated and flagrant
Heterosexuality (Het) To go out with members of the (Pd) disregard for social custom,
opposite sex; to engage in activities emotional shallowness, and an
with the opposite sex; to listen or in ability to learn from
tell jokes about sex; to be in love punishing experiences.
with someone of the opposite sex. 5 Masculinity- Differentiates between men
Aggression (Agg) To attack contrary point of view; to Femininity and women characteristics.
tell others what one thinks; to (MF)
criticize others publicly; to blame 6 Paranoia Shows abnormal
others when things go wrong; to (Pa) suspiciousness and delusions
read newspaper accounts of of grandeur or persecution
violence. 7 Psychasthenia Shows obsessions,
(Pt) compulsions, abnormal fears,
EPPS INTERPRETATION guilt and indecisiveness.
8 Schizophrenia Shows bizarre or unusual
PERCENTILE INTERPRETATION T Scores (Sc) thoughts or behavior ,
97 & Above VERY HIGH 70 & Above withdrawal and experiences of
85 – 96 HIGH 60 – 69 delusions and hallucinations.
17 – 8 4 AVERAGE 41 – 59 9 Hypomania showing emotional excitement,
4 – 16 LOW 31 – 40 (Ma) overactivity, and flight of
3 & Below VERY LOW 30 & Below ideas.
0 Social Introversion Shows shyness, little interest
MINNESOTA MULTIPHASIC PERSONALITY INVENTORY in people, and insecurity

 Designed to be more suitable for nonclinical as well as

clinical uses.
 The MMPI-2 consists of 567 True-False items that takes
about 90 minutes to complete.
 There are 7 validity scales, 10 clinical scales, 15 content INTEREST AND ATTITTUDE
scales, 12 component scales.
A. INTEREST
Validity Scales (Test-taking Attitude) Meaning of Interest
 An interest is a preference for one activity over another.
SCALE MEANING  Interest involves the selection and ranking of activities along
? (Cannot Say) Number of items left unanswered a like-dislike dimension.
L (Lie) 15 items of overly good self-report, such as “  Interest involves activities of behaviors engaged in by
I smile at everyone I meet .” (True) or “I get
individuals.
angry sometimes.” (False)
F (Frequency or 64 items answered in the scored direction by  Interests are expressed by action verbs such as reading a book
Infrequency) 10% or less of normal such as “There is an or playing musical instruments.
international plot against me.”(True)
K (Correction) 30 items reflecting defensiveness in Types Of Interest
admitting to problems such as “I feel bad 1. Expressed Interest- an individual simply states a
when others criticize me.” (False) preference for one activity over another.
Back-Page Contains items seldom endorsed by test 2. Manifest Interest – an individual voluntarily participates
Infrequency (Fb) takers in an activity.
True Response Designed to determine acquiescence and 3. Inventoried Interest- those that are measured by tests that
Inconsistency non-acquiescence ( 23 items)
(TRIN) compare interests in different activities
Variable Response Designed to identify indiscriminate response
Inconsistency patterns. Reasons for Using Interest Inventories
(VRIN)  Selection
 Placement
Clinical Scales  Career Counseling
 Program Evaluation
CODE SCALE DESCRIPTION
1 Hypochondriasis Indicates abnormal concern EXAMPLES OF STANDARDIZED INTEREST INVENTORIES
(Hs) with bodily functions
1. Strong-Campbell Interest Inventory (SCII)
2 Depression Indicates extreme pessimism,  Measures the following the general occupational
(D) feelings of hopelessness, and themes
slowing of thought and action  Realistic (mechanically-minded, strong)
3 Conversion Hysteria Shows patients using physical  Investigative (scientific, introspective)
(Hy) or mental symptoms as a way
 Artistic (Self-expressive, impulsive)
of unconsciously avoiding
conflicts and responsibilities  Social (sociable, humanistic)
  Enterprising (concern for power, energetic) There are three components of an attitude. These are:
 Conventional (systematic, conforming) 1. Affective- consists of emotional reaction to the attitude
object.
2. Kuder General Interest Survey- measures 10 general interest 2. Behavioral- consists of observable behavior directed
towards the attitude object.
areas
3. Cognitive- is made up of beliefs and thoughts about the
 Outdoor attitude object.
 Mechanical
 Computational
 Scientific
 Persuasive
 Artistic
 Literary
 Musical
 Social Service
 Clerical

