ADVANCE MATHEMATICS ➢ It is not considered monotonic if the sequence shows a

MODULE 1.1: PROPERTIES OF pattern that is both increasing and decreasing

➢ Take note: For it to be considered convergent it should
SEQUENCE AND SERIES be both monotonic and bounded.
SEQUENCES BOUNDED SEQUENCE
➢ General sequence of terms: 1. If there exist a number m such that m ≤ 𝒂𝒏 for every
𝒂𝟏 – first term 𝒂𝟐 – second term n, the sequence is bounded below. The number m is
called the lower bound for the sequence. (If the
𝒂𝒏 – 𝑛𝑡ℎ term 𝒂𝒏+𝟏 – (𝑛 + 1)𝑠𝑡 term value did not decrease, then that is the lower bound)
➢ Ways of denoting a sequence: 2. If there exist a number M such that 𝒂𝒏 ≤ M for every
n, the sequence is bounded above. The number M is
{𝒂𝟏 , 𝒂𝟐 ,…, 𝒂𝒏 , 𝒂𝒏+𝟏 , …} {𝒂𝒏 } {𝒂𝒏 }∞
𝒏=𝟏 called the upper bound for the sequence. (The
maximum value is determined when there is no
CONVERGE OF SEQUENCES value going over it.)
➢ If 𝒍𝒊𝒎 𝒂𝒏 exists, then the sequence converges (or is 3. If the sequence is both bounded below and above,
𝒏→∞
convergent), the sequence is bounded.
➢ If 𝒍𝒊𝒎 𝒂𝒏 does not exist or is infinite, then the sequence
𝒏→∞ MONOTONIC SEQUENCE THEOREM
diverges (or is divergent),
➢ If {𝒂𝒏 } is bounded and monotonic, then { 𝒂𝒏 } is
convergent.
➢ EXAMPLE:

➢ Limit Laws to Convergent Series:

❖ If {𝒂𝒏 } and {𝒃𝒏 } are convergent sequences, and c is a
constant, and 𝒍𝒊𝒎 𝒂𝒏 = 𝑳 and 𝒍𝒊𝒎 𝒃𝒏 = 𝑴, then:
𝒏→∞ 𝒏→∞
• lim 𝑘𝑎𝑛 = 𝑘𝐿 (Constant is multiplied to lim )
𝑛→∞ 𝑛→∞
• lim (𝑘𝑎𝑛 + ℎ𝑏𝑛 ) = 𝑘𝐿 + ℎ𝑀
𝑛→∞
• lim 𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑛 = 𝐿𝑀 (Formulas are multiplied
𝑛→∞
therefore, respective limits are multiplied as well)
𝑎𝑛 𝐿
• lim = 𝑀 , 𝑖𝑓 𝑀 ≠ 0
𝑛→∞ 𝑏𝑛
• lim 𝑎𝑛𝑝 = 𝐿𝑝 , 𝑖𝑓 𝑝 > 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑛 > 0. ➢ Thus, THE SEQUENCE CONVERGES.
𝑛→∞

INCREASING/DECREASING/MONOTONIC
➢ EX. 1 Determine if the following sequences are
1. The sequence is INCREASING if 𝒂𝒏 < 𝒂𝒏+𝟏 for every n. monotonic and/or bounded.
2. The sequence is DECREASING if 𝒂𝒏 >𝒂𝒏+𝟏 for every n.
3. If {𝒂𝒏 } is an increasing sequence or {𝒂𝒏 } is a
decreasing sequence, then it is MONOTONIC. • This sequence is a decreasing sequence (hence
monotonic) because:
➢ If you can determine that the sequence is increasing or
decreasing it is monotonic
 • Since, the sequence terms will be either zero or SERIES
negative, the sequence is bounded above with M = 0
since, ➢ Let {𝒂𝒏 } be a sequence. Then the infinite sum is called
an INFINITE SERIES or simply SERIES.
• The sequence is NOT bounded below. Therefore, while ∞
the sequence is bounded above it is NOT bounded. (If
bounded above but not bounded below it is considered ∑ 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎1+𝑎2 +⋯+𝑎𝑛+⋯
as not bounded). 𝑛=1
• As a side note, the sequence diverges. (Since it is
➢ Let {𝒂𝒏 } be a sequence. The partial sum of a series is
monotonic but not bounded).
given by:
∞
➢ EX. 2 Write a formula for the nth term of an of the sequence
and determine its limit (if it exists). 𝑆𝑛 = ∑ 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎1 +𝑎2+⋯+𝑎𝑛+⋯
𝑛=1

