MEDIA STUDIES: MEDIA CONTENT AND

MEDIA AUDIENCES

NAME: JADIE’-LEE MOODLY

COURSE CODE: COM3703
STUDENT NO.: 66292727
ASSIGNMENT NO.: 03
UNIQUE NO.: 669072
DATE: 23/05/2022

1
DECLARATION

2
TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE
DECLARATION .................................................................................................................... 2
1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................... 4
2 MEDIA, LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSEs ........................................................................ 5
2.1 Metaphors ...................................................................................................................... 5
2.2 Political Discourse ........................................................................................................ 5
2.3 Significant concepts, words and jargon ...................................................................... 5
2.4 Audience of the newspaper .......................................................................................... 6
2.5 Five functions of language ........................................................................................... 6
2.5.1 Referential function.................................................................................................... 6
2.5.2 Poetic function ........................................................................................................... 7
2.5.3 Expressive function ................................................................................................... 7
2.5.4 Metalinguistic function .............................................................................................. 7
2.5.5 Conative function ....................................................................................................... 7
2.6 Passive and active voices ............................................................................................ 8
3 MEDIA AND VISUAL LITERACY ...................................................................................... 8
3.1 Sitcom ............................................................................................................................ 8
3.2 Cognitive approach to visual perception .................................................................... 9
3.3 Difference between cognitive approach and perceptual approach ........................... 9
3.4 The main theoretical themes of the cognitive approach ............................................ 9
3.5 Sitcom according to the cognitive approach ............................................................ 11
3.5.1 Visual perception ..................................................................................................... 11
3.5.2 Projection ................................................................................................................. 11
3.5.3 Selective perception ................................................................................................ 11
3.5.4 Salience .................................................................................................................... 12
3.5.5 Dissonance ............................................................................................................... 12
3.5.6 Random meaning ..................................................................................................... 12
3.5.7 Idiosyncratic meaning ............................................................................................. 12
3.5.8 Shared meaning ....................................................................................................... 13
3.6 Semiotic approach ...................................................................................................... 13
4 FIELD RESEARCH IN MEDIA STUDIES ........................................................................ 14
5 MEASURING MEDIA AUDIENCES ................................................................................. 17
6 CONCLUSION ................................................................................................................. 20
7 SELF-ASSESSMENT AND SELF-REFLECTION ............................................................ 21
SOURCES CONSULTED ................................................................................................... 22
ADDENDUM A: NEWSPAPER REPORT ........................................................................... 24
ADDENDUM B: IN-DEPTH INTERVIEW TRANSCRIPT .................................................... 26
ADDENDUM C: QUESTION 3.2.2 - RACHELS WEDDING DRESS ................................... 29
ADDENDUM D: QUESTION 3.5.4 - RACHEL WAITRESSING AT CENTREL PARK ........ 29
ADDENDUM E: QUESTION 3.5.5 - CHANDLER PLAYING FOOTBALL .......................... 30
ADDENDUM F: QUESTION 3.5.7 - CHANDLER AND ROSS EMOTIONS ........................ 30

3
1 INTRODUCTION

This exam portfolio covers various themes from media studies, the first of which is
media, language and discourse. Metaphors, political discourse and significant
concepts, words and jargon in relation to a newspaper report extracted from the IOL
online news site are discussed here in detail. It also identifies the audience of the
newspaper and defines five functions of language namely referential, poetic,
expressive, metalinguistic and conative function. Additionally, it explains how the
passive and active voices are used as grammatical choices.

The second theme looks at media and visual literacy. Here, the Friend’s sitcom is
briefly described and the background explanation of the cognitive approach to visual
perception is provided. It also discusses how the cognitive approach is different from
the perceptual approach, as well as the main theoretical themes of the cognitive
approach namely visual perception, projection, selective perception, salience,
dissonance, random meanings, idiosyncratic meanings and shared meanings.
Moreover, it analyses the Friends sitcom according to the cognitive approach and
describe how one’s understanding of gender stereotypes in the media has been
influenced by studying the semiotic approach.