B. ATTITUDE

Meaning of Attitude
 A learned predisposition to respond positively or negatively
to an attitude object. An attitude object could be an idea, a
process, group, situation, institution, a specific object or
person.
 A favorable attitude indicates a positive predisposition
towards the attitude object, while an unfavorable attitude
reflects a negative predisposition towards the attitude
object.
 An attitude cannot be directly observed but must be
inferred from overt behavior, both verbal and non-verbal.
 An attitude is most frequently associated with social stimuli
and with emotionally charged responses. It often involves
value judgment.

Characteristics of Attitude
 Attitudes vary in (1) direction, (2) intensity, (3)
pervasiveness, (4) consistency, and (5) salience.
 The direction of an attitude refers to whether an individual
views a class of objects with favor or disfavor. Students
who have a favorable attitude towards school are positively
directed to schooling whereas students who are negatively
directed tend to have an unfavorable attitude and avoid
school.
 The intensity of an attitude refers to the strength of the
predisposition an individual has towards the attitude object.
An individual might have a slightly favorable attitude
towards a school policy whereas another might be strongly
antagonistic .
 The pervasiveness of an attitude refers to the range of the
predisposition towards the attitude object. One person
might strongly dislike one or two aspects of schooling
whereas another might dislike almost everything about
schooling.
 The consistency of the attitude refers to the reliability of the
individual’s predisposition towards the attitude object.
Respondents may claim that all politicians are dishonest but
at the same time agree that a particular politician has few or
no faults.
 The salience of the attitude refers to the degree of
spontaneity or readiness to express an opinion.. Salient
attitudes are those in which the individual places great
importance or about which the person has a great deal of
knowledge.

Components of Attitude
Methods of Measuring Attitudes 'good-bad'. The 'strong-weak' adjective pair defines the potency
factor. Adjective pair 'active-passive' defines the activity factor. 
1. Guttman Scale- developed by Louis Guttman. The scaling
procedure is also known as Scalogram Analysis. The Average Retarded Child is . . .
 The purpose of scalogram analysis is to determine whether
responses to selected items measure a given attitude that Adjective 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Adjective
fall on a single dimension. Nice Awful
 If the statements constitute a true unidimensional Guttman Strong Weak
scale, the respondent who endorses a particular item also
endorses every item having a lower scale value. In other Clean Dirty
words, on a Guttman scale, items are arranged in an order Healthy Sickly
so that an individual who agrees with a particular item also Honest Dishonest
agrees with items of lower rank-order. 
Good Bad
 Scalogram analysis produces a cumulative, ordinal scale.
The extent to which a true scale is obtained is indicated by
the reproducibility coefficient. 3. Likert Scale–developed by Rensis. The Likert Scale is based on a
 An example of the Guttman Scale is the Social Distance Method of Summated Ratings. The Likert Scaling technique
Scale. assigns a scale value to each of five responses. Thus, the instrument
yields a total score for each respondent.
Social Distance Scale - developed by Emory Bogardus (1925)  Statements favoring the attitude object are scored as:
and is one of the earliest types of attitude measurement.
 It determines the social distance that an individual Response Scale Value Reverse Scoring
places between himself and members of various ethnic Strongly Agree (SA) 5 1
or racial groups. Agree (A) 4 2 Undecided(U)
 Bogardus postulated that the greater the amount of 3 3 Disagree(D) 2
social distance created, the less favorable was the 4
attitude toward a specific group. Strongly Disagree(SD) 1 5
 There are 5 categories of acceptance and rejection (0 to
5) presented in serial order. However, differences Example:
between successive categories do not represent equal
amount of social distance. Social distance scales yield Item SD D U A SA
ordinal measurements. 1. Educational psychology is an
NATIONALI Social Distance interesting subject.
TY I am willing to permit a/an… 2. Educational psychology is a
worthwhile and necessary subject
0 1 2 3 4 5
for psychology majors
American 3. I like attending my educational
Chinese psychological class
Russian 4. I feel nervous in my class in
educational psychology
French
assessment. *
British  Reverse Scoring
Spaniard
Vietnamese

