Quaternary International xxx (2016) 1e13

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Quaternary International
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The influence of raw material quality on the characteristics of the

lithic tool edges from the Atapuerca sites (Burgos, Spain)
Marcos Terradillos-Bernal a, *, Xose


-Pedro Rodríguez-Alvarez b, c

a
n Gonza
Facultad de Humanidades y Ciencias Sociales, Universidad Internacional Isabel I de Castilla, C/ Ferna
lez, nº 76, 09003, Burgos, Spain
b
Area de Prehistoria, Universitat Rovira i Virgili (URV), Avinguda de Catalunya 35, 43002, Tarragona, Spain
c  de Paleoecologia Humana i Evolucio
IPHES, Institut Catala
Social, Campus Sescelades URV (Edifici W3), 43007, Tarragona, Spain

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This article analyses the relationship between the characteristics of the raw materials and the cutting
Available online xxx edges of Sierra de Atapuerca lithic tools during the Lower and Middle Pleistocene. In previous publica-
tions, we have analysed how the cutting edge and weight of a tool determine its cutting efficiency and
Keywords: the amount of force it is capable of applying. In this paper, we aim to complete that study with an
Lower Palaeolithic analysis of the influence of the physical-mechanical aptitudes of the raw materials on these edges. The
Sierra de Atapuerca
analysis of the qualities of the raw materials, their influence on the development of knapping processes
Raw materials
and the final formats of the tool edges inform us about their suitability for producing edges with certain
Morpho-potential
Experimental archaeology
potential capacities. The relationship between morpho-potential elements (length, angle, resistance, etc.)
Cutting edge and the qualities of the raw materials has not been empirically studied under explicitly stated experi-
mental conditions in materials from the Palaeolithic era in Europe. This study maintains that the char-
acteristics of raw materials are of fundamental importance in determining the potential uses of these
lithic assemblages.
© 2016 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
If there is something that all prehistoric lithic tools have in
common, it is the presence of a weight and an edge derived from
raw materials with diverse qualities in conchoidal fracture. This
article addresses the issue of the study of the raw materials with
these inter-related features (mainly cutting edge/weight).
We have complemented the analyses of these potential use
features with the development of a complex programme of
experimental knapping which analyses the capacity of the raw
materials in order to contribute to an improved understanding of
the technological record. Although the influence of raw materials
on the characteristics of knapping activities and on the tool pro-
duction has been described in other papers (e. g. Jones, 1979; White,
1995; Ashton and White, 2003; Sharon, 2008; Terradillos-Bernal


and Rodríguez-Alvarez, 2014), their influence on the variables
that determine a tool's potential for use has not.
* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: marcos.terradillos@ui1.es (M. Terradillos-Bernal), josepedro.


rodriguez@urv.cat (X.-P. Rodríguez-Alvarez).
The analysis of prehistoric lithic tool edges has been approached
from different perspectives. Some researchers have related the
technological mode to the length of the edge (Leroi-Gourhan, 1955:
93), or the flaking method to edge production (e.g. Brantingham
and Kuhn, 2001; Braun and Harris, 2003; Braun, 2005; Mackay,
2008). Other researchers have described the relevancy of study-
ing the edge and weight of tools (e.g. Renfrew and Bahn, 1993;


Collins, 1999; Terradillos-Bernal and Rodríguez-Alvarez, 2014), or
the relationship between the edge and the degree of reduction (e. g.
Vaquero, 1997; Díez Martín, 2000: 124), or the characteristics of the
edges on specific tools such as blades (e. g. Sheets and Muto, 1972;
Bar Yosef and Kunh, 1999; McGorry et al., 2003; Eren et al., 2008;
Taller et al., 2012). There are also authors who have interrelated
specific characteristics of tool edges such as the tool's morphology
and/or symmetry and cutting capacity (e. g. Walker, 1978; Eren
et al., 2005; Soriano et al., 2006; Machin et al., 2007), the tool's
morphology and edge delineation (e. g. Airvaux, 1987), the angle
and the edge potential (e. g. Atkins, 2009; Key and Lycett, 2014a),
the size of the flakes and the edge length (e. g. Key and Lycett,
2014b; Mackay, 2008), or the hominin hand characteristics and
the used tool's features (e. g. Key and Lycett, 2011).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2015.10.122
1040-6182/© 2016 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved.

Please cite this article in press as: Terradillos-Bernal, M., Rodríguez-Alvarez, X.-P., The influence of raw material quality on the characteristics of
the lithic tool edges from the Atapuerca sites (Burgos, Spain), Quaternary International (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2015.10.122
2

M. Terradillos-Bernal, X.-P. Rodríguez-Alvarez / Quaternary International xxx (2016) 1e13
Fig. 1. Location of Gran Dolina and Galería (Sierra de Atapuerca), and origin of the raw materials analysed. 1: Cretaceous chert; 2: Neogene chert; 3: Sandstone 4: Quartzite from the
Arlanzo
n River; 5: Quartz.
Finally, we would like to draw special attention to previous
papers that have related the influence of the raw materials on the
specific characteristics of the edges (e.g. Mackay, 2008). With this
wide variety of criteria, the most relevant variables must be
established. To do this, one of the most effective methodologies is
experimental archaeology (e. g. Rasic and Andrefsky, 2001;
Tactikos, 2003; Prasciunas, 2007; Eren et al., 2008; Key and


Lycett, 2014a,b; Terradillos-Bernal and Rodríguez-Alvarez, 2014).
This paper seeks to contribute to the existing body of knowledge
though an analysis of these combined elements: raw materials,
edge length, weight, format size, angles and the presence of
retouch.
2. Objectives
The aim of this paper is to analyse the potential of lithic tools
through the characteristics of the cutting edge (particularly its
productivity) and the mass/weight in order to determine whether
there is a relationship between the quality of the raw materials
chosen and the tool's potential function. This analysis has been
conducted on the technological records of Sierra de Atapuerca
(Fig. 1), which covers a time span from about 1.22 Ma to 0.01 Ma.
This chronological sequence allows us to study different cultural
horizons belonging to the Pleistocene (Mode 1, Mode 2, and the
transition between Modes 2 and 3) (Olle
et al., 2013).
We focus on the analysis of the influence of raw materials on the
edges of lithic tools through the development of an experimental
programme in order to answer questions such as: What are the
basic characteristics of the raw materials used? How do the quali-
ties of the raw materials influence the production of tools of a
certain edge length and weight? Did the edge production features
influence the human's selection of raw material? Why was