Where: 𝑺𝒏 is called the 𝒏𝒕𝒉 PARTIAL SUM of the

SOL’N: series.
𝒏 ∞ 𝒏
{𝒂𝒏 =
𝒏+𝟐
} = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 {𝒏+𝟐} CONVERGENCE OF A SERIES
𝒏=𝟏 𝒏→∞
𝒅 ➢ If the partial sums {𝑺𝒏 } converge to L as n → ∞, then
𝒏 𝟏
𝐥𝐢𝐦 { 𝒅𝒏
} = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 we say that the infinite series CONVERGES to L.
𝒏→∞
𝒅
𝒏+𝟐 𝒏→∞ 𝟏
= 𝟏
𝒅𝒏 ∞
❖Use L’Hopitals
∑ 𝑎𝑛 = 𝐿 𝑖𝑓 lim 𝑘𝑎𝑛 =𝑘𝐿
𝑛→∞
➢ EX. 3 Determine if the given sequence converges or 𝑛=1
diverges. If it converges, what is its limit?
Otherwise, we say that the series ∑∞
𝑛=1 𝑎𝑛 DIVERGES.

THEOREM: NTH TERM TEST

SOL’N:
𝒅
𝒍𝒏 (𝒏+𝟐) ➢ If the series ∑∞
𝑛=1 𝑎𝑛 is convergent, then lim 𝑎𝑛 = 0.
𝒍𝒏 (𝒏+𝟐) 𝒅𝒏 𝑛→∞
𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒍𝒏 (𝟏+𝟒𝒏) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦
𝒅 ➢ IMPORTANT! The converse of this theorem is false.
𝒏→∞ 𝒏→∞ 𝒍𝒏 (𝟏+𝟒𝒏)
𝒅𝒏 The convergence of 𝑎𝑛 to zero does not imply that the
𝒅
𝟏+𝟒𝒏 𝟒
series ∑∞
𝑛=1 𝑎𝑛 converges. For example, the harmonic
𝒅𝒏
𝐥𝐢𝐦 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝟒 = 𝟏 ∴ 𝑪𝑶𝑵𝑽𝑬𝑹𝑮𝑬𝑺 series ∑∞
1
𝒅
𝒏→∞ (𝒏+𝟐)𝟒 𝒏→∞ 𝑛=1 diverges although lim 𝑎𝑛 = 0.
𝑛
𝒅𝒏 𝑛→∞

➢ EX. 4 Determine whether the given sequence is increasing, DIVERGENCE TEST

decreasing, or not monotonic; bounded below, bounded ➢ If lim 𝑎𝑛 ≠ 0 then the series ∑∞
𝑛=1 𝑎𝑛 will DIVERGE.
above, or bounded; convergent or divergent. If it is 𝑛→∞

bounded, find its upper and/or lower boundary. If it is ➢ IMPORTANT! This test only guarantees that a series
convergent, find its limit. will diverge if the series terms do not approach to zero
𝟏 √𝟑 𝟏 −𝟏 −√𝟑 in the limit. If the series terms approach to zero, the
{𝟎, , , , 𝟎, , 𝟐 , −𝟏, … } series MAY or MAY NOT converge.
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
= ➢ Do NOT assume that if lim 𝑎𝑛 = 0 then the series
𝑛→∞
𝑼𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒃𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅 = 𝟏 ∴ 𝑫𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒏𝒆𝒕, 𝒃𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒅, ∑∞
𝑛=1 𝑎𝑛 will converge.

𝑳𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒃𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅 = −𝟏 𝒃𝒖𝒕 𝒏𝒐𝒕 𝑴𝒐𝒏𝒐𝒕𝒐𝒏𝒊𝒄