The third theme explores field research in media studies. Here an ethnographic in-
depth interview is conducted with a teenager from one’s own ethnic, language or
cultural group on their cultural tastes or preferences. It is presented in the form of an
academic essay and discusses topics such as the interviewee’s musical taste and
preferences, favourite television programmes and film stars, preference for particular
brand names when buying clothes, favourite food, perceptions of why it is important
for them to be accepted by their peer group and their access to, and usage patterns
of, the media and social media.

Lastly, the final theme delves into measuring media audiences. This section discusses
measuring the audience of Rise and Shine radio station. It commences by providing
reasons for measuring the audience of this local community radio station and also
provides three research questions in audience measurement. Additionally, it
discusses two methodologies and techniques in measuring audiences that can be
employed in the radio station. Furthermore, it looks at the state of audience
measurement in South Africa and discusses problems associated with radio audience
measurement that may be applicable to Rise and Shine radio station.
4
2 MEDIA, LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSEs

2.1 Metaphors
According to Sonderling (2017:97), metaphors are a figure of speech that allow us to
comprehend and experience one type of thing in terms of another, and they are a
beneficial means of understanding a new or troublesome scenario in terms of
previously familiar ones. They are utilised to convey abstract thoughts and concepts
into more tangible basic areas that are already understood and they tend to influence
the way readers think and behave (Sonderling 2017:97).

For example a metaphor that can be identified in the newspaper report is "attack on
the judiciary” (De Beer & Wheeler 2022). While there is no physical battle, only a verbal
one, the form of the argument, particularly the use of the phrase "attack" reflects this.

2.2 Political Discourse

Discourse, according to Sonderling (2017:90), is created by members of identifiable
social groups and contain the texts produced by these groups. Therefore, political
discourse essentially refers to ways of discussing political topics and actions. Politics
encompasses a form of communication that is primarily verbal. The intention
behind this form of communication is to persuade the receiver, in this instance voters
and political elites, to accept the political actors' messages (Sonderling 2017:107). The
media is always reporting on what politicians have said and what others have said
about those comments, but rarely publish what politicians actually do (Sonderling
2017:107). As a result, political discourse is primarily about speech, with little action.

For instance, consider the following quote extracted from the newspaper report
“Members of social pressure group Liberty Fighters Network (LFN) say that Tourism
Minister Lindiwe Sisulu has hit the nail on the head in her criticism of the judiciary” (De
Beer & Wheeler 2022). This equates to political discourse because the authors of the
newspaper report are essentially commenting on what the politician Minister Lindiwe
Sisulu has said and what others (Liberty Fighters Network) has said in response to her
assertions.

2.3 Significant concepts, words and jargon

Sonderling (2017:94) argues that speakers of language need words to communicate
effectively. Therefore, the vocabulary of a language is made up of a collection of words
used to name things. Additionally, a language comprises of words or concepts that
form a jargon that describes things and conveys messages (Sonderling 2017:84).

5
Furthermore, there are specific vocabularies like technical terminology, key concepts,
or jargon that is used within specialised discursive practices, such as law and
journalism, which contain terms that are only meaningful within that particular formal
and specialised discourse practice (Sonderling 2017:95).

Jargon that is visible within the text of the newspaper report are words such as
“democracy,” “Minister,” “National State of Disaster,” “commissioner,” “candidate,”
“Constitutional Court,” “President,” “judiciary” and “proceedings”. These words are
deemed significant in the context of the message conveyed by the newspaper report
in order to communicate a message regarding politics and the type of language used
to report about it (De Beer & Wheeler 2022).

2.4 Audience of the newspaper

A typical audience for the IOL online newspaper users are South African Urban and
Suburban dwellers in their 20’s to mid-50’s who want a comprehensive digest of the
news in online form. Reason being, these type of residents are more likely to use digital
and online sources to consume news as it is convenient, cost-effective and swift in
terms of scanning for lapsed or time-poor readers that are constantly lack free-time
(Hogan 2021).