Please cite this article in press as: Terradillos-Bernal, M., Rodríguez-Alvarez, X.-P., The influence of raw material quality on the characteristics of
the lithic tool edges from the Atapuerca sites (Burgos, Spain), Quaternary International (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2015.10.122
Cretaceous chert primarily selected for the production of flake
tools? What are the advantages of using each raw material? What
are the advantages of using chert over other raw materials? Which
raw materials most influence the produced edge?
3. Methods
We developed an experimental knapping programme in order
to find out the capacities of different raw materials during knapping
activities and to evaluate their suitability for generating cutting
edges (the usefulness of objects). First, we conducted an extensive
survey in Sierra de Atapuerca to find and obtain the raw materials
which were used at the Gran Dolina and Galería sites (Olle
et al.,
2013). The analysis of these raw materials included their origin,
abundance, size and the characteristics of the blocks and their
grain.
The fracture qualities of the raw materials were analysed with
92 individualised experiments using five raw materials: Neogene
chert (n ¼ 36), Cretaceous chert (n ¼ 15), Arlanzo
n River quartzite
(n ¼ 19), sandstone (n ¼ 14), and quartz (n ¼ 8) (Terradillos-Bernal


and Rodríguez-Alvarez, 2014) (Table 1). In this experimental pro-
gramme we analysed: 1) the heterogeneity or homogeneity of the
reaction of each raw material to the knapping; 2) the fracture
resistance (tenacity) in general terms and in relation to size and
morphology (Table 2); 3) the size of the hammerstones used during
the knapping process and the size of the percussion platforms; 4)
the identification of the main crystallisation characteristics, irreg-
ularities and presence of fissures and geodes, grain size, and
development of knapping accidents. These experiments were
conducted by ten knappers with very diverse theoretical and
practical knowledge.


M. Terradillos-Bernal, X.-P. Rodríguez-Alvarez / Quaternary International xxx (2016) 1e13 3

Table 1
Number of experiments relating knapping processes and raw materials.

Knapping process/Raw material Neogene chert Cretaceous chert Quartzite Sandstone Quartz

Flake production/Tool shaping

Massive centripetal unifacial/Bifacial 7 1 2 e 1
Massive unipolar unifacial/bifacial 2 1 2 2 1
Bipolar knapping/Bipolar on anvil 3 e e e 3
Trifacial trihedral e e 1 e e
Flake production
Discoid 2 2 e e e
Levallois 3 3 3 e e
Levallois/Discoid 2 2 e e e
Discoid/Levallois 2 1 e e e
Tool shaping
Handaxe 6 e 3 4 e
Cleaver 3 e 2 2 e
Dihedral flake tool 4 5 5 5 3
Trihedral flake tool 2 e 1 1 e
Total 36 15 19 14 8

Table 2
Scale of fracture resistance (average tenacity), from 1 (lesser) to 5 (higher). The Length-thickness index refers to the different fracture resistance if the initial format of the blank
is flat (<2.5 mm) or thick (>2.5 mm).

Inner External Length-thickness index Length-thickness index Homogeneous Heterogeneous Thick Fine
area area <2.5 >2.5 structure structure grain grain

Neogene Chert 4 1 1 2 1 3 2e4 1

Cretaceous 3 2 e 2e4 e e 2
chert
Quartzite 2 3 2 5 2 4 5 2
Sandstone 1 2 1 3e4 1 3 1 2e3
Quartz 3 5 3 5 3 5 3 5

Thanks to this experimental programme, we were able to assess Table 3

how the physicalemechanical properties of the raw materials may Lithic assemblages analysed in this work.

have influenced or determined the edge characteristics of the lithic Assemblage Studied Total sample (up to Technological mode
tools. The physicalemechanical properties were analysed by sample 2013)
replicating shaping techniques and the most relevant knapping Gran Dolina 914 21,050 Transition Mode 2-
methods identified in the archaeological assemblages. TD10-1 Mode 3
We also analysed the relation of the quality of the raw materials Gran Dolina 1,853 9,799 Transition Mode 2-
TD10-2 Mode 3
with the structural categories of tools (stage in which the objects
Gran Dolina TD6 570 743 Mode 1
were produced during the knapping sequence): hammerstones and Galeria GIII 303 796 Transition Mode 2-
manuports, cores, flakes and flake tools. For each object we ana- Mode 3
lysed a number of common characteristics such as: the general Galeria GII 708 1,011 Mode 2
morphology of the object, weight, size, angle, and reduction in-
tensity. Moreover, the morpho-potential of the cutting edges was
analysed taking into account their length and morphology (convex, 4.1. Gran Dolina
concave, straight and uniangular); their angles (the acuteness of the
edge angle is hypothesised to be a primary determining factor of Gran Dolina is a cave filled in with 18 m of sediment in which 11
cutting efficiency), resistance, average sizes, and incision capacity units have been identified (TD1 to TD11, from bottom to top).
determined by geometrical models (pyramidal, trihedral, and
dihedral). A useful edge was interpreted as that which presents the 4.1.1. TD6
following characteristics: less than 35 with a low weight; between Unit TD6 has a maximum thickness of 240 cm and lies 1 m
35 and 75 with an intermediate weight; and more than 75 with a below the MatuyamaeBrunhes boundary (located at the top of
heavy weight. In edge analysis, results appear in millimetres of layer TD7) (Pare
s and Pe
rez-Gonza
lez, 1995). This unit has been
edge per kilogram as well as the number of products (flakes, core dated by a combination of ESR and palaeomagnetic techniques to
flakes and flake tools) per kilogram of raw material (Fig. 2). between 780 and 857 ka (Falgue res et al., 1999), and by thermo-
luminescence to >960 ± 120 ka (age of TD7) (Berger et al., 2008).
According to Pare
s et al. (2013) the paleomagnetic record in com-
4. Materials: Sierra de Atapuerca bination with the re-evaluated TL and US-ESR ages, provides a new
ante quem date for the human-bearing layers of 0.936 Ma. However,
The Sierra de Atapuerca is located 15 km east of the city of Arnold & Demuro (2015) propose an age of 851 ± 46 ka (weighted
Burgos (Spain) (Fig. 1). It is a small Cenozoic calcareous hill with average for TD6-3), obtained by means of a TT-OSL analysis.
numerous cavities. This mountain range contains several archaeo- TD6 stands out for the presence of human remains (Homo
logical sites dating from the Early Pleistocene to the Holocene. For antecessor, Carbonell et al., 1995) with evidence of cannibalism
this study, we analysed lithic tools from the Gran Dolina and Galería (Ferna
ndez-Jalvo et al., 1996; Carbonell et al., 2010). This study
sites (Table 3). analyses 570 pieces from sublevels TD6-1 and 2 recovered during

Please cite this article in press as: Terradillos-Bernal, M., Rodríguez-Alvarez, X.-P., The influence of raw material quality on the characteristics of
the lithic tool edges from the Atapuerca sites (Burgos, Spain), Quaternary International (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2015.10.122
4