PROPERTIES OF A SERIES ➢ FORMULAS to remember for ARITHMETIC SERIES:
• For the nth term: 𝒂𝒏 = 𝒂𝟏 + (𝒏 − 𝟏)𝒅
➢ LET ∑∞ ∞
𝑛=1 𝑎𝑛 = 𝐴 and ∑𝑛=1 𝑏𝑛 = 𝐵 be a convergent 𝒏
series and let c be a real number, Then: • For the partial sum: 𝑺𝒏 = (𝒂𝟏 + 𝒂𝒏 )
𝟐
• ∑∞
𝑛=1(𝑎𝑛 + 𝑏𝑛 ) = 𝐴 + 𝐵
• For the series at infinity: 𝑺∞ = ∞ 𝒐𝒓 − ∞
∞ ➢ Where:
• ∑𝑛=1 𝑐𝑎𝑛 = 𝑐𝐴 𝒂𝟏 = 𝟏𝒔𝒕 𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒎 𝒅 = 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒎𝒐𝒏 𝒅𝒊𝒇𝒇.
IMPORTANT! If we add/subtract series terms, make sure
𝒂𝒏 = 𝒏𝒕𝒉 𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒎 𝒏 = 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓
that both have the same initial value of the index. ➢ NOTE: Because the series at infinity results to +/-
infinity, ARITHMETIC SERIES ALWAYS DIVERGES.
➢ EX. 1 Determine if the series 𝑎𝑛 ∞ 𝑛=0 is convergent
or divergent if the partial sum of the n terms of the GEOMETRIC SERIES
series is given below. If the series is convergent, ➢ It is the SUM of the terms in a GEOMETRIC SEQUENCE
determine the value of the series. ➢ GEOMETRIC SEQUENCE:
∞ ➢ FORMULAS to remember for GEOMETRIC SERIES:
𝟓 + 𝟖𝒏𝟐
∑ 𝐥𝐢𝐦 • For the nth term: 𝒂𝒏 = 𝒂𝟏 (𝒓)𝒏−𝟏
𝒏→∞ 𝟐 − 𝟕𝒏𝟐 𝒂𝟏 (𝟏−𝒓𝒏 )
𝒏=𝟎 • For the partial sum: 𝑺𝒏 =
SOL’N: (𝟏−𝒓)
𝒅
(𝟓+𝟖𝒏𝟐 )
𝒅
(𝟏𝟔𝒏) −𝟏𝟔 −𝟖 • For the series at infinity:
∑∞
𝒏=𝟎 𝐥𝐢𝐦
𝒅𝒏
𝒅 = 𝒅𝒏
𝒅 = = 𝒂𝟏
𝒏→∞ (𝟐−𝟕𝒏𝟐 ) (−𝟏𝟒𝒏) 𝟏𝟒 𝟕 𝑺∞ = (for convergent series)
𝒅𝒏 𝒅𝒏 𝟏−𝒓
➢ Where:
∴ 𝑪𝑶𝑵𝑽𝑬𝑹𝑮𝑬𝑵𝑻
𝒂𝟏 = 𝟏𝒔𝒕 𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒎 𝒓 = 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒎𝒐𝒏 𝒅𝒊𝒇𝒇.
➢ EX. 2 Let 𝒂𝒏 = 𝟏 + 𝒏𝒆−𝒏 𝒂𝒏 = 𝒏𝒕𝒉 𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒎 𝒏 = 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓
∞ ➢ NOTE:
a) Does the sequence{𝒂𝒏 }𝒏 = 𝟎 converge or diverge?
∞ • It is a /r/ < 1, the series CONVERGES.
b) Does the series ∑𝑛=0 𝑎𝑛 converge or diverge?
• It is a /r/ ≥ 1, the series DIVERGES.
SOL’N:
a.) 𝐥𝐢𝐦 = 1 + 𝑛 = 1 + ∞ = 1 + ∞ = 1+0 HARMONIC SERIES AND P - SERIES
𝒏→∞ 𝑒𝑛 𝑒∞ 0

𝐥𝐢𝐦 = 1 ∴ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝒍𝒊𝒎𝒊𝒕 𝒆𝒙𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒔, 𝒕𝒉𝒆 ➢ HARMONIC SERIES obeys the formula
𝒏→∞ ∞
𝒔𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒔 𝟏
𝑺𝒏 = ∑
𝒏
𝑛 𝒏=𝟏
b.) 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐥𝐢𝐦 = 1 + 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 0 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛
𝒏→∞ 𝑒𝑛
𝑛
➢ P - SERIES obeys the ∞
formula
Then ∑∞
𝑛=1 1 + 𝑒𝑛 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝐷𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝟏
𝑺𝒏 = ∑ (𝐟𝐨𝐫 𝐩 > 𝟎)
𝒏𝒑
𝒏=𝟏
➢ SEQUENCE EXAMPLES:
MODULE 1.2: ARITHMETIC, • Harmonic Sequence: {1,
1 1 1
, , , …}, p = 1
2 3 4
GEOMETRIC, HARMONIC AND P-SERIES 1 1 1
• P-Sequence: {1, , , , …}, p = 2
4 9 16
ARITHMETIC SERIES ➢ SERIES EXAMPLES:
• For harmonic series, the series ALWAYS
➢ It is the SUM of the terms in an ARITHMETIC
DIVERGES.
SEQUENCE
• For p-series, where p > 0, the series DIVERGES for
➢ SERIES = Getting the sum at infinity
p ≤ 1.
➢ PARTIAL SUM = Getting sum up until you reach n
 • For p-series, where p > 0, the series CONVERGES
for p > 1. MODULE 1.3: POWER SERIES
SUMMARY AND TAYLOR SERIES
POWER SERIES
➢ Series of the form

