below

THE INTEGRAL SEEN AS THE (-1)st DERIVATIVE AND THE HALF-INTEGRAL

Leonardo Rubino
July 2023

Abstract: The integral seen as the (-1)st derivative and the Half-Integral.

1-(-1)st derivative of x

d ( 1) 1 2
( 1)
x  x   xdx
dx 2
Proof:

d k d1 k d2 dn k!
x  1 x  kx k 1 , 2 x k  k (k  1) x k  2 , n x k  k (k  1)...(k  n  1) x k  n  x k  n (1.1)
dx dx dx dx (k  n)!
d ( 1) 1 1! 1! 1
and with k=1 and n=-1, we have: ( 1)
x  x1 ( 1)  x 2  x 2   xdx .
dx [1  (1)]! 2! 2

Check:
d (1) d ( 1) 1 2 d 11 1 2 1 d0 2 1 2
as it must be: ( )( x )  ( x )  x  x , then:
dx (1) dx ( 1) 2 dx11 2 2 dx 0 2
d (1) d ( 1)
1 2 d (1)
d ( 1)
1 2 1 d (1)
d ( 1)
2 1 d (1) 2!
( )( x )  [ ( x )]  ( x )  { x[ 2( 1)]} 
dx (1) dx ( 1)
2 (1)
dx dx ( 1)
2 (1)
2 dx dx ( 1) (1)
2 dx [2  (1)]!
1 d (1) 2! 3 1 d 2 3 1 d 3 1 2 1 2 d (1) 1
 (1)
( x )  ( x )  x  3 x  x  ( (1) 
_ dx)( x 2 ) qed.
2 dx 3! 2 dx 6 6 dx 6 2 dx 2

1 2 1 2
To solve the objection that  xdx  2 x  C and not just  xdx  2 x , we could redefine in this
way:
x
d ( 1) 1 2 (1.2)
x  x   x dx
dx ( 1) 2 0
2-Half-Integral of x ( x )

1
( ) 3 3 3 3
2
d 1! 1 (  12 ) 1 2 1 1 1
x  1 x  1
x1  x  x  x2  x2  x2 
( ) 1 3 3 5 3 3
2
dx 2 [1  ( )]! ( )! (  1) ( ) ( )
3 3
2 2 2 2 2 2
1 2
4 2
 x  x . To have the value for Γ(3/2), see the (A3.2) in the Appendix.
3  3 
2 2
 3
4 2
So: x x (Half-Imtegral) (2.1)
3 

As a check, by applying twice the (2.1) to x, we get the classic integral of x, that is (1/2)x2:
1 1 1 1 1 1
( ) ( ) (  ) ( ) ( )
d 2
d 2
1 d 2 2
d ( 1) d 2 d 2
x=  
1 1 x   x [ 1 1
]x  1 1
x  ( 1) x  1
[ 1 x] 
2 2
1 (
2
) (
2
) (  )
2 2
dx ( )
2
( )
dx dx dx dx dx 2

1 1 1 3
(
2
) (
2
) 3 (
2
) 3 ! 3
d 1! 1 (  12 ) d 4 2
4 d 2
4 2  (  12 )
 1
{ x } 1
{ x } 1
{x }  x2 
( ) 1 ( ) 3  3  ( ) 3 1
3  [  ( )]!
dx 2 [1  ( )]! dx 2 dx 2
2 2 2
3 
4 2 2 2 1 2
 x  x   xdx
3  2! 2

On the contrary, if we start from the definition of integral, that is:

k 1 k 1
 x dx  k  1 x  C and by considering that, out of simplicity, for the time being C is always
zero (or you can use the definition (1.2), if you don’t tolerate that C=0), we have:
k 1 k 2 1
  x  (k  1)(k  2) x ,    xk  x k  3 and
(k  1)(k  2)(k  3)

1 k!
  .....(n  times)....... x k  xk n  xk n   xk (2.2)
(k  1)(k  2)(k  3).....(k  n) (k  n)! n

In fact, by applying, as an example,the (2.2) in order to integrate three times x4 :