2.5 Five functions of language

2.5.1 Referential function

According to Sonderling (2017:105), referential function refers to the ability use of
language to inform people about matters they did not know and discuss things
happening in the world. Referential functions of language include informing and
describing.

For instance consider this quote extract from the newspaper report “Zondo is the
highest member of our judiciary. He presides over the system that is supposed to
ensure justice for all of us. His and his subordinates' legal minds, as well as the proper
functioning of the judicial administration he commands, are to ensure that we all have
the option of proper legal recourse” (De Beer & Wheeler 2022). Here the newspaper
report performs a referential function as it informs the reader about the active
responsibilities of the Chief Justice Raymond Zondo, something people may have not
otherwise known.

6
2.5.2 Poetic function
This function refers to the ability to use of language for pleasure or creative purposes,
for instance, the use of metaphors, rhyming words, catchy slogans or poetry
(Sonderling 2017:106).

The poetic function in the newspaper report is evident in the use of metaphors such
as “hit the nail on the head” (De Beer & Wheeler 2022). This phrase is used as a
metaphor when a person says or does something exactly right. When trying to secure
a nail the obvious reaction is to strike the head of the nail. As a result, this term is
employed metaphorically when someone says or does something absolutely correctly,
it is as if they hit the nail in the head. The use of metaphors in the news report enables
the authors to express vivid imagery that goes beyond literal definitions (Writers Online
2019).

2.5.3 Expressive function

This function refers to the ability to use language to express one’s emotions, ideas or
attitudes (Sonderling 2017:106).

For example, “Sisulu's opinion largely matches our own; it is based on our experience
with the judiciary. In short: we must confirm that Sisulu has hit the nail on the head"
(De Beer & Wheeler 2022). This statement extracted from the newspaper report is
evident of the expressive function because the opinions of the authors are expressed
explicitly.

2.5.4 Metalinguistic function

This is the ability to use language to explore the language itself or other components
of verbal communication (Sonderling 2017:106). The Acting Chief Justice Raymond
Zondo’s physical appearance in an image at the beginning of the newspaper report is
an example of metalinguistic function as it essentially offers an insight into who the
newspaper report is about.

2.5.5 Conative function

This refers to one’s ability to use language to persuade others to follow their wishes
or orders (Sonderling 2017:106). For example, “instead of Zondo trying to defend the
indefensible, we suggest he instead cleans up the mess. He could begin by retracting
his own fallacious statements at his next press conference” (De Beer & Wheeler 2022).
In this direct quote extracted from the newspaper report it depicts the authors use of
language to influence Chief Justice Raymond Zondo to essentially restore order by
retracting his fallacious statements (De Beer & Wheeler 2022).
7
2.6 Passive and active voices
According to Sonderling (2017:100), the grammatical choices of the mass media may
be explained if they are related to the newspaper's discursive practice, social views,
and professional or organisational ideology. The active or passive voice of an article
is primarily decided by whether the publisher is pro-government or anti-government
(Sonderling 2017:100). The active voice focuses on an actor or agent who takes a
transitive action that affects someone or something. While the point of view of the
impacted participant/object is expressed in the passive voice, and the focus is no
longer on the action or actor, but on a condition of events (Sonderling 2017:99).

For example:
Active voice: “Zondo should know that blaming the messenger does not solve
anything” (De Beer & Wheeler 2022). Here “Zondo” is the subject, “blaming” is the
verb and the “the messenger” is the object. Zondo is essentially the actor or agent who
takes a transitive action that affects someone (Sonderling 2017:99). The focus is
essentially on the actor. This could sway towards an anti-government publication.
Had this been said in passive voice in a pro-government publication it would read
something like: The messenger being blamed does not solve anything. Here “the
messenger” has become the subject which is having something being done to it by the
actor. It would essentially omit Zondo from the phrase in order to hide an agenda.