➢ Where:
c – center
𝒂𝒏 – coefficients
➢ EX. 1 a.) What type of Series is the ➢ For instance, we take c = 0 and an = 1 for all n, the
given formula? power series becomes geometric series
b.) What is the answer to the
partial sum?
SOL’N:
a.) {𝟏𝟓, 𝟑𝟖, 𝟔𝟏, 𝟖𝟒, 𝟏𝟎𝟕, … } 𝒅 = 23
ARITHMETIC SERIES ➢ Partial sum = Finite, has specific range
➢ INFINITE = Getting Infinite sum
b.) 𝒂𝒏 = 𝟏𝟓 + (𝟓𝟐𝟎 − 𝟏)23 ➢ Value of all x for which the power series converges
𝒏
𝑺𝒏 = (𝒂𝟏 + 𝒂𝒏 ) ➢ Ratio Test – used in getting the ratio of succeeding
𝟐 term over the preceding term
𝟓𝟐𝟎
𝑺𝒏 = (𝟏𝟓 + 𝟏𝟏𝟗𝟓𝟐) THEOREM Succeeding
𝟐
𝑺𝒏 = 𝟑, 𝟏𝟏𝟏, 𝟒𝟐𝟎
➢ EX. 2 {3+ 6+ 12+ …+ 1536} Preeceding (Inconclusive)
a.) What type of Series is the given formula?
Thus, for power series
b.) What is the answer to the partial sum?
SOL’N:
a.) 𝒓 = 𝟐 Geometric Series
b.) Solve for n
𝟑(𝟏−𝟐𝟏𝟎 )
𝒂𝒏 = 𝒂𝟏 (𝒓)𝒏−𝟏 𝑺𝒏 = 𝟏−𝟐 POWER SERIES REPRESENTATION OF A
𝒏−𝟏
𝟏𝟓𝟑𝟔 = 𝟑(𝟐) 𝑺𝒏 = 𝟑𝟎𝟔𝟗 FUNCTION
𝒏 = 𝟏𝟎

➢ EX. 3 a) What type of Series is the given formula?

b) What is the answer to the partial sum?

𝟑 𝟗 𝟐𝟕 𝟖𝟏 𝟐𝟒𝟑
{ , , , , ,…}
𝟒 𝟏𝟔 𝟔𝟒 𝟐𝟓𝟔 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟒
a.) 𝑮𝒆𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄 𝒔𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒆𝒔
𝟑 𝟑 𝟏𝟐𝟎
𝟑 (𝟏−( ) )
𝟒 𝟒
b.) 𝒓 = 𝟒 𝑺𝒏 = 𝟑 =𝟑
𝟏−𝟒
THEOREMS: ➢ EX. 2 Find the power series representation for the given
function:

SOL’N:

TAYLOR SERIES
➢ Used if the given cannot be transformed into a power
series representation

𝒇𝒏 (𝒙−𝒄)𝒏
∑ Where:
𝒏! c = Center

TAYLOR SERIES SIMPLIFIED

➢ EX. 2 Find the Taylor series expansion for the given
Special Products: *Note: If center is not function:
stated, assume 0
𝒆𝒙 , 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙, 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙
SOL’N:

➢ EX. 1 Find the interval of convergence for the following

series:

SOL’N:

MODULE 1.4: LAPLACE

TRANSFORMS
LAPLACE TRANSFORMS
TABLE OF LAPLACE TRANSFORMS ➢ EX. 2 Find the Laplace transform of f(t) = sin(2t)cos(2t).
(Hint: Look for an equivalent trigonometric identity)
SOL’N:

➢ n in t n should be a positive integer

➢ EX. 3 Find the Laplace transform of f(t) = te2tsin(2t)
➢ the ωt term in the sine and cosine function is in
SOL’N:
radians
➢ sinh 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥−𝑒 −𝑥 2 , cosh 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥+𝑒 −𝑥 2
➢ This table should be memorized!!!