4! 1 7
(n=3 and k=4)  x 4  x43  x , that is the same value we get by integrating three
3 (4  3)! 210
times, indeed, one after the other, x4. Well then, according to the (2.2) with n=1/2 and applied to x
(k=1), we get:
1 3 3 3 3 3 3
1! 1
2
1 2 1 2
1 2
1 2
1 2
4 2
12 x  x  x  x  x  x  x  x , (2.3)
1 3 3 5 3 3 3  3 
(1  )! ( )! (  1) ( ) ( )
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
that is the same result as that of the (2.1).
As a check for the (2.3), let’s apply again the (2.2), still with n=1/2, to the (2.3) itself, so obtaining a
double half-integral, that is the classic integral of x, that is (1/2)x2:
1 2 4 2
3
4
3
4 ( 3 )! 3 1
x  x  x  x  [ x ]  [ x 2
]  2 x 2 2
2 2 ( 2  2 ) (1) 2 2 3 
1 1 1 1 1
3  2 1
3  ( 3  1 )!
2 2
3 3  )
4 ( 2 )! 2 4 ( 4 x2  1 x2
 x  !!!!!!!!!!!
3  2! 3  2! 2
3-(-1)st derivative of cosx

1 2 1 4 1 6
cos x  1  x  x  x  ........ (3.1)
2! 4! 6!
1 1 1
sin x  x  x 3  x5  x 7  ........ (3.2)
3! 5! 7!
We have above proved the following obvious identity (1.1):
dn k k!
n
x  x k  n . For n=-1, it becomes:
dx (k  n)!
d 1 k k!
1
x  x k 1 (3.3)
dx (k  1)!
Let’s apply now the (3.3) to the (3.1):
d 1 d 1 1 2 1 4 1 6 d 1 0 1 d 1 2 1 d 1 4 1 d 1 6
cos x  (1  x  x  x  ........)  x  x  x  x  ........ 
dx 1 dx 1 2! 4! 6! dx 1 2! dx 1 4! dx 1 6! dx 1

0! 1 2! 1 4! 1 6!
 x 0 1  x 2 1  x 4 1  x 6 1  ........ 
(0  1)! 2! (2  1)! 4! (4  1)! 6! (6  1)!
1 1 1
 x  x 3  x 5  x 7  ........  sin x   cos xdx !!!!!
3! 5! 7!

APPENDIX

A1-EULER GAMMA FUNCTION


( z )   e  t t z 1dt (A1.1)
0
Of course (1)  1 . Then,
(n  1)  n(n) ; (A1.2)
in fact, after an integration by parts:

tzt 1  t z 1
( z )  e   e t dt  0  ( z  1) and by iterating the (n  1)  n(n) , we get:
z 0
z 0 z
(n  1)  n! . (A1.3)

A2-GAUSS INTEGRAL

We have the following two integrals (identical):

 2  2
I   e x dx I   e y dy
0 0 (A2.1)
  2
 y2 )
After multiplying them each other: I2    e  ( x dxdy ; now, in polar coordinates:
0 0
( x 2  y 2  r 2 , dS  dxdy  rdrd ), we have:
  2   2  r 2  
2
I  2
 e r rdrd  e r rdr   e 
2 0
, so:
0 0 4 0 4
1 
I . (A2.2)
2 
A3-PARTICULAR VALUES OF THE EULER GAMMA FUNCTION

The (A1.3) with n=0 yields Γ(1)=0!=1, while with n=1, gives Γ(2)=1!=1.
Moreover, the (A1.1) with z=1/2 becomes:
1 1
1 
t 2
1 
t 2

( )   e t dt   e t dt ; now, by saying that t=w2, we have: ( dt/dw=2w)
2 0 0
1
1    2  2
( )   e t dt   e  w w 1 2 wdw  2  e  w dw
t 2
(A3.1)
2 0 0 0

1 
 w2
And according to the (A2.2) with α=1, we have: ( )  2 0 e dw   .
2

At last, according to the (A1.2): Γ(3/2)=Γ(1/2 + 1)=1/2 Γ(1/2)=(1/2)!=
2

Results: Γ(1)=1, Γ(2)=1, (1 2)   , Γ(3/2) =  . (A3.2)

2
 L'INTEGRALE INTESO COME DERIVATA (-1)esima E IL SEMINTEGRALE
Leonardo Rubino
Luglio 2023

Abstract: L’Integrale visto come derivata (-1)esima e il Semintegrale.