Code Social Distance

0 To be a part of my family
through marriage
1 To be part of my group as
personal friend
2 To be a part of my community
as neighbor
3 To be a co-employee in my THINKING
work place
4 To be a citizen of my country
5 To be a visitor in my country
2. Semantic Differential Scale- developed by Osgood, Suci, and
Tanenbaum( 1957). It presents pairs of polar adjectives related to an CREATIVE AND CRITICAL THINKING
attitude object on a 7-point scale. The client is asked to rate the
attitude object on each of these bipolar scales. It is a type of a rating
scale designed to measure the connotative meaning of objects, events,
and concepts. The connotations are used to derive the
attitude towards the given object, event or concept.
 Factor analysis  of large collections of semantic differential
scales yielded three recurring
attitudes that people use to evaluate words and phrases: evaluation,
potency, and activity. Evaluation loads highest on the adjective pair
LESSON 8
CRITICAL and CREATIVE THINKING
 Thinking refers to the purposeful mental manipulation of
words and images.
 Forming concepts, solving problems, decision-making are
processes that reflects thinking.
 CREATIVE THINKING
– do when we generate ideas
– the process we use to develop ideas that are
unique, useful and worthy of further elaboration.
– involves creating something new or original
- involves the skills of flexibility, originality,
fluency, elaboration, brainstorming, modification, imagery,
metaphorical thinking.
 – aims to stimulate curiosity and promote
divergence.
 Characteristics
o Creative people are energetic, but focused
o Smart, but also naïve
o Playful, yet disciplined
o Realistic dreamers
o Extroverted and introverted
o Proud, yet modest
o Not weighed down by rigid gender roles
o Conservative, yet rebellious
o Passionate, but objective about their work
o Sensitive and open to experience, but happy and
joyful
 CRITICAL THINKING – when we judge ideas
 Characteristics
o Strive for understanding
o Are honest with themselves
o Base judgment on evidence
o Are interested in other people’s ideas
o Control their feelings/emotions
o Recognize that extreme views are seldom correct
 LESSON 9
MOTIVATING LEARNERS
NATURE AND MEANING OF MOTIVATION
 Motivation is a condition inside us that desires a change, either
in the self or the environment.
 Motivation is an internal process. Motivation endows the
person with the drive and direction needed to engage with the
environment in an adaptive, open-ended, and problem-solving
sort of way.
 The essence of motivation is energized and persistent goal-
directed behavior. When we are motivated, we move and take
action.
 Motivation is influenced by the satisfaction of needs that are
either necessary for sustaining life or essential for wellbeing
and growth.
MOTIVATION IN LEARNING
 Motivation is a complex part of human psychology that
influences how individuals choose to invest their time, how
much energy they exert in any given task, how they think and
feel about the task, and how long they persist in the task.
 Motivation is reflected in students’ choices of learning tasks,
the time and effort they devote to them, their persistence on
learning tasks, and in coping with the obstacles they encounter
in the learning process
 Learners assign various meanings and attitudes to academic
activities— personal meanings and attitudes that arouse and
direct their energies in different ways. These associated
energizing and directing effects are referred to as motivation or
motivation to learn.
 Motivation is the key to success in the teaching-learning
process. Motivation is what ‘moves’ the learners. It is the
reason why learners do anything at all.
 Major Components of Motivation
o Activation
o Persistence
o Intensity
DIMENSIONS OF STUDENTS’ MOTIVATION
 There are four major dimensions that contribute to students’
motivation. At least one of these dimensions must be satisfied
for a student to be motivated. The more dimensions that are
met, and the more strongly they are met, the greater the
motivation will be.
 The dimensions are:
1. Competence - The student believes he or she has the
ability to complete the task.
2. Control/autonomy - The student feels in control by
seeing a direct link between his or her actions and an
outcome and retains autonomy by having some choice
about whether or how to undertake the task.