THEOREMS ON LAPLACE TRANSFORMS

➢ LINEARITY OF LAPLACE TRANSFORMS
• If 𝓛 {𝒇(𝒕)} = 𝑭(𝒔) and 𝓛{𝒈(𝒕)} = 𝑮(𝒔),
• and a and b are constants
• then 𝓛{𝒂𝒇(𝒕) + 𝒃𝒈(𝒕)} = 𝒂𝑭(𝒔) + 𝒃𝑮(𝒔)

➢ S-SHIFTING THEOREM
• If 𝓛{𝒇(𝒕)} = 𝑭(𝒔),
• then 𝓛{𝒆𝒂𝒕𝒇(𝒕)} = 𝑭 (𝒔 – 𝒂)

➢ DERIVATIVES OF LAPLACE TRANSFORMS

• If 𝓛{𝒇(𝒕)} = 𝑭(𝒔),
• then 𝓛{𝒕𝒏𝒇(𝒕)} = (−𝟏)𝒏𝑭(𝒏)𝒔
• where 𝑭(𝒏)(𝒔) is the nth derivative of F(s) with
MODULE 1.5: INVERSE
respect to s. LAPLACE TRANSFORMS
➢ EX. 1 Find the Laplace Transform of f(t) = t sin(kt)
INVERSE LAPLACE TRANSFORMS
➢ If 𝑭(𝒔) = 𝓛{𝒇(𝒕)}, then the Inverse Laplace Transform of
F(s), denoted by 𝓛−𝟏 {𝑭(𝒔)}, is defined as the
transformation from a function of s to a function of t such
that
METHODS OF GETTING INVERSE LAPLACE ➢ EX. 1 Find the Inverse Laplace transform of
TRANSFORMS

1. Use of Laplace Transform Table

1 SOL’N:
➢ Find the Inverse Laplace Transform of 𝑆 5

2. Method of Partial Fractions

𝑠+2
➢ Find the ℒ−1 { }
𝑠 2 −6𝑠+8
➢ EX. 2 Find the Inverse Laplace transform of

SOL’N:

3. Method of Completing the Square

1 𝑠+6
➢ Find the ℒ−1 {𝑠 2 +4𝑠+13 − 𝑠 2−10𝑠−11}
MODULE 1.6: SOLUTIONS TO DE
USING LAPLACE TRANSFORMS
➢ Given a differential equation [𝜙(𝐷)]𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑡), the
solution to this DE may be obtained using the concept
of Laplace and Inverse Laplace Transformation by the
following steps:
1) Get the Laplace Transform of both sides of equation.
2) Isolate F(s) on one side of equation, resulting to a
function of s.
 3) Substitute initial conditions, if any, 𝑦(0) = 𝑐1, 𝑦′(0) = 𝑐2, Solving for A, B, and C,
𝑦′′′(0) = 𝑐3, …
4) Get the Laplace Transform of both side of equation. This
gives the solution to the given DE, ℒ −1 {𝐹(𝑠)} = ℒ −1{ℒ
{𝑦(𝑡)}} = 𝑦(𝑡).

LAPLACE TRANSFORM OF DERIVATIVES

➢ It is used when solving DE problems and not for
Laplace tansformations
➢ If 𝓛{𝒇(𝒕)} = 𝑭(𝒔), then we have the following formulas:

➢ EX. 2 : Determine the solution to the DE

(𝑫𝟐 + 𝟐𝑫 – 𝟖)𝒚 = 𝟏𝟔 cos 𝟐𝒕 with the initial conditions
𝒚(𝟎) = 𝒚 ′(𝟎) = 𝟎.
➢ In general, the Laplace Transform of the nth derivative of
Step 1: Get the Laplace Transform of both sides of equation.
f(t) with respect to t is:

Step 2: Isolate F(s) on one side of the equation.

➢ EX. 1 Determine the solution to the DE
(𝑫𝟐 + 𝟑𝑫 – 𝟒)𝒚 = 𝟑𝟔𝒆𝟓𝒕 with the initial conditions
𝒚(𝟎) = 𝟑 and 𝒚 ′(𝟎) = 2

Step 1: Get the Laplace Transform of both sides of equation.

Step 3: Substitute initial conditions

Step 2: Isolate F(s) on one side of the equation.

Step 4: Get the Inverse Laplace Transform of both side of the
equation:

Solving for A, B, C, and D,

Step 3: Substitute initial conditions

Step 4: Get the Inverse Laplace Transform of both side of the

equation: