Piaget hypothesized that learning occurs through two basic

mental operations:
1. Assimilation – modifying new information so that it
fits in with the current schema
WHAT IS INTELLIGENCE?
2. Accommodation – changing one’s schema so that it
- a multifaceted capacity that manifests in different
fits with the new information
ways across the lifespan.
- includes the abilities to:
Other Theories on Intelligence
● Acquire and apply knowledge
● Interactionism – refers to the complex concept by which
● Reason logically
heredity and environment are presumed to interact and
● Plan effectively
influence the development of one’s intelligence
● Infer perceptively
● Factor-analytic theories - the focus is squarely on
● Make sound judgements and solve problems
identifying the ability or groups of abilities deemed to
● Grasp and visualize concepts
constitute intelligence
● Pay attention
● Information-processing theories – the focus is on
● Be intuitive
identifying the specific mental processes that constitute
● Find the right words & thoughts without facility
intelligence.
● Cope with, adjust to, and make the most of
new situations
Factor-Analytic Theories of Intelligence
● Factor analysis – is a group of statistical techniques
Other definitions:
designed to determine the existence of underlying
Henry Goddard (1947) - “the degree of availability of one’s
relationships between sets of variables, including test
experiences for the solution of his present problems and the
scores
anticipation of future ones.”
● Charles Spearman (1904) – pioneered new
techniques to measure intercorrelations between tests
Francis Galton (1883) - the most intelligent persons were
- found that measures of intelligence tended to
those equipped with the best sensory abilities.
correlate to various degrees with each other
○ Theory of General Intelligence, also known
Alfred Binet - intelligence has several components which
as Two-Factor Theory of Intelligence
includes reasoning, judgement, memory and abstraction; Binet
- there exist a general ability factor
argued that when one solves a particular problem, the abilities
(g) that is partially tapped by all
used cannot be separated because they interact to produce
other mental abilities
the solution.
- g factor – portion of the variance
that all intelligence tests have in
David Wechsler - When assessing intelligence, other factors
common and the remaining portions
must be taken into account (such as Person’s will, drive, or
of the variance being accounted for
striving; Affect or emotions; Personality traits; Goal awareness;
either by specific components (s),
Ability to perceive and respond to social, moral and aesthetic
or by error components (e) of this
values).
general factor
Jean Piaget - intelligence may be conceived of as a kind of
Thurstone (1938) - initially conceived of intelligence as being
evolving biological adaptation to the outside world; described
composed of seven “primary abilities”.
four stages of cognitive development where cognitive skills are
- he designed tests to measure these abilities
gained along each stage increasing the individual’s adaptation
● findings: moderate correlations between
which replaces physical trial and error approach in dealing with
tests
the world with mental trial and error.
● conclusion: it was difficult if not impossible to
● Sensorimotor (birth-2): child develops ability to
develop an intelligence test that did not tap g
exhibit goal-directed, intentional behavior.
● Preoperational (2-6): child’s understanding of
Gardner (1983, 1984) - developed a theory of multiple (twelve)
concepts is largely based on what is seen.
intelligences: logical-mathematical, bodily-kinesthetic,
● Concrete Operational (7-12): this involves mastering
linguistic, musical, spatial, interpersonal, and intrapersonal.
the use of logic in concrete (tangible) ways.
● Formal Operations (12-older): increased ability to
abstract and to deal with ideas independent of his or
her own experience.
Cattell and Horn’s Model of Intelligence
- According to Piaget, each individual holds a mental
Cattell (1941, 1971) – Two Major Types of Cognitive Abilities:
presentation of the world called schema - refers to an
1. Crystallized Intelligence (Gc) - include acquired
organized action or mental structure that, when applied to the
skills and knowledge that are dependent on exposure
world, leads to knowing or understanding throughout the
lifespan.
 to a particular culture as well as on formal and
informal education
- retrieval of information and application of
general knowledge are conceived of as
elements of Gc
2. Fluid Intelligence (Gf) - are nonverbal, relatively
culture-free, and independent of specific instruction
Thorndike’s Multifactor Theory of Intelligence
Intelligence can be conceived in terms of three clusters of
abilities:
1. Social intelligence – dealing with people
2. Concrete intelligence – dealing with objects
3. Abstract intelligence – dealing with verbal and
mathematical symbols
For Thorndike, g is defined as the total number of modifiable
neural connections or “bonds” available in the brain
- learning is determined by the number and speed of
the bonds that can be activated and used
Information-Processing Theory of Intelligence
This approach focuses on the mechanisms by which
information is processed: how information is processed, rather
than what is processed
Two basic types of information-processing styles:
1. Simultaneous/Parallel processing - information is
integrated all at one time.
- processing may be described as
“synthesized”.
2. Successive/Sequential processing - each bit of
information is individually processed in sequence
- is logical and analytic in nature; piece by
piece and one piece after the other,
information is arranged and rearranged so
that it makes sense.
