Summer Class 2022-2023

ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY

LESSON 1: MEASUREMENT IN SCIENCE SIGNIFICANT FIGURES IN CALCULATIONS

Precision and Accuracy, Significant Figures, Scientific
Notation and Units of Measurement
PRECISION AND ACCURACY
Accuracy – refers to how close the measured value is
relative to the standard value.
Precision – refers to how close to one another the
measured values is a series.
Addition and Subtraction
 In addition and subtraction, the number of
decimal places in the answer should be the
same as the number with the least decimal
places among those being added or subtracted.
Multiplication and Division
 In multiplication and division, the answer
should have the same number of significant
figures as the number, among those being
multiplied or subtracted, with the least number
of significant figures.
SCIENTIFIC NOTATION
• Scientific notation is a way to express
extremely large or small numbers easily and
efficiently.
• It has 3 parts: the coefficient, the base and the
exponent.

• Coefficient – is the number that is equal to or

more than one but less than ten.
SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
• Base – is the number that is always 10
• Pertain to the digits or figures that are certain scientific notation.
to give reasonably reliable information.
• Exponent – is the number that determines
• It is helpful in attaining a level of certainty how many decimal places the decimal point
when expressing a calculated quantity. should be moved.

Rules in determining Significant Figures

1. All nonzero digits (1-9) are significant.
2. Zeros to the left of the first nonzero digit are
not significant.
3. Zeros between nonzero digits are significant.
4. Zeros to the right of a nonzero digit with a
decimal point are significant.
5. Zeros at the end of a nonzero digit without a
decimal point are not significant.
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UNITS OF MEASUREMENT Prefix Symbol Multiple of

Fraction
Measurement – is the process of finding out how
many measuring units there are in a thing. It is simply Giga G 109
the collection of quantitative data.
Mega M 106
• Metric System – which uses the units
kilogram, meter and second for measuring Kilo K 103
mass, distance and time, respectively. Hecto h 102
• English System – which employs units such Deka da 101
as foot, pound, and second for measuring
distance, weight, and time, respectively. Deci d 10-1

Centi c 10-2
SI BASE (FUNDAMENTAL) UNITS Milli m 10-3
Quantity Unit/Symbol Micro µ 10-6
Length meter (m)
Mass kilogram (kg) Nano n 10-9
Time second (s)
Electric Current ampere (A)
Amount of Substance mole (mol) PHYSICAL QUANTITIES
Temperature kelvin (K)
Luminous Intensity candela (cd) Mass - the actual amount of matter that a substance
contains.

SI DERIVED UNITS Weight – is a measure of the gravitational attraction

exerted by the center of the gravity upon a body.
Quantity Unit/Symbol
Area square meter (m2) mass is constant, but weight is variable
Volume cubic meter (m3)
Length – is the distance between two points.
Density kilogram per cubic meter
(kg/m3) - this quantity is non-directional
Speed meter per second (m/s)
Energy Joule (N*m or J) - this includes width, depth, or height
Force Newton (N) Volume – are often measured in liters or milliliters in
Power Watt (W)
the metric system. One liter (1 L) is one cubic
Pressure Pascal (Pa)
decimeter (1 dm3), or 1000 cubic centimeters (1000
Quantity of Electricity Coulomb (C)
cm3). One milliliter (1 mL) is 1 cm3. In medical
laboratories, the cubic centimeter (cm3) is often
ENGLISH UNITS abbreviated cc.

Quantity Unit/Symbol Related Unit Density - is the mass of an object divided by its
Length feet (ft) centimeter (cm) volume:
Mass pounds (lb) grams (g)
Time seconds (s) hour (hr)
Volume quarts (qt) liter (L)
Pressure pounds per atmosphere
square inch (psi) (atm)
Temperature Fahrenheit (F) degrees Celsius
(C)
Energy British thermal calories (cal) where d, m, and V denote density, mass, and
unit (Btu) volume, respectively
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Temperature Conversion Factors