M. Terradillos-Bernal, X.-P. Rodríguez-Alvarez / Quaternary International xxx (2016) 1e13

Fig. 2. Main features analysed. A: Geometrical models of the cutting edges, B: Angle, C: Length of the cutting edge, D: Weight analysis.

the fieldwork carried out between 1994 and 1996 and between
2003 and 2006 (Table 3).
Raw material management is characterised by the use of
Neogene chert which was exploited in large blocks. Reduction se-
quences took place in at least two places: at the outcrop of Neogene
chert with the initial reduction of large blocks, and inside the cave,
as evidenced by the presence of all artefact categories and through
lithic refits. A high percentage of natural bases (nB, hammerstones
and manuports) (12.5%) have been recovered. Massive knapping
(the use of wide percussion platforms with which thick products
are obtained), unipolar unifacial/bifacial knapping, and work with a
centripetal tendency are commonplace (Fig. 3). The massive bidi-
rectional bifacial reduction, centripetal and orthogonal bifacial,
unifacial and trifacial reduction have also been documented. The
flakes are characterised by their medium size and the presence of
knapping accidents (Fig. 3).
Instruments made on pebbles (0.1%) are scarce, while those
made on medium-sized thick flakes are more plentiful. Among the
retouched flakes there is a significant presence of denticulates,
convex dihedrals, and concave dihedrals (Figs. 3 and 4).
The technological strategies of TD6 have been catalogued as
Mode 1 (Table 3), but this lithic industry displays certain evolved
features if compared with the oldest Early Pleistocene lithic en-
sembles in southern Europe: raw material management (e.g. the
preferential use of Cretaceous chert to make flake tools) and the use
of varied, and more complex knapping strategies (Carbonell and

et al., 2013; De Lombera-Hermida et al.,
Rodríguez, 2006; Olle
2015).
4.1.2. TD10
Unit TD10 is a sedimentary package with a maximum thickness
of 250 cm containing several archaeological levels. TD10 is divided
into four lithostratigraphic units (TD10.4 to TD10.1, from bottom to
the top) (Olle
et al., 2013).
At the time when TD10 was formed the entrance to the cave was
in the form of a large rockshelter, due to the collapse of the roof. ESR
combined with uranium-series dating give ages of 337 ± 29 ka for
the upper part of TD10-1; 379 ± 57 ka at the bottom of TD10-1 and
418 ± 63 ka in the upper part of TD10-2 (Falgue res et al., 1999).
Thermoluminescence dating has provided ages of between
244 ± 26 ka for TD10-2 and 430 ± 59 ka for TD10-3 (Berger et al.,
2008).
For this study we analysed a sample of the lithic repertoires of
TD10-1 (914 pieces) and TD10-2 (1,853 pieces) (Table 3). Up to 2013,
a total of 30,849 artefacts were found in TD10, although 9,046 were
undetermined due to preservation problems. In TD10 (TD10-1 and
TD10-2), the chaine op
eratoire is fragmented, because some of the
knapping was done out of the site. The use of Neogene chert stands
out among the raw materials along with Cretaceous chert,
quartzite, quartz and sandstone. The use of chert increases in TD10-
2, reaching as much as 93% of the total.
The quantitative importance of the flakes is undeniable. This
may be due to primary access to biomass and increased cutting

Please cite this article in press as: Terradillos-Bernal, M., Rodríguez-Alvarez, X.-P., The influence of raw material quality on the characteristics of
the lithic tool edges from the Atapuerca sites (Burgos, Spain), Quaternary International (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2015.10.122


M. Terradillos-Bernal, X.-P. Rodríguez-Alvarez / Quaternary International xxx (2016) 1e13 5

Fig. 3. Lithic industry from TD6 (1e2 and 7e8), Galería (3e4 and 9e10), and TD10 (5e6 and 11e12). Neogene chert (1e6) and Cretaceous chert (7e12). 1, 2, 3, 6e12: Flake tools; 4,
5: Flakes.

activities (Blasco et al., 2010; Terradillos Bernal, 2010: 395). A
relatively low number of cores were introduced to the site at in-
termediate phases of knapping. The Discoid method stands out
among the reduction strategies used at TD10. The Levallois method
has been identified but in small proportion and a variety of forms
(Terradillos-Bernal and Rodríguez, 2012; Olle
et al., 2013) (Figs. 3
and 4).
Few pebble tools have been recovered from TD10, and all of
them were made with low to medium quality materials. Denticu-
lated dihedrals and convex continuous dihedrals (side scrapers)
predominate among the flake tools (Figs. 3 and 4). The lithic in-
dustry of the upper levels of TD10 unit has been classified as
transitional between Modes 2 and 3 (Olle
et al., 2013) (Table 3).
4.2. Galería
Galería is divided into six lithostratigraphic units (GI-VI).
Archaeo-palaeontological material was recovered from two of
these units (GII and GIII) (Table 3). Five lithic series have been
distinguished in these units (GII: series III with 220 objects, IV with
203 and V with 285; and GIII: series I with 151 pieces, series II with
152). The lithic series of Galería have been assigned to Mode 2 (Olle

et al., 2013; García-Medrano et al., 2014). Galería has functioned
mainly as a natural trap due to the vertical shaft located in the east
sector (Díez and Rosell, 1998).
Galería has been dated to 256 ± 23 ka (TL and IRSL, Series I),
466 ± 39 ka (TL, Series II), and 503 ± 95 ka (TL, Series V) (Berger
et al., 2008). The last dating by combined ESR/U-series chronol-
ogy provided more recent ages: between 200 and 300 ka
(237e269 ka and 221e280 ka) for lithic series I-III. For lithic series
IV and V the ages range between 350 and 450 ka (350e363 ka. ESR-
U-s) (Falgueres et al., 2013).
Neogene chert is the most widely used raw material, but in a
lower proportion than in TD6 and TD10. The most important dif-
ference to TD10 is the high proportion of natural bases (20.1%),
primarily of quartzite.
The chaines op
eratoires appear highly fragmented. A low pro-
portion of cores have been documented in these series due to the
amount of flakes and instruments made from flakes introduced
from the outside. Qualitatively, the Levallois and Discoid methods
on chert stand out. There is a considerable difference in the pro-
portion of flakes, with 53.4% in GII and 35% in GIII.

Please cite this article in press as: Terradillos-Bernal, M., Rodríguez-Alvarez, X.-P., The influence of raw material quality on the characteristics of
the lithic tool edges from the Atapuerca sites (Burgos, Spain), Quaternary International (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2015.10.122
6

M. Terradillos-Bernal, X.-P. Rodríguez-Alvarez / Quaternary International xxx (2016) 1e13

Fig. 4. Lithic industry from TD6 (1, 2, 7), Galería (3e4 and 8e10) and TD10 (5e6 and 11e12). Quartzite (1e6) and Sandstone (7e12). 1, 2, 5, 7, 9, 11: Flakes; 4, 8: Handaxe; 10: Cleaver;
3, 6, 12: Flake tools.