3 MEDIA AND VISUAL LITERACY

3.1 Sitcom

The “Friends” sitcom has been selected for this discussion. It is a 90s television sitcom
that aired for ten seasons from September 22, 1994 to May 6, 2004. It chronicles the
personal and professional lives of six friends in their twenties to thirties who reside in
Manhattan, New York. Joey, Chandler, Rachel, Monica, Phoebe, and Ross are the
names of the show's six main characters. They share nearly every life event
conceivable, including love, marriage, divorce, children, heartbreaks, arguments, new
jobs and job losses, and all manner of drama. Friends, as a situation comedy, takes
place in the same location every week. The majority of the programme occurs in
Monica and Chandler's apartment, with some of the show occurring in Joey and
Rachel's apartment, or the characters local coffee shop, Central Perk. The audience
of Friends learn that it is a sitcom due to the fact that it is humorous, entertaining, and

8
no matter how much trouble or problems the characters get into, there is always a
happy ending at the end of the half hour (Kauffman & Crane 1994).

3.2 Cognitive approach to visual perception

According to Du Plooy (2017:132), the cognitive approach to visual perception views
perception as a mental event or activity connected to knowledge and awareness.
Readers perceive and attach meanings to what they experience such as what they
see and hear based on association, according to this theory. Past experiences or
assumptions can be used to make such associations (Du Plooy 2017:132).

3.3 Difference between cognitive approach and perceptual approach

In the cognitive approach, people perceive and assign meaning to their experiences,
such as what they have seen or heard in the past, based on association (Du Plooy
2017:132). The perceptual approach, on the other hand, refers to the meanings that
people become aware of very quickly through their senses, such as sounds, scents,
temperatures, or sights (Du Plooy 2017:127-128).

3.4 The main theoretical themes of the cognitive approach

Given that no two individuals have had identical lives, it logically follows that visual
perception is personalised and subjective. However, it is argued that because readers
are exposed to the same mass-media texts as they get older, such disparities are
minimised. To put it another way, memories and connections based on readers'
experiences with mass-media texts may differ, but they are unlikely to be highly
individualised or distinctively subjective (Du Plooy 2017:132).

Projection is a mental activity in which some readers make sense of and assign
meaning to imprecise, ambiguous, and unstructured objects or pictures, while others
find them meaningless. In formative mass-media research, projection as a research
technique, which requires subjects to respond freely to complete a story or picture, or
which involves a series of pictures about which subject must tell a story, or various
forms of play, involving objects such as a doll's house, are frequently used (Du Plooy
2017:133).

In terms of selective perception, readers' visual perception can be harmed if their

previous expectations and selective perception lead them to focus only on the aspects
or events of a visual message that are of interest to them and support their
preconceptions and prejudices, while disregarding others. For example, television
viewers have preconceived notions about how a newscaster should look. As a result,
until that assumption is disproved, viewers do not pay attention to the outfit worn each

9
evening. The majority of our visual perception is an instinctive, unconscious function.
It is not uncommon to selectively concentrate on traffic and road signs while driving to
work, without processing other visual images. This selectivity, or the ability to focus
exclusively on significant facts, is further strengthened by a mental process known as
habituation. In other words, readers form habits, which, with repeated practice,
become actions and behaviours that are relatively automatic and are performed
subconsciously (Du Plooy 2017:133).

Salience is the extent to which something is apparent or significant. It can influence

one's perception since a stimulus with meaning for one individual will be recognised
more by that specific individual (Du Plooy 2017:134). An expert fashion designer, for
example, will comprehend textiles and materials, be able to duplicate ensembles using
clothing patterns, and recognise and forecast trends.

Dissonance is an undesirable mix of sounds, printed words, and visual images. The
phrase originated in music to describe an unpleasant sound made when two notes
that are heard simultaneously do not create a harmonic sound. When it comes to
perception, dissonance occurs when two or more stimuli fight for one's attention, such
as watching a television show while reading the evening newspaper. Since they have
the potential to produce dissonance, visual messages that employ condensed codes
are prone to reducing our perceptual abilities (Du Plooy 2017:134).