1-Derivata (-1)esima di x

d ( 1) 1 2
( 1)
x  x   xdx
dx 2
Dimostrazione:

d k d1 k d2 dn k!
x  1 x  kx k 1 , 2 x k  k (k  1) x k  2 , n x k  k (k  1)...(k  n  1) x k  n  x k  n (1.1)
dx dx dx dx (k  n)!
d ( 1) 1 1! 1! 1
e per k=1 ed n=-1, si ha: ( 1)
x  x1 ( 1)  x 2  x 2   xdx .
dx [1  (1)]! 2! 2

Controprova:
d (1) d ( 1) 1 2 d 11 1 2 1 d0 2 1 2
visto che deve essere: ( )( x )  ( x )  x  x , allora:
dx (1) dx ( 1) 2 dx11 2 2 dx 0 2
d (1) d ( 1)
1 d (1)
d ( 1)
1 1 d (1)
d ( 1)
1 d (1)
2!
( )( x 2 )  (1) [ ( 1) ( x 2 )]  ( ( 1) x 2 )  { x[ 2  ( 1)]} 
dx (1) dx ( 1)
2 dx dx 2 (1)
2 dx dx (1)
2 dx [2  (1)]!
1 d (1) 2! 3 1 d 2 3 1 d 3 1 2 1 2 d (1) 1
 (1)
( x )  ( x )  x  3 x  x  ( (1) 
_ dx)( x 2 ) cvd.
2 dx 3! 2 dx 6 6 dx 6 2 dx 2

1 2 1 2
Per rispondere all’obiezione secondo cui  xdx  2 x  C e non semplicisticamente  xdx  2 x ,
si potrebbe ridefinire come segue:
x
d ( 1) 1 2 (1.2)
x  x   x dx
dx ( 1) 2 0

2-Semintegrale di x ( x )

1
( ) 3 3 3 3
2
d 1! 1 (  12 ) 1 2 1 1 1
x  1 x  1
x1  x  x  x2  x2  x2 
( ) 1 3 3 5 3 3
2
dx 2 [1  ( )]! ( )! (  1) ( ) ( )
3 3
2 2 2 2 2 2
1 4
 x2  x2 . Per il valore di Γ(3/2), si veda la (A3.2) in Appendice.
3  3 
2 2
 3
4 2
Dunque: x x (Semintegrale) (2.1)
3 

Come controprova, applicando due volte la (2.1) ad x, si ottiene l’integrale normale di x, ossia
(1/2)x2:
1 1 1 1 1 1
( ) ( ) (  ) ( ) ( )
2 2 2 2 ( 1) 2 2
d d d d d d
x=  
1 1 x   x [ 1 1
]x1  1 1
x ( 1)
x 1
[ 1 x] 
2 2
1 (
2
) (
2
) (  )
2 2
dx ( ) ( )
dx dx dx dx 2 dx 2

1 1 1 3
(
2
) (
2
) 3 (
2
) 3 ! 3
d 1! 1 (  12 ) d 4 2
4 d 2
4 2 2
 (  12 )
 { 1
x } 1
{ x } 1
{x }  x 
( )1 ( ) 3  3  (2) 3  [ 3  ( 1 )]!
dx [1  (
2  )]! dx 2
dx
2 2 2
3 
4 2 2 2 1 2
 x  x   xdx
3  2! 2

Partendo invece dalla definizione di integrale, ossia dalla:

k 1 k 1
 x dx  k  1 x  C e considerando ora, per semplicità, che la C sia sempre zero (oppure si usi la
definizione (1.2), se non si tollera che C=0), si ha:

k 1 1
 x  xk  2 ,   x
k
 x k 3 e
(k  1)(k  2) (k  1)(k  2)(k  3)

1 k!
  .....(n  times)....... x k  xk n  xk n   xk (2.2)
(k  1)(k  2)(k  3).....(k  n) (k  n)! n

Infatti, applicando ad esempio la (2.2) per integrare tre volte x4 :