Trihedrals, handaxes, and cleavers are rare. The use of the soft
hammer comes in the final phases of knapping. Among the small
tools, denticulated dihedrals and simple convex dihedrals (side
scrapers) predominate (Figs. 3 and 4).
5. Characteristics and qualities of the raw materials used in
the Sierra de Atapuerca sites
This section focuses on the analysis of the raw material char-
acteristics and the size and cutting edge capacities of the tools
produced with each raw material. To do this, we have considered
the results of an experimental programme as well as the study of
the archaeological record.
5.1. Neogene chert
with little crystallization and geodes; and the exterior (between 1
and 10 cm), with a very thin, and homogeneously crystallized grain.
The external area is not excessively hard, whereas the inner area
requires a great impact due to the deficient transmission of force.
Due to the softness of this material, it can be knapped with small
hammers. Neogene chert offers the possibility of producing longer
cutting edges. This is an abundant material, available in large blocks
with little resistance to fracture (Tables 2 and 4).
Very sharp edges can be observed on the experimental products
generated with this material; they have average resistance, are
mostly sinuous and have a high cutting capacity. The edges exhibit
a great efficiency in small instruments as well as larger tools
(mainly in longitudinal and incision movements) (Table 4). An
average of 33.7 flakes was obtained per kilogram of Neogene chert
in the experimental programme.

The Neogene chert at the site belongs to the Late Miocene (Fig. 1)
(Pineda and Arce, 1997), and is found in the form of large blocks

et al., 2013). Neogene chert is highly heterogeneous in its
(Olle
reaction to the knapping. There are two main areas: the inner area
5.2. Cretaceous chert
The Cretaceous chert belongs to the Turonian-Lower Santonian
(Pineda and Arce, 1997). This chert has a microcrystalline

Please cite this article in press as: Terradillos-Bernal, M., Rodríguez-Alvarez, X.-P., The influence of raw material quality on the characteristics of
the lithic tool edges from the Atapuerca sites (Burgos, Spain), Quaternary International (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2015.10.122


M. Terradillos-Bernal, X.-P. Rodríguez-Alvarez / Quaternary International xxx (2016) 1e13 7

Table 4
Primary features of the raw materials used at Gran Dolina and Galería sites.

Abundance Size Homogeneity Grain Resistance to Quality for Quality of the Resistance of the Main efficiency in
fracture knapping cutting edge cutting edge movements

Neogene High Very Medium Micro Low Medium/high High Low Longitudinal and incision
chert large
Cretaceous Low Small High Micro Medium Medium/high High High Longitudinal and transverse
chert

n
Arlanzo High Large Medium Fine/ Medium Medium Medium Medium Longitudinal, transverse,
Quartzite medium and incision
Sandstone High Large Medium Fine/ Low/medium Medium Low Low Longitudinal and incision
medium
Quartz Medium Medium Low Fine/ Medium Low Low Low Transverse and incision
medium

wackestone structure (Olle
et al., 2013). Cretaceous chert has a
medium to high quality for knapping but this raw material is
limited by its small size (between 15 and 5 cm), its thick polyhedric
morphology, and the presence of some irregularities and fissures. It
is a material that requires the use of low force at the initial stages of
knapping and medium to high force during advanced reduction
sequences, mainly if the angles are abrupt. Large hammers and
small percussion platforms can be used to prevent overshots.
Comparing archaeological and experimental artefacts made with
Cretaceous chert demonstrates how early hominins had to over-
come important difficulties in order to adapt the knapping tech-
niques to this material.
This material generates mainly small products with edges with
greater angles, which are very resistant and regular and have an
intermediate cutting capacity. The edges are very efficient, though
this has only been documented in small tools. The resistance of this
raw material makes it very efficient for longitudinal and transverse
movements (Table 4). In the experimental programme an average
of 22 flakes of Cretaceous chert was obtained per kilogram.

n River quartzite
5.3. Arlanzo
The Arlanzo
n River (Fig. 1) provides Palaeozoic materials from
the La Demanda ridge (quartzite, sandstone and quartz). We have
only analysed those with the best qualities for knapping, which
represent 3% of the pebbles in the Arlanzo
n River terrace according
to an analysis of a sample of 800 pebbles. They are large, irregular
pebbles with an average length of 10 cm. The structure is homo-
geneous, the grain is fine, and they tend to lack fissures or fractures.
Their suitability for knapping is only medium because the cortex
impedes the correct transmission of force, generating short and
quadrangular flakes (Table 4).
The edges are characterised by an intermediate angle, average
resistance and cutting capacity, and great regularity. The edges are
greatly efficient in large tools (in longitudinal, transverse as well as
incision movements) (Table 4).

n River sandstone
5.4. Arlanzo
Sandstone (Fig. 1) represents an average of 21% of the pebbles in
different terraces of Arlanzo
n River related to the levels analysed.
These are large to medium sized pebbles with an average length of
9 cm and tend to be flat. Our experimental programme shows that
sandstone is a soft material with a fine to medium-sized grain and a
homogeneous structure. There are a considerable number of frontal
fissures that concern the knapping processes and cause numerous
fractures. The knapping of this material requires the use of wide
percussion platforms, which generates massive flakes. The products
resulting from this material are very irregular, and have sinuous
and very fragile edges with little cutting capacity. This is a very
suitable material for the production of large, forceful, flat tools
(Table 4).
This raw material mainly generates sharp and regular edges that
are not very resistant, so their cutting capacity is limited. The edges
exhibit great efficiency in small instruments as well as in large ones
(primarily in longitudinal and incision movements) (Table 4).

n River quartz
5.5. Arlanzo
Quartz (Fig. 1) represents an average of 13% of the pebbles in the
different terraces of the Arlanzo
n River related to those levels
analysed. The pebbles are thick and small with a medium to fine-
sized grain and have some fissures and irregularities. The fissures
cause fractured, hinged flakes (many of them with Siret fractures),
which have limited potential for use. This raw material mainly
generates irregular edges with greater angles and little resistance,
so their cutting capacity is limited (Table 4).
In the experimental programme an average of 17 flakes was
obtained per kilogram of Palaeozoic materials (sandstone,
quartzite, and quartz), with a maximum of 38 and a minimum of 10.
It can be seen that Palaeozoic materials offer fewer knapping pos-
sibilities (Table 4).
6. Results
Quartzite (from terraces T4-T1 of the Arlanzo
n River) (33.4%),
Neogene chert (25.2%) and Cretaceous chert (16.7%) were the most
frequently used raw materials in Unit TD6. In the management of
the raw materials the presence of quartzite stands out in hammers
(51.1%), in flakes (34.4%) and even in flake tools (29.7%). We have
verified that the sphericity of the pebbles found in terraces T4-T1 of
the Arlanzo
n River (the terraces nearest to the site) influenced the
development of massive, orthogonal knapping products. The ex-
periments with quartzite, quartz and sandstone from T4 of the
Arlanzo
n River (Fig. 1) present the most fissures and the most
spherical shapes, which results in knapping with very abrupt an-
gles. These characteristics limited the edge production (Table 5).
Shaped tools and instruments made on pebbles are scarce in
TD6, and all were made with low to intermediate quality materials
due to the fact that these are short-cycle tools which require only a
certain heft.