Random meanings are attributed to communication that occurs without conscious

decision, goal, or purpose and hence does not necessarily transmit any particular
meaning, such as physical contact between a dentist and a patient in a television show
(Du Plooy 2017:134).

Idiosyncratic communication, such as rubbing a foot to ease tension, is usually unique

to a person. Even while acts like scratching one's nose or head are unintentional, when
watched and evaluated by a critic, they may be given highly personalised and unique
interpretations and misinterpreted as indicators of stress, pain, or displeasure.

Frequently, shared meanings are culturally distinctive. Proxemics (the distance

between two individuals when they are chatting) and haptics are two examples (e.g.
physical contact as part of greeting rituals). Readers may perceive such behaviour in
filmic texts as distant and aloof, or as too near for comfort, if they are ignorant of these
shared meanings in another culture.

10
3.5 Sitcom according to the cognitive approach

3.5.1 Visual perception

While visual perception can be personal and subjective, persons exposed to the same
mass-media texts may have comparable memories and associations that are not
highly individualized or particularly subjective (Du Plooy 2017:132). Consider children
who grow up watching movies that assigned stereotypical masculine or feminine traits
to a certain gender, for instance, portraying women that dress in skimpy and revealing
clothing while men were are more conservatively dressed in suits and casual attire.
They are likely to develop the same mental associations in the future.

Friends typically uses stereotypical indicators that reflect traditional gender traits and
expectations. For instance the traditional gender stereotypes associated to masculinity
and femininity held within our society are reinforced when looking at the physical
appearances and characteristics of the characters. For example, Rachel's style which
is often revealing tends to be sexualised, while Ross is frequently seen in business
casual attire making him appear professional and put together (Kauffman & Crane
2001). Therefore, when viewing this one would essentially ascribe this conventional
gender trait to each character as it is typically what was seen in movies and television
shows growing up.

3.5.2 Projection
In the "The Pilot" episode one, season one, scene where Rachel burst into Central
Perk café dripping wet after abandoning what was meant to be her wedding to Barry
(Kauffman & Crane 1994). Some people may view this scene as simply just Rachel's
in her famed white wedding dress, while others may look at this scene think that
Rachel is stereotypically innocent and clueless and often dithers her way through her
life and career with no real purpose.

3.5.3 Selective perception

Selective perception tends to perpetuate stereotypes, because people are less likely
to notice events that go against their beliefs. Consider Monica in Friends, she is often
perceived as a talented chef but also a control freak who is obsessed with organisation
and cleanliness, which many people attributed to be a classic case of OCD. However,
men who have these similar attributes are seen as in control, confident and ambitious.

11
3.5.4 Salience
The stereotypes faced by the female characters in Friends tend to resonate more view
female viewers than with male viewers. For instance, when Rachel takes a job as a
waitress at Central Perk café after leaving her fiancé at the altar it is depicted as a fall
from grace (Kauffman & Crane 2001). The show depicts her in a dead-end job, without
the abilities to accomplish anything more "prestige," but at the same time being nearly
useless at waiting tables. The service sector is portrayed as extremely gendered and
quite unforgiving to women. Therefore, this stereotypical depiction may be more
apparent to women especially those in the service or hospitality sector.

3.5.5 Dissonance
An example of dissonance in friends is Chandler and Sports. Chandler is revealed to
be uninformed about sports on a handful of times in later seasons of the program.
Therefore, Rachel suggests he watch ESPN because he does not know who certain
sports players are, and he admits that he mainly watches the Thanksgiving American
football game to avoid cooking, not because he enjoys sports (Kauffman & Crane
2001). However, Chandler is portrayed as a stereotypical masculine sports fanatic
who plays numerous sports in the early seasons of the show, from American football
to basketball to softball. Along with that, he attends numerous New York team games
with Joey and Ross, and has always been interested in sports (Kauffman & Crane
1994). This is essentially a contradiction and it is unclear why he suddenly lost interest
in something he clearly cares about.