4! 1 7
(n=3 e k=4)  x 4  x43  x , ossia lo stesso valore che si ottiene integrando appunto
3 (4  3)! 210
tre volte, una dopo l’altra, x4. Bene, per la (2.2) con n=1/2 ed applicata ad x (k=1), si ottiene:
1 3 3 3 3 3 3
1! 1
2
1 2 1 2
1 2
1 2
1 2
4 2
12 x  1 x  3 x  3 x  5 x  3 3 x  3  x  3  x , (2.3)
(1  )! ( )! (  1) ( ) ( )
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
ossia lo stesso risultato della (2.1).
Come controprova per la (2.3), applichiamo ancora la (2.2), sempre con n=1/2, alla (2.3) stessa,
ottenendo un doppio semintegrale, ossia l’integrale classico di x, che è (1/2)x2:
1 2 4 2
3
4
3
4 ( 3 )! 3 1
x  x  x  x  [ x ]  [ x 2
]  2 x 2 2

2 2 ( 2  2 ) (1) 2 2 3 
1 1 1 1 1
3  2 1
3
3  (  )! 1
2 2
3 3  )
4 ( 2 )! 2 4 ( 4 x2  1 x2
 x  !!!!!!!!!!!
3  2! 3  2! 2
3-Derivata (-1)esima di cosx

1 2 1 4 1 6
cos x  1  x  x  x  ........ (3.1)
2! 4! 6!
1 1 1
sin x  x  x 3  x5  x 7  ........ (3.2)
3! 5! 7!
Più sopra abbiamo dimostrato la seguente e, peraltro, nota identità (1.1):
dn k k!
n
x  x k  n . Per n=-1, essa diventa:
dx (k  n)!
d 1 k k!
1
x  x k 1 (3.3)
dx (k  1)!
Applichiamo ora la (3.3) alla (3.1):
d 1 d 1 1 2 1 4 1 6 d 1 0 1 d 1 2 1 d 1 4 1 d 1 6
cos x  (1  x  x  x  ........)  x  x  x  x  ........ 
dx 1 dx 1 2! 4! 6! dx 1 2! dx 1 4! dx 1 6! dx 1

0! 1 2! 1 4! 1 6!
 x 0 1  x 2 1  x 4 1  x 6 1  ........ 
(0  1)! 2! (2  1)! 4! (4  1)! 6! (6  1)!
1 1 1
 x  x 3  x 5  x 7  ........  sin x   cos xdx !!!!!
3! 5! 7!

APPENDICE

A1-FUNZIONE GAMMA DI EULERO


( z )   e  t t z 1dt (A1.1)
0
Naturalmente, (1)  1 . Poi,
(n  1)  n(n) ; (A1.2)
infatti, dopo una integrazione per parti:

tzt 1  t z 1
( z )  e   e t dt  0  ( z  1) ed iterando la (n  1)  n(n) , otteniamo:
z 0
z 0 z
(n  1)  n! . (A1.3)

A2-INTEGRALE DI GAUSS

Consideriamo i due integrali (uguali tra loro):

 2  2
I   e x dx I   e y dy
0 0 (A2.1)
  2
 y2 )
Moltiplicandoli tra loro: I2    e  ( x dxdy e, in coordinate polari:
0 0
( x 2  y 2  r 2 , dS  dxdy  rdrd ), si ha:
  2   2  r 2  
2
I  2
 e r rdrd  e r rdr   e 
2 0
, perciò:
0 0 4 0 4
1 
I . (A2.2)
2 
A3-VALORI PARTICOLARI DELLA FUNZIONE GAMMA DI EULERO

La (A1.3) con n=0 fornisce Γ(1)=0!=1, mentre con n=1, fornisce Γ(2)=1!=1.
Inoltre, la (A1.1) con z=1/2 diventa:
1 1
1 
t 2
1 
t 2

( )   e t dt   e t dt ; adesso, ponendo t=w2, si ha: ( dt/dw=2w)
2 0 0
1
1    2  2
( )   e t dt   e  w w 1 2 wdw  2  e  w dw
t 2
(A3.1)
2 0 0 0

1 
 w2
e per la (A2.2) con α=1, si ha: ( )  2 0 e dw   .
2

Infine, per la (A1.2): Γ(3/2)=Γ(1/2 + 1)=1/2 Γ(1/2)=(1/2)!=
2

Per riassumere: Γ(1)=1, Γ(2)=1, (1 2)   , Γ(3/2) =  . (A3.2)

2