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8

M. Terradillos-Bernal, X.-P. Rodríguez-Alvarez / Quaternary International xxx (2016) 1e13

Table 5
Cutting edge length (mm) per kilogram in the structural categories of the artefacts related to the raw materials (PC: Pebble cores; PT: Pebble tools; F: Flake; FC: Flake cores; FT:
Flake tools; T: Total; TenB: Total excluding hammerstones and manuports).

Gran Dolina TD6 Gran Dolina TD10 Galería complex

PC F FT FC T TenB PC F FT FC T TenB PT PC F FT FC T TenB

Neogene chert 89 2,186 2,688 225 2,140 2,140 581 5,884 3,102 1,426 3,392 3,392 695 250 2,881 1,263 931 1,658 1,658
Cretaceous chert e 3,819 2,326 e 3,281 3,281 481 13,378 6,042 e 5,073 6,182 e 775 7,388 3,256 e 3,934 3,934
Quartzite e 2,675 2,927 e 328 862 101 3,896 2,423 e 1,146 2,885 393 e 1,577 1,040 e 463 1,053
Quartz e 2,550 e e 1,695 1,777 6 e e e 1,302 1,302 e e e e e 1,469 2,008
Sandstone 21 2,826 e e 336 723 35 3,218 2,364 e 1,423 1,709 157 403 2,240 1,329 485 485 1,044

The flake production in TD6 is characterised by the unifacial/
bifacial massive unipolar method and the centripetal method. In
experiments with Neogene chert we were able to select large bases
with non-cortical and wide initial platforms (Fig. 3). The massive
unipolar reduction is a very quick method and opportunistic, suit-
able for the knapping of these large blocks of Neogene chert.
Comparing the archaeological and experimental records, it becomes
evident that the hominins at the site did not generate products
whose edges had a high cutting capacity because they did not place
much importance on the initial selection of this kind of raw material.
The massive reduction is based on the use of large percussion
platforms when using quartzite, sandstone and quartz, with sharp
angles because of the initial format of the pebbles, and a high
incidence of fractures, which favoured the production of short,
thick flakes with a shorter edge length (Fig. 4).
The productivity (ratio of products to cores) of Cretaceous chert
in this lithic record stands out (91.1% of determinable elements are
products). Neogene chert is notable in the generation of products of
less than 20 mm (20% of products of this raw material), Cretaceous
chert in products between 20 and 50 mm (82.6%) and quartzite in
products larger than 50 mm (38.6%) (Table 6). In TD6, averages of
23.4 chert products per kilogram and 18 products per kilogram
made from Palaeozoic raw materials were obtained.
In TD6 sample, work was done on a 47,142 g of raw material
(including 21,321 g of natural bases). Nearly half of this mass was
destined for hammerstones and manuports, so brunt activities took
place on this level. An average of 390 mm of useful cutting edge was
generated per kilogram of rock, which increases to 712 mm per
kilogram if unknapped items (natural bases) are not considered
(Table 5).
This assemblage is characterised by the productivity of Creta-
ceous chert. A total of 3,819 mm of useful cutting edge was pro-
duced with this raw material in flakes and 3,281 mm in flake tools.
Using quartzite 2,675 mm (3,046 mm with very high-quality
quartzite) of cutting edge was generated in flakes, and 2,927 mm
(3,736 mm with very high-quality quartzite) in flake tools (Table 5).
TD6 yielded a limited proportion of retouched edge (18.1%).
Most of the retouched tools exhibit cutting edges with a convex
shape (53.3%), mainly in Cretaceous chert (66.7%), and semi-abrupt
angles (73%) (Table 7).

Table 6
Relation between products and cores, and products size of the lithic assemblages.

Raw materials % of products based on Flakes per core % of products <20 mm % of products between % of products >50 mm
determinable elements 20 and 50 mm

Gran Dolina TD6

Neogene Chert 85.5 10.7 20 58.8 21.2
Cretaceous chert 91.1 18.8 13 82.6 4.4
Quartzite 65.3 8.5 11.4 50 38.6
Sandstone 60 14.3 16.1 62.5 21.4
Quartz 72.7 11.2 29 54.8 16.2
Total 72.3 10.7 17.1 62.5 20.4
Galería GII
Neogene Chert 98.3 338 29.9 42.2 27.9
Cretaceous chert 87 2.7 40 50.9 9.1
Quartzite 49.7 8.4 4.3 42.5 53.2
Sandstone 65.1 4.5 29 25.8 45.2
Quartz 66.7 12 50 41.7 8.3
Total 78.8 16.4 26.8 42.2 31
Galería GIII
Neogene Chert 94.3 214 11.6 42.9 45.5
Cretaceous chert 91.7 11 25 41.7 33.3
Quartzite 31.6 9.2 5.3 36.8 57.9
Sandstone 60.4 9.7 4.2 33.3 62.5
Quartz 50 7 33.3 33.3 33.3
Total 65.9 22 10 40.8 49.2
Gran Dolina TD10-2
Neogene Chert 94 236.5 61.1 33.7 5.2
Cretaceous Chert 96.4 112.8 68.9 29.3 1.8
Quartzite 79 136 46.2 53.8 e
Sandstone 71.2 e 36.4 54.5 9.1
Quartz 68.6 e 62.5 37.5 e
Total 93.3 178.1 62.8 33 4.2
Gran Dolina TD10-1
Neogene Chert 91.9 141 20.2 46.5 33.3
Cretaceous Chert 93.8 64.5 18.4 77.5 4.1
Quartzite 92.3 110.5 22.1 51.2 26.7
Sandstone 88.4 107.5 30.8 59.6 9.6
Quartz 75.6 554 33.3 50 16.7
Total 90.7 116.8 23.6 57.6 18.8

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M. Terradillos-Bernal, X.-P. Rodríguez-Alvarez / Quaternary International xxx (2016) 1e13 9

Table 7
Cutting edges characteristics of the retouched artefacts (morphology and angle) based on raw materials (Cx: convex; CC: concave; RT: rectilinear; 1A: uniangular/pointed).