• is the degree of heat that is natural to the body
of a living being. It is also defined as the Distance Mass/Weight
degree of hotness or coldness of a body in a
definite scale. 1 ft = 12 in 1 kg = 1000 g
• Measured by a thermometer
3 ft = 1 yd 1 pound = 454 g
• Celsius (Co), Kelvin (K) and Fahrenheit (F)
Conversion of Temperature Between Celsius and 1 in = 2.54 cm 1 pound = 16 0unces
Kelvin
1km = 1000 m 1 ton = 2000 lbs
• The temperature conversion formula from
Celsius to Kelvin is:
1 m = 100 cm 1 metric ton = 1000kg /
K = C + 273.15 2204 lbs

• The temperature conversion formula from

1 mile = 1.609 km
Kelvin to Celsius is:
C = K − 273.15 1 mile = 5280 ft
Conversion of Temperature Between Fahrenheit
and Celsius
• The temperature conversion formula from Conversion Factors
Fahrenheit to Celsius
Volume / Capacity Time
C = (F − 32) × 5⁄9
• The temperature conversion formula from 1 L = 1000 mL 1 hr = 60 mins
Celsius to Fahrenheit is:
F = C(9⁄5) + 32 1 mL = 1 cm 1 min = 60 sec

Conversion of Temperature Between Fahrenheit 1 m = 1000 L 1 day = 24 hrs

and Kelvin
• The temperature conversion formula from 1 gal = 3.785 L 365 days = 1 yr
Fahrenheit to Kelvin is:
1 gal = 4 qts 30 days = 1 month
K = (F − 32) × 5⁄9 + 273.15
• The temperature conversion formula from 1 qt = 2 pints 1 century = 100 yrs
Kelvin to Fahrenheit is:
F = (K – 273.15) × 9⁄5 + 32 1 millennium = 1000 yrs

CONVERSION UNITS
• In converting units, we can use the method
called dimensional analysis by simply
multiply the given measurement by a
conversion factor to get the desired
measurement with a different unit.
• A conversion factor is a ratio (equal to 1) of
two measurements with different units.
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LESSON 2: SOLUTIONS AND THEIR

PROPERTIES
Solutions are mixture of two or more substances
evenly distributed throughout a single phase.
It consists of a solute and a solvent.
• Solute is the substance
dissolved
• Solvent is the dissolving
medium
TYPES OF SOLUTION

Solute Solvent Solution Example Calculations Involving Chemical Equations And

Gas Gas Gas Oxygen in Formulas
nitrogen The Mole Concept
Gas Liquid Liquid Carbon dioxide  Mole is a standard scientific unit for
in water measuring large quantities of very small
Gas Solid Solid Hydrogen in entities such as atoms and molecules.
palladium Atomic Weights and Molar Masses
Liquid Liquid Liquid Ethanol in • The mass of 1 C atom (on average) is 12.01
water amu
Liquid Solid Solid Mercury in • The mass of 1 mole of C atoms is 12.01 g (or
silver 12.01 g/mol)
Solid Liquid Liquid Salt in water • 1 mole (6.02 x 1023) is the amount of atoms of
Solid Solid Solid Copper in tin any element that has a mass in grams equal to
(Bronze) the mass of ONE atom in amu.
• The atomic masses reported for each element
in the Periodic Table gives the atomic weight
Solution can be classified as: (or molecular/formula weight for
compounds) in amu and the molar mass in
 Unsaturated Solution – contains less solute g/mol.
than solvents capacity to dissolve
 Saturated Solution– contains the maximum Molar Mass (MM)
amount of solute that the solvent can dissolve
• To obtain molar mass of compounds, multiply
at a certain temperature
the molar mass of each element by the number
 Supersaturated Solution – contains more of each present, then add up all the constituent
dissolved solute than is present in a saturated
parts.
solution
Mass Percentages from the Formula
• Mass percentage: The mass of one element in
a compound divided by the mass of the entire
compound.
Steps to determine percentage composition:
1. Calculate the mass of each individual element
in the compound
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2. Add up all the masses of each element to get

the total mass of compound
3. Divide the mass of each individual element
with the total mass of compound

Concentration of Solutions
• Concentration of solution is a measure of the
amount of solute in a given amount of solvent
or solution.
• The amount of solute in a solution may be
expressed in several ways
a. Percentage of by mass
b. Percentage of by volume
c. Percentage of by mass-volume
d. Mole fraction - The mole fraction (x)
of a component in a solution is equal
to the number of moles of that
component divided by the total
number of moles of all the
components present.The sum of the
mole fractions of all components in a
solution will always be equal to one.
e. Molality
f. Molarity - The molarity of solution is
the number of solute per liter of
solution. The unit of molarity is molar
(M). 1 M solution of A contains one
mole of solute A in every one liter of
the solution.
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LESSON 3: THE KINETIC MOLECULAR  Polar molecules- -is a chemical species in

MODEL AND INTERMOLECULAR FORCES OF which the distribution of electrons between the
ATTRACTION IN MATTER covalently bonded atoms is not even.
 Nonpolar molecules- nonpolar molecule is
Kinetic Molecular Theory
completely symmetric or has an even
 The Kinetic Molecular Theory explains the distribution of electrons around the molecule.
properties of solids and liquids in terms of
Ways to Determine Nonpolar and Polar Molecules:
intermolecular forces of attraction and the
kinetic energy of the individual particles.
a. All matter is made up of tiny particles.
b. These are particles are in constant motion.
c. The speed of particle is proportional to
temperature. Increased temperature means
greater speed.
d. Solids, liquids, and gases differ in distances
between particles, in the freedom of motion of
particles, and in the extent to which the
particles interact
State of Matter

INTERMOLECULAR FORCES are attractive

Gas - Total disorder; much empty space; particles have forces between molecules or particles in the solid or
complete freedom of motion; particles far apart liquid states.

Liquid - Disorder; particles or clusters of particles are  INTERMOLECULAR FORCES (IMF)

free to move relative to each other; particles close are relatively weaker than the forces
together within the molecules forming bonds
(intramolecular forces)
Solid - Ordered arrangement; particles are essentially  Intramolecular Forces hold atoms together
in fixed positions; particles close together in a molecule.
The intermolecular forces of attraction:
INTERMOLECULAR FORCES OF ■ Dipole-dipole
ATTRACTION
• Dipole-dipole forces exist between polar
Terminology molecules.
 Ion - an atom or group of atoms that carries a • One end of a dipole attracts the oppositely
positive or negative electric charge as a result charged end of the other dipole.
of having lost or gained one or more electrons.
 Dipole moment- occurs when there is a
separation of charge. Dipole moments arise
from differences in electronegativity. They can
occur between two ions in an ionic bond or
between atoms in a covalent bond.
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■ Hydrogen bonding
• type of dipole-dipole force that occurs when a
hydrogen atom is attached to a highly
electronegative atom (oxygen, fluorine, ■ Ion induced dipole
nitrogen).
• The ions and the oppositely charged ends of
• A hydrogen atom on one molecule is attracted the polar water molecules overcome the
to the electronegative atom on a second attraction between ions themselves.
molecule.
• Each ion becomes separated and water
molecules cluster around it.

• The strength of ion-dipole interactions

is dependent on the charge and the distance.
Ionic charge increases as we move across a
period on the periodic table.
■ Ion-dipole
• It acts between an ion and a polar molecule.
• This explains the solubility of ionic
compounds in water, which is polar molecule.

• An ion-induced dipole attraction results when

the approach of an ion induces a dipole in
an atom or in a nonpolar molecule by
disturbing the arrangement of electrons in
the nonpolar species.
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■ London dispersion
• It is the weakest type of intermolecular force.
• When two non-polar molecules approach each
other, an instantaneous dipole moment forms.
• This force is sometimes called an induced
dipole-induced dipole attraction
■ Dipole-induced dipole force
• forces exist between a polar molecule and
a non-polar molecule.
• a weak attraction that results when a polar
molecule induces a dipole in an atom or in a
nonpolar molecule by disturbing the
arrangement of electrons in the nonpolar
species.
INTERMOLECULAR FORCES AND
PROPERTIES OF LIQUID
• Liquids do not have a simple or regular
structure, but many of their properties can be
explained qualitatively by viewing them at the
particulate level.
GENERAL PROPERTIES OF LIQUID
SURFACE TENSION
• It is the measure of the elastic force in the
surface of a liquid.
• Molecules within a liquid are pulled in all
directions by intermolecular forces.
• Surface tension allows needles and paper clips
to float in water if placed carefully on the
surface
• NOTE: The liquids that have strong
Intermolecular forces also have high surface
tension
CAPILLARY ACTION
• Capillary action is the tendency of a liquid to
rise in narrow tubes or be drawn into small
openings such as those between grains of a
rock.
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• Capillary action, also known as capillarity, is movement exceeds the intermolecular forces
a result of intermolecular attraction between that hold them together.
the liquid and solid materials. • The greater intermolecular force, the higher
the energy needed to increase the kinetic
Two types of forces are involved in capillary energy of the molecules to break these forces.
action: • NOTE: At higher altitude, the atmospheric
o Cohesion is the intermolecular pressure is lower, hence, the boiling point will
attraction between like molecules (the subsequently decrease.
liquid molecules).
o Adhesion is an attraction between
unlike molecules (such as those in
water and in the particles that make
up the glass tube).
• When the cohesive forces between the liquid
molecules are greater than the adhesive forces
between the liquid and the walls of the
container, the surface of the liquid is convex.
• When the cohesive forces between the liquid
molecules are lesser than the adhesive forces
between the liquid and the walls of the
container, the surface of the liquid is concave
VISCOSITY
• It is defined as the resistance of a liquid to
flow.
• It is loosely referred to as the thickness or
thinness of a liquid.
• The stronger the intermolecular force, the
higher is the liquid’s viscosity
VAPOR PRESSURE
• The pressure exerted by the gas in equilibrium
with a solid or liquid in a closed container at a
given temperature
• Example:
When liquid or solid substance is
made to evaporate in a closed container, the
gas exerts a pressure above the liquid.
• Substances with relatively strong
intermolecular forces will have low vapor
pressure because the particles will have
difficulty escaping as a gas.
BOILING POINT
• The boiling point of a liquid is the temperature
at which its vapor pressure is equal to the
external or atmospheric pressure.
• Increasing the temperature of a liquid raises
the kinetic energy of its molecules, until such
point where the energy of the particle
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LESSON 4: COLLIGATIVE PROPERTY • Components of Dry air

CALCULATIONS
• Nitrogen (N2) – 78.08% (by
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLUTIONS volume)
• Oxygen (O2) – 20.95%
Introduction:
• Argon (Ar) – 0.93%
solution: homogeneous mixture of a solute • Carbon Dioxide (CO2) –
dissolved in a solvent 0.031%
• Other gases – 0.009%
solute: component present in smaller amount
SOLID-IN-SOLID SOLUTIONS
solvent: component present in greater amount
• Solid solutions are homogeneous mixtures that
SOLUTIONS- are homogenous mixtures made of are in solid phase.
a solvent and one or more solutes.
• Many alloys (metal mixtures) are considered
COLLOIDS- A mixture in which very small solutions.
particles of one substance are distributed evenly
throughout another substance. The particles are • For instance, sterling silver consists of
generally larger than those in a solution, and 92.5% Ag and 7.5% copper. This is
smaller than those in a suspension. used in silverware.

SUSPENSIONS- is a heterogeneous mixture and LIQUID-IN-SOLID SOLUTIONS

it is also a mixture from which particles settle out
upon standing.
TYPES OF SOLUTIONS BASED ON
PHYSICAL STATES OF COMPONENTS
LIQUID SOLUTIONS
• Liquid solutions are mixtures in which the
solvent is a liquid while the solute can either
be solid, liquid or gas.
• Rubbing alcohol (liquid in liquid)
• Carbonated drinks (gas in liquid)
• Saline water (solid in liquid)
GASEOUS (GAS-IN-GAS) SOLUTIONS
• Air is a solution in the gas phase. Each
component is mixed in other gaseous
components to form a homogeneous mixture.
• Dry air is air without water vapor. When water
vapor is present, it becomes moist air.
• Amalgam is another alloy which is a solid
solution prepared from mercury, liquid metal,
and some solid metals.
• When the mercury is relatively smaller in
amount compared to the other metal, the
resulting amalgam is a liquid-in-solid solution.
• This type of amalgam is useful in dental
filling.
GAS-IN-SOLID SOLUTIONS
• There can also be solid solutions in which a
gas is absorbed in a solid.
• An example is H2 gas in palladium metal.
ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY OF
AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS
ELECTROLYTE – dissociates into ions in water
• Strong Electrolyte – dissociates
completely in water
• NaCl, HCl, NaOH
• Weak Electrolyte – partially
dissociates in water
• CH3COOH, H3PO4
NONELECTROLYTE – does not undergo
dissociation in water
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• Glucose (C6H12O6), ethanol (C2H5OH) 1) Vapor Pressure Lowering

• Since electrolytes release charge
2) Boiling Point Elevation
carriers in water, electrolyte solutions
can conduct electricity. 3) Freezing point Depression
• As a result, solutions of electrolytes
allow flow of electric current. 4) Osmotic Pressure
Nonelectrolytes do not release ions in COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES OF
water, so their solution do not conduct ELECTROLYTE AND NONELECTROLYTE
electricity. SOLUTIONS
FACTORS AFFECTING SOLUBILITY van’t Hoff Factor
1. NATURE OF SOLUTE AND SOLVENT –
“Like dissolves like”
– polar molecules will mix (be miscible with) other
polar molecules
– nonpolar molecules will mix (be miscible with) other
nonpolar molecules
– polar molecules will not mix (be immiscible with)
nonpolar molecules
2. TEMPERATURE – most solid solutes dissolve
better at higher temperatures; gases dissolve better in
liquids at lower temperature.

EQUATIONS
3. SURFACE AREA – higher exposed surface area
of a solid solute will increase its solubility
4. COMMON ION EFFECT– an ionic compound
will dissolve less better in a solution which contains a
common ion.
5. PRESSURE – only applies for gases; the higher
the pressure of the gas above the solvent, the higher its
solubility.

BOILING POINT ELEVATION

• Adding a non-volatile solute to a solution
raises the boiling point of that solution.
COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES
• When a solute is dissolved in a solvent, the
COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES is a physical boiling point of the solution is raised
property of a solution that depends only on the number according to the equation:
(concentration) of solute particles (molecules or ions)
present in each quantity of solvent and not on their non-electrolyte solutes = △T = Kbm
chemical identities. electrolytic solutions = △T = iKbm

FOUR IMPORTANT COLLIGATIVE △T = iKbm

PROPERTIES:
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△T = Kbm • The relationship between the vapor pressure of

the solution and the vapor pressure of the
△T= change in temperature solvent depends on the concentration of the
i = van't Hoff factor, is the number of particles into solute in the solution.
which the solute dissociates
m = molality, is the moles of solute per kilograms of • The equation called Raoult's Law would look
solvent like this:
Kb = molal boiling point constant
Psolvent = Xsolvent Posolvent
MOLAL BOILING POINT CONSTANT
Meaning vapor pressure of solvent over solution is equal to the product of the vapor
pressure of the pure solvent and the mole fraction of the solvent in the solution.

Psolvent = vapor pressure of solvent over a solution

Xsolvent = mole fraction
Posolvent = standard vapor pressure

FREEZING POINT DEPRESSION OSMOTIC PRESSURE

• addition of any type of solute to a solvent will
lower its freezing point.
• As with boiling point elevation, the equation to
figure out how great the change in temperature
will be is given by:
non-electrolyte solutes = △T = Kfm
electrolytic solutions = △T = iKfm
△T = iKfm
△T = Kfm
DT= change in temperature
i = van't Hoff factor, the number of particles into
which the solute dissociates
m = molality which is the moles of solute per
kilograms of solvent
Kf = molal freezing point constant
MOLAL FREEZING POINT CONSTANT
• OSMOSIS - is the passage of a solvent
through a semipermeable membrane
separating a dilute solution (or pure solvent)
from a more concentrated solution.
• SEMIPERMEABLE MEMBRANE – a
membrane hat allows a certain types of
molecules to pass through it but prohibits the
passage of other types of molecules.
• OSMOTIC PRESSURE – is a pressure that
must be applied to prevent the net flow of a
solvent through a semipermeable membrane
from a solution of lower concentration to a
solution of higher solute concentration.

VAPOR PRESSURE LOWERING

• the vapor pressure of a solution with
nonvolatile solute is always lower than that of
the pure solvent.
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LESSON 5: CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM

Equilibrium- is a state in which there are no CONCENTRATION OF REACTANTS
observable changes as time goes by.
• For every reaction, the particles must come
Chemical equilibrium- is a condition during a into intimate contact with each other.
reversible chemical reaction in which no net change in • High concentrations implies that particles are
the amounts of reactants and products occurs. closer together (than dilute solutions)
• Rates usually increase as reactant
THE EQUILIBRIUM STATE
concentration increases
• At equilibrium, the concentrations of products
and reactants, no longer change because the
rates of the forward and reverse reactions are
equal.
At equilibrium: rateforward = ratereverse
• Chemical equilibrium is a dynamic state
because reactions continue to occur, but
because they occur at the same rate, no net
change is observed on the macroscopic level.
1. Reaction begins.
• No products formed yet
• High rate of collisions between A & B.
• Rate of forward reaction is HIGH. TEMPERATURE

2 & 3. Products formed • Temperature affects the rate by affecting the

number and energy of collisions.
• Collisions between reactants decrease • An increase in temperature increases the rate
• Rate of forward reaction decrease of reaction.
• Reverse reaction begins
THE USE OF A CATALYST
4. Rate of forward reaction is EQUAL to rate of
reverse reaction • Catalyst is a substance that increases the
reaction of rate without undergoing a chemical
• At Dynamic equilibrium or chemical change itself.
equilibrium
• Concentration are constant
LAW OF MASS ACTION

FACTORS AFFECTING THE RATE
Kinetics are very difficult to describe from their
structure, elements, behavior.
• Rate of reaction describes how fast reactants are used
up and products are formed
Four factors that affect reaction rates
NATURE OF REACTANTS
• The degree of intimacy among particles
obviously depends on the physical nature of
the particles.
• The smaller the particles the faster the reaction
rates
The law of mass action states the rate of chemical
reaction is directly proportional to the product of
the reactant concentration values.
Law of Mass Action- For a reversible reaction at
equilibrium and constant temperature, a certain
ratio of reactant and product concentrations has a
constant value (K).
EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANT (Kc)
EXPRESSION
Equilibrium constants can be expressed using Kc or
Kp.
• Kc uses the concentration of reactants and
products to calculate the equation constant.
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• Kp uses the pressure of the gaseous reactants and The reaction quotient (Qc) is calculated by substituting
products to calculate the equation constant. the initial concentrations of the reactants and products
into the equilibrium constant (Kc) expression.
aA + bB - cC+ dD IF
• Qc > Kc system proceeds from right to left to reach
equilibrium
• Qc = Kc the system is at equilibrium
• Qc < Kc system proceeds from left to right to reach
EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANT (Kc) equilibrium
The Equilibrium Constant (Kc)- is defined as the
product of the equilibrium concentrations (mol/L) of
the products, each raised to the power that corresponds
to its coefficient in balanced equation, divided by the
equilibrium concentration of reactants (mol/L), each
raised to the power that corresponds to its coefficient
in the balanced equation.
EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANT EXPRESSION
The magnitude of Kc is a measure of the extent to Before equilibrium; At equilibrium; After equilibrium
which reaction occurs. For any balanced chemical
LE CHATELIER’S PRINCIPLE
equation, the value of Kc
Le Chatelier’s Principle- governs how a reaction at
• Is constant at a given temperature
equilibrium will respond to stress. According to it, if
• Changes if the temperature changes
an external stress is applied to a system at equilibrium,
• Does not depend on the initial concentrations.
the system adjusts in such a way that the stress is
partially offset as the system reaches a new
equilibrium position
Kc and Kp
• Shift may be towards products (shift right)
• Relationship between Kc and Kp.
• Shift may be towards reactants (shift left)

Factors that Affect Chemical Equilibrium

∆n = moles of gaseous products – moles of gaseous • Chemical Equilibrium represents a balance between
reactants forward and reverse reactions.
∆n = (c + d) – (a + b) • Changes in the following will alter the direction of a
reaction:
– Concentration
REACTION QUOTIENT
– Pressure
The reaction quotient (Q) measures the relative
amounts of products and reactants present during – Volume
a reaction at a particular point in time. The reaction
quotient aids in figuring out which direction – Temperature
a reaction is likely to proceed, given either the
pressures or the concentrations of the reactants and the
products.
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• Increase in concentration of reactants causes the

equilibrium to shift to the RIGHT.
• Increase in concentration of products causes the
equilibrium to shift to the LEFT.
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LESSON 6: ACIDS AND BASES BRONSTED-LOWRY OF ACIDS AND BASES

PART 1: BRONSTED-LOWRY ACIDS AND Bronsted-Lowry Acids- are molecules or ions that are
BASES proton donor.
ACIDS VS. BASES Bronsted-Lowry Bases- are molecules or ions that are
proton acceptors.

CONJUGATE ACID-BASE PAIRS

THREE DEFINITIOS OF ACIDS AND BASES

• Svante Arrhenius (Swedish, 1887)
• Bronsted- Lowry (Danish and English, 1923.
Independently proposed definition.
• Gilbert Lewis (American, 1920’s)

ARRHENIUS ACIDS AND BASES

Label the acid, base, conjugate acid, and conjugate
ARRHENIUS ACID- a chemical compound that base in the reaction:
increases the concentration of hydrogen ions, H+
(H3O+), in an aqueous a solution.

ARRHENIUS BASE - a chemical compound that

increases the concentration of hydroxide ions, OH- , in
an aqueous a solution.
LEWIS ACIDS AND BASES
LEWIS ACID – is an atom, ion or molecule that
accepts an electron pair to form a covalent bond.
LEWIS BASE - is an atom, ion or molecule that
donates an electron pair to form a covalent bond.
LEWIS ACID-BASE REACTION is the formation
of one or more covalent bonds between an electron-
pair donor and an electron-pair acceptor.
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pOH

pH INDICATORS

PART 2: ACID-BASE PROPERTIES OF WATER

AUTOIONIZATION OF WATER

PART 3: THE pH SCALE

pH

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN pH and pOH

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pH and pOH of Selected Substances

PART 4: pH CALCULATIONS

PART 5: STRENGTH OF ACIDS AND BASES

IONIZATION OF ACIDS AND BASES

STRONG AND WEAK ACIDS AND BASES

• STRONG ACIDS ionize completely in
aqueous solution.
• WEAK ACIDS ionize only partially in
aqueous solution.
• STRONG BASES ionize completely in
aqueous solution.
• WEAK BASES ionize only partially in
aqueous solution.
 Summer Class 2022-2023
ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY

IONIZATION CONSTANT

PART 6: BUFFER SOLUTIONS

CONJUGATE ACID-BASE PAIRS

HOW BUFFER WORKS

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN Ka and Kb

IMPORTANCE OF BUFFERS
 Summer Class 2022-2023
ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY

PART 7: HENDERSON-HASSELBALCH SOLUBILITY AND Ksp

EQUATION
HENDERSON-HASSELBALCH EQUATION

PART 8: SOLUBILITY PRODUCT CONSTANT

SOLUBILITY
• Solubility is the amount of solute that can
dissolve in a given amount of solvent at a
certain temperature.
• A saturated solution consists of a solute whose
concentration is equal to its solubility.
SOLUBILITY PRODUCT CONSTANT