The PASS Model of Intellectual Functioning
PASS model - acronym for planning, attention, simultaneous,
and successive
● Planning – refers to strategy development for
problem solving
● Attention – (also referred as Arousal) refers to
receptivity to information
● Simultaneous and Successive – refers to the type
of information processing employed
- Authors argue that existing tests of intelligence do not
adequately assess planning.
- Naglieri and Das (1997) developed the Cognitive
Assessment System (CAS), a cognitive ability test designed
to tap PASS factors
Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence
Three principal elements:
1. Metacomponents – involved in planning what one is
going to do, monitoring what one is doing, and
evaluating what one has done upon completion.
2. Performance components – administer the
instructions of metacomponents
3. Knowledge-acquisition components – involved in
learning how to do something in the first place
MEASURING INTELLIGENCE
Types of Tasks Used in Intelligence Tests:
● During infancy (the period from birth through 18 months):
- primary focus for assessment is
sensorimotor development.
- includes the measurement of nonverbal
motor responses such as: turning over,
sitting up, reaching for a group of objects,
lifting the head, - imitating gestures, following
a moving object with the eyes
● Older child
- the focus in evaluation is verbal and
performance abilities
- measure the child’s general knowledge,
vocabulary, social judgement, language,
reasoning, numerical concepts, auditory and
visual memory, attention, concentration, and
spatial visualization
● In adults
- focus of assessment is on retention of general
information, quantitative reasoning, expressive
language and memory, and social judgement
- purpose of adult intelligence test:
○ obtain clinically relevant information
○ measure of learning potential and skill acquisition
○ used to evaluate the faculties of an impaired
individual for the purpose of judging that person’s
competency to make important decisions
○ for vocational and career decisions and transitions
Mental age - is an index that refers to the chronological age
equivalent of one’s performance on a test or subtest.
- Many intelligence tests were scored and interpreted
with reference to this concept.
- typically derived by reference to norms that indicate
the age at which most testtakers are able to pass or
otherwise meet some criterion performance
Theory in Intelligence Test Development and Interpretation
● Galton’s view – measures of cognitive ability were
perceptual or sensorimotor in nature
● Binet’s view – Binet’s test is best associated with the
measurement of Spearman’s factor
● Wechsler’s view – usually emphasized that
intelligence is multifaceted and consists not only of
cognitive abilities but also other factors related to
personality
- Wechsler-Bellevue Scale and all
subsequent Wechsler tests calculate for
Verbal IQ and Performance IQ (not to be
confused with verbal abilities and
performance abilities respectively)
“Different theorists with different ideas about what factors are
key in a theory of intelligence can look for (and probably find)
their preferred factors in most widely used tests of intelligence.”

INTELLIGENCE: SOME ISSUES
Nature vs. Nurture Debate
As early as 17th century, scientists of this time made
discoveries that seemed to support preformationism
Preformationism – all living organisms are
preformed at birth: All of an organism’s structures,
including intelligence, are preformed at birth and
therefore cannot be improved upon
With the progression of work in the area of genetics,
preformationism was slowly replaced by predeterminism
Predeterminism - one’s abilities are predetermined
by genetic inheritance and that no amount of learning
or other intervention can enhance what has been
genetically encoded to unfold in time
Arnold Gesell – performed early twin studies that showed that
practice had little effect on tasks such as climbing stairs,
cutting with scissors, building with cubes, and buttoning
buttons
- it was primarily the maturation of neural
mechanisms, not learning or experience, that was
most important in the development of what might be
referred to as intelligence
- mental development is “a progressive
morphogenesis of patterns of behavior”
- intelligence is “the end product of evolutionary
process”
Galton – firmly believed that genius was hereditary based on
family histories of eminent people, not on intelligence tests
Richard Dugdale (1877) – argued that degeneracy, like
genius, was also inherited
- his conclusion was based on observations of the
infamous Jukes family
Dugdale and Henry Goddard (1912) – proposed that
“feeblemindedness” was hereditary, based on faulty research
Lewis M. Terman – concluded that Mexican and Native
American people were genetically inferior based on his testing
of a sample of Mexican and Native American children
Karl Pearson – concluded that immigrating Jews where
“somewhat inferior physiologically and mentally” compared to
native British
Such observations seem flawed, even prejudiced—if not racist—by
current standards, yet they reflected the prevailing beliefs of the day.
Early 20th century:
- There is still a lack in scholarly consideration of the
role of environmental, cultural factors and language
barriers in the assessment of intelligence. Despite
this, a research literature that shed light on the
environment side of the hereditary–environment issue
subsequently began to mount.
- Johnson (1963) & Newman et al. (1937) - when
identical twins are reared apart they still show remarkably
similar intelligence test scores, though not as similar as if
they had been reared together
- Leahy (1932, 1935) - Children born to poverty-stricken
parents but then adopted at an early age by better-educated,
middle-class families tend to have higher intelligence test
scores than their counterparts who are not adopted by
families of higher socioeconomic status—although the
natural mothers with the higher IQs tend to have the children
with the higher IQs, irrespective of the family in which the
adopted child is raised
Presently, most behavioral scientists today believe that
measured intellectual ability represents an interaction between
innate ability and environmental influences
Wendy Johnson - Verbal, Perceptual, and Image Rotation
(VPR) model of the structure of mental abilities
- rooted in the belief that intelligence and related
abilities have a very strong basis in genetics
Proponents of the “nurture” side of the nature–nurture
controversy emphasize the crucial importance of factors such
as prenatal and postnatal environment, socioeconomic status,
educational opportunities, and parental modeling with respect
to intellectual development.
Interactionist view - intelligence, as measured by intelligence
tests, is the result of the interaction between heredity and
environment
- people inherit a certain intellectual potential. Exactly
how much of that genetic potential is realized
depends partially on the type of environment in which
it is nurtured
STABILITY OF INTELLIGENCE
Gold et al. (1995) - using archival intelligence test data from
World War II, researchers administered the same intelligence
test to a sample of 326 veterans some 40 years later.
- Conclusion: young adult intelligence was the most
important determinant of cognitive performance as an
older adult
Full Scale IQs may seem to remain the same over time,
although the individual abilities assessed may change
significantly (Smith, Smith, et al., 2000).
Ivnik et al. (1995) & Malec et al. (1993): - group means and
standard deviations would seem to point to the conclusion that
cognitive abilities are remarkably stable over the course of
adult life.
● In later adulthood, especially after age 75, a decline in
cognitive abilities has been noted.
● The Terman studies suggested that gifted children
tended to maintain their superior intellectual ability.
Construct Validity of Tests of Intelligence
For intelligence tests, it is essential to understand how the test
developer defined intelligence. Is it Spearman’s g? Is it defined
according to Guilford’s theory? Is it based on Thorndike’s
Triarchic Theory of intelligence?
Other Issues
● Measurement process – measurement of intelligence can
be affected by test maker’s definition of intelligence,
diligence of the examiner, amount of feedback the examiner
gives the examinee, amount of previous practice or
coaching the examinee has had, and the competence of
the person interpreting the test data
Flynn effect - measured intelligence seems to rise on
average, year by year, starting with the year that the
test is normed (intelligence inflation)
- The rise in measured IQ is not accompanied by any
academic dividend and so is not thought to be due to
any actual rise in “true intelligence.”
● Gender - males may have the edge when it comes to the g
factor in intelligence; Males also tend to outperform females
on tasks requiring visual spatialization; Girls may generally
outperform on language skill–related tasks; motor
development follows a gender-specific developmental
course
● Family environment - intelligence can be affected by: the
presence of resources, parental use of language, parental
expression of concern about achievement, parental
explanation of discipline policies in a warm, democratic
home environment
● Culture - culture provides specific models for thinking,
acting, and feeling
○ Culture-free intelligence test - if cultural factors
can be controlled then differences between cultural
groups will be lessened (elimination of verbal items
and the exclusive reliance on nonverbal,
performance items)
○ Culture loading - the extent to which a test
incorporates the vocabulary, concepts, traditions,
knowledge, and feelings associated with a particular
culture
○ Culture-fair intelligence test - a test or assessment
process designed to minimize the influence of
culture with regard to various aspects of the
evaluation procedures, such as administration, item
content, etc.
- include only those tasks that seemed to
reflect experiences, knowledge, and skills
common to all different cultures
TEST OF INTELLIGENCE
The definition and theory/model test developers use influence
the test’s item content, item format, manner of scoring and
interpretation, plans for revision, and the test’s final form.
Things to consider when making a test of intelligence:
● the theory (if any) on which the test is based
● how easy the test can be administered
● how easy the test can be scored
● how easy the results can be interpreted for a particular
purpose
● the adequacy and appropriateness of the norms
● the acceptability of the published reliability and validity
indices
● the test’s utility in terms of costs versus benefits
PRIMARY MENTAL ABILITIES TEST
Developer: Thurstone (1938)
Design: • to measure one of the primary mental abilities
• verbal meaning • perceptual speed
• reasoning • number facility
• rote memory • word fluency
• spatial relations
STANFORD-BINET INTELLIGENCE SCALES
1905 version: Binet-Simon Scale
Developers: ALFRED BINET & THEODORE SIMON
Design: • to screen for developmentally disabled children in the
Paris schools
• World’s first formal test of intelligence
1908 version: Binet-Simon Scale
• adapted and translated for international use
• as early as 1908, used in US
1916 version: Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales, 1st edition
Developers: LEWIS TERMAN & MERRILL AT STANFORD
UNIVERSITY
• a translation and extension of the Binet-Simon
Intelligence Scale
• first American test to employ concept of IQ
• first test to introduce the concept of alternate item
alternate item – an item to be used only under certain
conditions
• lack representativeness of the standardization
sample
1937 version: Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales, 2nd edition
• new types of tasks for use with preschool-level and
adult-level testtakers
• the manual contained many examples to aid the
examiner in scoring
• achieved an adequate standardization sample
• has now high validity and reliability