Archaeological ensembles and raw materials Cutting edge morphology (%) Angle (º)

Cx CC RT 1A

Gran Dolina TD6

Neogene Chert 53.8 15.4 15.4 15.4 79.3
Cretaceous chert 66.7 13.3 6.7 6.7 64.2
Quartzite 57.1 e 42.9 e 63.6
Sandstone e e e e 74.3
Quartz e e e e 68.2
Total 53.3 8.1 9.7 8.9 73º
Galería GII
Neogene Chert 58 4.6 7 18.6 62.1
Cretaceous chert 54.5 e 36.4 e 67.7
Quartzite 27.6 10.3 31 17.2 63.4
Sandstone 63.6 e 27.3 9.1 61.8
Total 50.5 5.6 17.8 16.8 65.3
Galería GIII
Neogene Chert 68.7 12.5 13.6 6.2 72.4
Cretaceous chert 14.3 28.6 14.3 14.3 77
Quartzite 47.1 17.6 5.9 17.6 59.8
Sandstone 58.3 e 16.7 16.7 56.8
Quartz e e e e 76
Total 43 12.7 10.1 16.5 69
Gran Dolina TD10-2
Neogene Chert 43.3 15 10 16.7 66.4
Cretaceous Chert 39.4 6.1 18.2 21.2 65
Quartz e e e e 72.5
Total 42.5 12.8 12.8 18.1 66
Gran Dolina TD10-1
Neogene Chert 50 11.9 26.2 7.1 64.2
Cretaceous Chert 37.5 e 25 31.2 65.7
Quartzite 54.5 9.1 27.3 9.1 67.1
Sandstone 42.8 28.6 e 28.6 63
Quartz 75 25 e e 71.8
Total 45.5 12.5 21.6 13.6 65

The two main sublevels of TD10 present a considerable differ-
ence in raw materials management (most of all in relation to the
use of chert and quartzite). In general, the use of Neogene chert
predominates with 76.1% in TD10-2 and 51.2% in TD10-1; Creta-
ceous chert accounts for 17.1% in TD10-2 and 6.6% in TD10-1;
quartzite use was 1.8% in TD10-2 and 17.2% in TD10-1; sandstone
accounts for 1.7% in TD10-2 and 17.8% in TD10-1; and quartz rep-
resents 0.5% of the total in TD10-2 and 3.2% in TD10-1. Chert is the
most abundant in flakes (53% in TD10-1 and 94% in TD10-2), and
quartzite in natural bases (55.8% in TD10-1 and 50% in TD10-2).
As in TD6, in TD10 the instruments made on pebbles are scarce.
They were all made of low to medium quality materials and the
incision capacity is provided more by the weight than by the edge
quality.
The most significant exploitation methods in Gran Dolina TD10
and Galería are the centripetal method (quantitatively) and the
Levallois (qualitatively). When used on Neogene chert the Discoid
method yield a large number of small to medium-sized flakes with
homogeneous morphologies and sharp edges. Neogene chert make
it possible to intensify this method and generates suitable results,
but with Cretaceous chert and quartzite, more accidents occur with
this knapping method, most commonly fractures (such as Siret
fractures) and hinged flakes.
The Levallois method was used in its different variants, three of
them combined with the Discoid method. On Neogene chert the
best results were obtained from thick flake blanks with more reg-
ular and sharp edges. On Cretaceous chert, the efficiency of the
Levallois method is limited by the small size of the blanks, which
makes prehension difficult, and the presence of at least one fissure.
In the case of small flake instruments our experimental repli-
cation showed that their production is characterised by its
simplicity and speed. Neogene chert produces the largest formats
and the sharpest edges. The edges tend to be sinuous (easily
rectifiable through retouch) and have limited edge resistance
which generated numerous fractures. Cretaceous chert presents
more regular, abrupt, resistant edges. Retouch is easy on the
sandstone and quartzite of the Arlanzo
n terraces, although the
flake edges are duller and less regular (Figs. 3 and 4 and Table 4).
The development of knapping in TD10 has yielded a mass of
21,087 g (and 19,574 g without natural bases), with nearly
65,356 mm of useful cutting edges. In TD10 the productivity of
Cretaceous chert stands out in the flakes (13,378 mm per kg) and
flake tools (6,042 mm per kg) (Table 5). The high capacity of flake
production from cores in the advanced phase of reduction partly
explains why flakes exhibit the highest productivity in terms of
cutting edge length. We found that 69.6 chert products were ob-
tained per kilogram in TD10-1 and 175 in TD10-2, and 17.6 were
generated with other raw materials in TD10-1 and 131 in TD10-2
(excluding nB).
The great difference in the edges generated in TD10 between the
two varieties of chert (3,392 mm/kg on Neogene chert: 2,007 in
TD10-1 and 4,088 in TD10-2; and 6,182 on Cretaceous chert: 4,428
in TD10-1 and 8,276 in TD10-2, excluding nB) is due to the sharp-
ness and fragility of Neogene chert and the increased angularity
and resistance of Cretaceous chert. This difference is substantial in
flakes (5,884 mm/kg on Neogene chert and 13,378 on Cretaceous
chert), mainly because of the proportion of products of less than
2 cm made from Neogene chert (61.1% in TD10-2 and 20.2% in TD10-

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10
M. Terradillos-Bernal, X.-P. Rodríguez-Alvarez / Quaternary International xxx (2016) 1e13
1) and Cretaceous chert (68.9% in TD10-2 and 18.4% in TD10-1)
(Table 6).
Most of the flake tools (the average over the whole) exhibit
cutting edges with a convex shape (42.5% in TD10-2 and 45.5% in
TD10-1), and simple angles (between 66 and 65 ) (Table 5). In
TD10 there is also a limited proportion of retouched edge (14% in
TD10-2 and 27% in TD10-1).
In Galería, the use of chert also stands out but to a lesser extent
than in Gran Dolina. Neogene chert represents between 64% and
56.6% of all the materials used, Cretaceous chert between 5.3% and
3%, quartzite between 17% and 22.6%, sandstone between 7.9% and
11.9%, and quartz 1.8%. Quartzite stands out among the nB (75%),
meanwhile Neogene chert and sandstone are prominent among the
flakes (37.8% and 17.8% respectively).
The initial selection of raw materials for the shaping of handaxes
and cleavers is also noteworthy in Galería, where priority was given
to morphology over quality. Neogene chert and sandstone were
selected based on their original formats (flat in sandstone and large
in Neogene chert), their low resistance to the conchoidal fracture,
and their capacity for the fluid knapping with a soft hammer. The
edges of these materials, characterised by their fragility, can be
highly efficient when associated with instruments of great mass.
In Galería work was done on a mass of 94,332 g of raw material
(including 53,450 g of nB), and 479 mm of useful cutting edges were
produced per kg (1,106 mm if only the knapped products are
counted). A considerable reduction in the weight of objects in the
more recent sublevels was observed. The productivity of Cretaceous
chert stands out in flakes (7,388 mm) and flake tools (3,256 mm),
whereas quartzite is especially productive in flakes (1,577 mm; and
3,052 mm with very high-quality quartzite) (Table 5).
The features of the weight and cutting edge of this lithic
assemblage are closely related to the use of a great proportion of
quartzite (between 25% and 31%), as well as to the function of the
site: hominins carried out forceful activities with tools largely
manufactured off-site.
The flakes exhibited the highest proportion of cutting edges per
kilogram, with 2,216 mm. The most commonly used raw materials
are Cretaceous chert (7,388 mm) and Neogene chert (2,881 mm)
(Table 5). We noted that, in Galería, 37 chert products were ob-
tained per kilogram and 9.6 on other raw materials. Quartzite
stands out in the generation of products of more than 50 mm (53.2%
in GII and 57.9% in GIII). GIII yielded a substantial proportion of
tools measuring over 50 mm (49.2%) (Table 6).
Retouched edge was very common in Galería (between 38% in
GII and 36% in GIII). Most of the retouched tools display cutting
edges with a convex shape (between 50.5% and 43%), mainly made
of Neogene chert (68.7%), and sandstone (58.3%). Straight edges on
tools made with Cretaceous chert (36.4% in GII) are particularly
noteworthy. 18.6% of the edges made on Neogene chert in GII and
17.6% those in GIII are pointed. The average angles are between
65.3 in GII and 69 in GIII (Table 7). The chert tools bear more
abrupt angles due to the successive reconditioning of the edges.
7. Discussion
Up until the last few decades, there was a notable absence of
exhaustive analyses in the literature concerning the direct rela-
tionship between the quality of the raw materials used to make
lithic tools and cutting edge features of those tools. Today, there are
very different interpretations of the most important variables that
affect the potential of lithic tools.
Researchers that apply the classic typologies have focused on
studying the morphology of the cutting edges obtained by
retouching flakes, or that of the flakes resulting from knapping
process with predetermination of the final products (Bordes, 1950;


Please cite this article in press as: Terradillos-Bernal, M., Rodríguez-Alvarez, X.-P., The influence of raw material quality on the characteristics of
the lithic tool edges from the Atapuerca sites (Burgos, Spain), Quaternary International (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2015.10.122


Sonneville-Bordes and Perrot, 1954; Tixier, 1956; interalia). These
authors propose that the morphology, delineation and the angles
(created by the retouch) determine the tools' function (more spe-
cific term than “potential”), and so, for them, defining tool groups
based on these variables is a useful exercise.
However, with this study we found that the proportion of
retouched convex edges is similar in all of the levels analysed
(between 42.5% in TD10-2 and 53.3% in TD6) (Table 7). The vari-
ability of the proportion between non-retouched and retouched
edges is not determined by the raw materials used, but rather by
the incorporation of instruments from outside and the intensifi-
cation of cutting activities (47% of edges retouched in GIII compared
to 16% in TD10-2 and 14% in TD6), related to the function of the site.
Furthermore, we found that the retouching of flakes does not
give an overall greater length of cutting edges as it does not produce
a longer area for cutting on the flakes, but rather modifies, limits
and adapts their cutting ability. This retouching would focus on
changing the morphology and angle of the edge to produce tools
destined for secondary activities (e.g. tendon work or the extraction
of meat stuck to bones).
Gould et al. (1971) and Lemorini (1992: 17) indicate how the
angle of the cutting edge takes priority over the morphology of
lithic tools among today's hunters and gatherers, and for this
reason edge length is not as important as angle (Atkins, 2009). This
author proposes that increased edge angles restrict a tool's depth of
penetration but increase its slicing ability (Atkins, 2006). Never-
theless, edge angle is not necessarily indicative of a specific activity
(Borel et al., 2013; Seeman et al., 2013).
We have observed that the angle of the cutting edges is rela-
tively uniform in all of the levels (between 73 in TD6, and 65 in
TD10-2 and GII), although very diverse activities were carried out in
each of them. There is no observed relation between the edge angle
and the proportion of retouched edge. For example, the artefacts
form GII present a great relevancy of retouched edge, but also a
minor angle. The proportion of Palaeozoic materials also does not
influence the angle of the edge (73 in TD6 and 65 in GII) (Table 7).
The presence (for example in TD6) of orthogonal knapping patterns
is the most important variable of angle diversity.
Leroi-Gourhan (1955:93) quantifies the cutting edge length of
the primary morphotypes in relation to the mass used. This author
described a gradual evolution of edge production but from a
generic perspective (analysis based on technological modes and not
on technologies and/or methods).
An interesting point of view suggests that the preference for the
production of small artefacts is one of the main reasons for the end
potential of the tools. This is because the production of small flakes
generates a largest longer sharp edge per kg (Mackay, 2008;


Terradillos-Bernal and Rodríguez-Alvarez, 2012; Key and Lycett,
2014b). This pattern explains the relevant edge length of TD10 (in
TD10-1 23.6% of the products measure less than 2 cm and have
2,430 mm of edge, and in TD10-2 62.8% of the products measure
less than 2 cm and have 4,662 mm of edge) (Table 6).
Therefore, we can assert that the most important factor which
determines the useful edge length is the size of the product. In this
regard, the raw materials influence the production of small flakes:
e.g. Neogene chert generates 338 flakes per core in GII, Cretaceous
chert 113 in TD10-2, and quartzite 136 in TD10-2. However, to
complete this model it is necessary to highlight the proportion of
flakes per cores and the mobility of cores (cores which would be
taken out of the site): in TD10-2 there are 178 flakes per core, 117 in
TD10-1, 22 in GIII, 16 in GII and 10.7 in TD6 (Table 6).
The relationship between potential, morphology, and function
was introduced in the analysis of lithic tools by Airvaux (1987). The
definition of morpho-potentiality allows us to analyse these vari-
ables without designating them to a specific function, but rather


M. Terradillos-Bernal, X.-P. Rodríguez-Alvarez / Quaternary International xxx (2016) 1e13
deducing different possibilities of use. However, these morpho-
potential capacities are determined by edge length, the weight of
the tool and the quality of the edge (determined by the raw
material).
Some authors have analysed the efficiency of certain methods of
exploitation, when they transform the mass of the core into func-
tional elements, through the production of cutting edges (e.g.,
Brantingham and Kuhn, 2001; Braun and Harris, 2003; Braun,
2005), or the degree of reduction of the primary volumes related
to the proportion of the edge knapped (among other factors) in
relation to the total length of the edge of the lithic objects (Vaquero,
1997). The exploitation method and technique, and even the ca-
pacity to intensify the exploitation, affect small flake production.
For example, some special knapping methods (Discoid/Levallois)
favour the production of small flakes with sharper edges. However,
the qualities of the raw materials used can either make the removal
of flat and/or small products easier or more complicated.
On the basis of the relationship between the potential useful-
ness and the angle of the cutting edge, it is possible to differentiate
between hypothetical groups of tools (retouched and non
retouched): those whose basic potential is for cutting in parallel
and with a short useful life (less than 35 ); those with an inter-
mediate useful life and less cutting potential ability (between 35
and 75 ); and those which are only effective for cutting at greater
angles (more than 75 ) but would last longer (Wilmsen, 1968;
Lepot, 1993; Soressi, 2002: 61e62).
Only the two first groups have been identified in the assem-
blages analysed: one in which the cutting edge was the most
important feature (Gran Dolina TD10 and TD6), and a second in-
termediate group (Galería).
Gran Dolina TD10 and Galería are characterised by the presence
of a different proportion of high-quality raw materials such as chert
(which produces small flakes) which allowed the hominins there to
obtain high quality, sharp edges. There are also very important
differences in the management of the inhabited space, and the time
dedicated to knapping. Gran Dolina TD10 was a campsite and, in
Galería, the hominins took advantage of a natural trap in GII, and
they carried out brief stays in GIII. These difference are determined
by the variable security provided by each cave, which in turn is due
to the orientation, size and strategic position of the cave entrance in
the landscape (Terradillos-Bernal and Rodríguez-Alvarez,
2012).
The safety provided by the characteristics of the entry of Gran
Dolina level TD10 allowed these hominins to develop more com-
plex strategies, with longer cycles, in order to intensify knapping
using the best raw materials, in addition to almost exhausting the
possibilities of core exploitation or removing them from the site.
8. Conclusions
The hominins that occupied the Sierra de Atapuerca during the
Early and Middle Pleistocene developed their technological stra-
tegies in a similar environment, with similar resources, and with
the same raw materials (the same qualities, formats, availability,
etc.). On the basis of the analysis of these archaeological and
experimental lithic assemblages it has been possible to distinguish
a close relationship between the quality of the raw materials used
and the cutting edge features of the tools made. Nevertheless, the
hominins selected different proportions and different sizes of raw
materials, and these choices influenced their knapping activities
and the results they obtained.
In the Mode 1 of TD6, the hominins predominately selected
Palaeozoic materials (flakes obtained in the production of short
cycle pebble cores and massive knapping), due to the proximity of
the sources. These materials had thick formats on which they


Please cite this article in press as: Terradillos-Bernal, M., Rodríguez-Alvarez, X.-P., The influence of raw material quality on the characteristics of
the lithic tool edges from the Atapuerca sites (Burgos, Spain), Quaternary International (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2015.10.122
11
applied orthogonal knapping techniques. These knapping patterns
influenced the greater angle edge of the products (an average of
73 ). In the shaping of flake tools the hominins of TD6 selected
Cretaceous chert (16% of products have been retouched) and
quartzite (13% of products have been retouched) because this kind
of chert provides a regular and durable cutting edge, and quartzite
produces large flakes (38.6% of quartzite products are larger than
5 cm).
The Galería lithic assemblage includes large shaped tools such as
cleavers and handaxes, and well shaped small tools (side scrapers,
points, denticulates, notches, etc.). In Galería, we have identified
long cycle pebble tools, in which the hominins gave priority to the
initial large and flat format of the pebbles (sandstone), and to the
limited resistance of the fracture, which would allow them to apply
hard and soft percussion (on chert and sandstone).
In TD10, the knapping of chert to produce small flakes is due to
the importance of cutting activities in a context of primary access to
biomass. Chert is more productive than quartzite and quartz
because it requires narrower platforms of percussion, it is easier to
repair knapping accidents, and it yields a greater number of small
flakes. The Levallois and Discoid methods are the most effective for
the production of small and medium-sized flakes. The TD10 hom-
inins almost only used chert (principally Neogene) for shaping
flakes, due to the little striking force needed for retouch with this
material.
We have confirmed that in TD6 (27.9%) as well as in some sub-
levels of TD10 (TD10-2 ¼ 39.4%), Cretaceous chert was preferen-
tially selected for the production of small instruments. The use of
Cretaceous chert to make small flake tools is due to quality of the
cutting edges it produces.
This is determined in a larger economic sphere by the hominins'
knapping objectives seeking small tools with non-retouched edges
(destined for longitudinal cutting activities) as well as retouched
tools with a greater edge angle (destined for secondary transverse
and longitudinal activities). The hominins at the site also made
large tools with greater edge angles for incision activities in which
they took advantage of the weight of the tool in relation to the type
of activity that took place.
However, as we have been able to observe, the selection of raw
materials can affect the ease with which long high-quality edges
are created and/or can yield powerful tools. At these sites, quartzite
was selected because of its proximity, its suitable qualities for
knapping and its relative weight. Flat format sandstone was chosen
for its suitability in the production of handaxes and its low resis-
tance to fracture. Neogene chert was chosen due to its abundance,
proximity, low resistance to fracture, very sharp edges, and thick
formats that adjust to the development of the Discoid and Levallois
methods. As for the Cretaceous chert, this raw material generates
the best and most resistant cutting edges.
The qualities of the raw materials influence the characteristics of
the edges in a different way. Three factors can facilitate of
complicate the process:
 complex and long cycle exploitation processes (e.g. Discoid and
Levallois methods);
 the production of a major record of small flakes with sharp
edges and greater edge length per kg;
 the mobility of cores.
Also, we have been able to document how the qualities of the
raw materials have an intermediate influence on:
 the angles of the tools;
 the length and resistance of the edges.
12

M. Terradillos-Bernal, X.-P. Rodríguez-Alvarez / Quaternary International xxx (2016) 1e13
Finally, the qualities of the raw materials have a minor influence
on:
 the delineation of the edges;
 the proportion of retouched and non-retouched edges.
To conclude, we propose that studying the features of the cut-
ting edges in relation to the raw materials makes it possible to
advance our understanding of the economy and technology of the
Palaeolithic.
Acknowledgements
We thank Dr. J. Carlos Díez Ferna
ndez-Lomana, Dr. Pilar Lo

pez,
and Rodrígo Alonso. M. T.-B. has been a scholarship holder of

tedra Atapuerca” (Fundacio
“Ca
n Atapuerca and Fundacio
n Duques
de Soria). The authors of this paper belong to the Atapuerca
Research Project, supported by MINECO Projects CGL2012-38434-
C03. The work of X.P Rodríguez is also supported by the AGAUR
(Generalitat de Catalunya) project 2014SGR-899.
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Please cite this article in press as: Terradillos-Bernal, M., Rodríguez-Alvarez, X.-P., The influence of raw material quality on the characteristics of
the lithic tool edges from the Atapuerca sites (Burgos, Spain), Quaternary International (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2015.10.122