3. Interest/value- The student has some interest in the task
or sees the value of completing it.
4. Relatedness- Completing the task brings the student
social rewards, such as a sense of belonging to a
classroom or other desired social group or approval from
a person of social importance to the student.
MAIN TYPES OF MOTIVATIONAL SOURCES
1. Course-specific - the syllabus, teaching material, teaching
method, and learning tasks.
2. Teacher-specific - the teacher’s behavior, personality,
and teaching style.
3. Group-specific- the dynamics of the learner group.
IMPORTANCE OF MOTIVATION IN LEARNING
Learning the motivation of students in education is important. A
learner learns best when he/she recognizes the need and develops the
desire to learn. This is through motivation. Motivation stimulates
learners to think, concentrate, and learn effectively. Bakar
1. Motivation increases the performance of learning. Learning is
an active process requiring a participative role. It influences the
rate of learning, the retention of information, and the desire to
learn.
2. Motivation increases the speed of work that a learner is putting
to achieve a goal. In education, motivation is a factor of high or
low points of the goal. When not well-motivated, a learner
learns very little with difficulty as he/she sees no need to learn.
Therefore, motivation provides the effort and energy that a
learner needs to achieve the task.
3. Motivation is a significantly important factor for academic
learning and achievement across childhood through
adolescence. Inspiring learners to learn is a major concern in
any training situation. Motivation is one of the prime tasks of
teaching. The instructor should ensure that it is built in every
lesson presentation.
4. The motivation of learning activities helps the learner to
concentrate on what he/she is doing, and thereby gain
satisfaction. Continuous motivation is needed to help learners
concentrate on the lessons to be learned. If an individual is
motivated, he/she will exude some form of satisfaction. This
helps in the self- development of the learner.
5. Motivation directs learners’ behavior toward particular goals.
It determines the specific goals toward which learners strive;
thus, it affects the choices students make. For example, whether
to enroll in an art class or science, whether to attend a school
basketball game during the week or complete an assignment
that is due the next day.
6. Motivation increases the initiation and persistence of learning
activities. It increases students' time on task and is also an
important factor affecting their learning and achievement.
7. Motivation enhances cognitive processing. It affects what and
how information is processed, because motivated students are
 more likely to pay attention and try to understand the material
instead of simply going through the motions of learning in a
superficial manner.
8. Motivation determines what consequences are reinforcing and
punishing. For example, students with a high level of
motivation for classroom achievement and high GPAs are
reinforced by receiving a grade of 95 and they'll feel punished
if they receive a grade of 75.
STRATEGIES FOR MOTIVATING THE LEARNER
A. Set Clear Goals
 The learners should be familiar with the aims and
objectives of the subject and topic. Teachers should set
realistic performance goals and help students achieve
them by encouraging them to set their own reasonable
goals.
 Teachers should design assignments that are
appropriately challenging in view of the experience and
aptitude of the class. The teacher should ensure that
learners understand what you are teaching them, and what
they have to know and do, as a result of learning. Provide
simple and clear explanations; ask the students to express
their comments, questions, and ideas; question the
students; provide handon activities as often as possible;
and assessment tasks should be flexible.
 If the students are not aware of the purposes of the lesson,
the students may not have an interest in learning.
. TYPES OF MOTIVATION
A. Intrinsic Motivation
 Stimulus is internal to the person; it can be biological,
emotional, spiritual, or social and there are no external
rewards. The activity is undertaken for self-pleasure
and individual satisfaction.
 Intrinsic motivation It may be characterized by curiosity
and a desire to meet challenges. It is driven by an
interest or enjoyment which a person feels in a task. It
is within the individual and does not rely on external
pressure.
 intrinsic motivation is reflected in the choices people
make for their own sake. Learners are intrinsically
motivated, and engage in activities because of their
internal interests, joy, and excitement.
 Intrinsic motivators include fascination with the
subject, a sense of its relevance to life and the world, a
sense of accomplishment in mastering it.
B.
 Intrinsic motivation is the true drive in human nature,
which motivates individuals to search for and to face
new challenges. Intrinsic motivation is regarded as
being in an activity for itself, and the pleasure and
satisfaction derived from participation in the activity.
B. Extrinsic Motivation
 Stimulus is outside the person. Any stimulus that comes
from outside of learner, and which drives the learner in
the learning process .It can be there in the form of
operant conditioning or social cognition. It refers to the
performance of a task for attaining an outcome. It may
be in the form of some kind of reward, social approval,
or appreciation.
 Extrinsic motivation is caused by any number of
outside factors that might include the hope of financial
reward or the need to pass an examination,
 Learners are externally driven to perform an action with
an anticipation of some outcome other than the learning
itself.
 Extrinsic motivation drives students to engage in
academic tasks for external reasons. Extrinsic
motivation promotes effort and performance with
rewards serving as positive reinforcers for the desired
behavior.
 Extrinsic motivators also include parental expectations,
expectations of other trusted role models, earning
potential of a course of study, and good grades.
THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
A. Achievement Motivation theory
 David McClelland's theory of human motivation was
proposed in the 1960s. His theory had three major
components: needs for power, needs for affiliation, and
for achievement. These three needs are not innate, but
rather developed through experiences.
 McClelland's theory found that in a person's life there
are certain types of needs that come up. Achievement
motivation was found in individuals who thrive on
competition. Through achievement motivation, a
person develops high problem-solving skills. Thus,
actionable goal is important to a person who is
achievement motivated.
 A person with high level of achievement motivation
sets realistic goals, and keeps working towards those
goals where feedback and criticism only motivates him
or her to keep moving forward, and each actionable
goal allows them to become more motivated.
 There are three elements achievement motivation:
1. Cognitive drive – students tries to satisfy his/her
need ‘to know’
2. Self-enhancement – students tries to satisfy
his/her self-esteem.
3. Affiliation motivation – students wants to earn
approval from others
Humanistic Theory of Motivation: Maslow’s Hierarchy of
Needs
 The Humanistic Theory of Motivation is a motivational
theory that addresses the meaning of behavior, and the
nature of healthy human development. Abraham Maslow,
an American Psychologist, desired to know what
motivates humans.
 Malow suggested that humans are driven to fulfill certain
needs. When a single need is fulfilled humans seek to
satisfy the next need, and so forth (Maslow, 1943). He
developed a five stage model that encompassed basic,
 physiological, safety, love, and esteem and self-
actualization. Later, the theory was revised to add the
need for self-transcendence.

D. Two – Factor Theory

C. ERG Theory (Clayton Alderfer)
 A theory of human motivation that focuses on three groups
of needs that form a hierarchy: existence needs (physical
and material wants); relatedness needs (the desire for
interpersonal relationships and for deeper relationships with
the important people in one's life); and growth
needs (desires to be creative and productive). The theory
suggests that these needs change their position in the
hierarchy as circumstances change. A need does not have to
be fully satisfied for upward movement to occur; a
downward movement can occur when a need is not
satisfied. In the deficiency cycle at the bottom of the
hierarchy the individual can become obsessed with
satisfying existence needs.