3.5.6 Random meaning

In the episode "The One with the Rumour," Monica spends her time in the kitchen
cooking a large Thanksgiving feast, while her husband Chandler pretends to be
interested in a football game so he does not have to assist her in the kitchen (Kauffman
& Crane 2001). While this may not appear irregular to some viewers, others may
interpret this as Friends reproducing the stereotypical gender roles ascribed to men
and women.

3.5.7 Idiosyncratic meaning

Since idiosyncratic meanings are often unique to an individual, the narrow range of
emotions expressed by the male characters in Friends may be difficult for all viewers
to discern. For example, throughout the show, the male characters are stereotypically
less emotionally expressive than the female leads. Chandler, for example,
acknowledges that he is unable to weep, so Monica sets out on a quest to get him to

12
open up emotionally. When Ross decides he wants both Joey and Chandler to be his
best men in season four, the three friends well up but attempt to ignore their feelings
out of fear of being viewed as weak. It is an emotional scene, yet the characters keep
their emotions hidden rather than truly embracing them (Kauffman & Crane 2001).

3.5.8 Shared meaning

The women in Friends are stereotyped as fragile and admired for their beauty, whilst
the men are portrayed as rugged and tough. These preconceptions are demonstrated
in the episode "The One with the Rumour," which depicts them enjoying their
Thanksgiving dinner. Rachel, who is admired for her sex appeal and attractiveness, is
not shown eating since she must maintain her slim shape. Joey, on the other hand, is
praised for being able to consume a whole turkey by himself and still have space for
apple pie (Kauffman & Crane 2001). Since these stereotypes are engrained in society
as natural, Friends employs symbols to identify the traits of the characters that play on
societal stereotypes in order to be easily recognised by the broadest possible
audience.

3.6 Semiotic approach

Understanding the semiotic approach, such as the three forms of visual signals used
to communicate, namely iconic, indexical, and symbolic signs, made it simpler to
analyse the various meanings in aspects of media content literacy, such as gender
stereotypes in television programme themes (Du Plooy 2017:121). It was essential to
address questions like what is the overt (manifest) or covert (hidden) meaning of a
message being delivered while doing a textual analysis of media content literacy (Du
Plooy 2017:121). For instance, Stereotypes in Friends can be seen as overt, because
its stereotypes are clear and manifest throughout the show. Friends reinforces the
show's obsession with appearances. It employs female characters as stereotypical
symbols to represent an ideal body type to its audience. The characters' appearances,
as well as the abundance of content devoted to discussing them, may be considered
as symbols that establish a specific meaning for Friends, indicating how the show
prioritises appearances above intelligence.

13
4 FIELD RESEARCH IN MEDIA STUDIES
What are the cultural tastes or preferences of a teenager from one’s own ethnic,
language or cultural group? Anastasia Rufus, an eighteen-year-old female of South
Asian/Indian and Cape Malay descent, was selected to participate in an in-depth
interview. She is currently in her first year at Howard College and is studying towards
her Bachelors in Social Work. The objective of conducting the in-depth interview is to
determine what Anastasia’s cultural tastes or preferences are. This in-depth interview
surrounds a discussion on her musical taste and preferences, favourite television
programmes and film stars, preference for particular brand names when buying
clothes, favourite food, perceptions of why it is important for her to be accepted by her
peer group and her access to, and usage patterns of, the media and social media.
Ethnographic research is a qualitative research method and aims to understand a
specific cultural group’s beliefs, customs and behaviour by means of intensive
fieldwork in which the researcher closely observes their daily lives (Pitout 2017:411).

Ethnographic research often involves conducting in-depth interviews (Pitout

2017:496). This particular in-depth interview was conducted one-on-one at the
interviewer’s place of residence in Durban, to allow for a conducive setting for an
uninterrupted interview. This one-on-one setting also provided a trusting environment
in which the interviewee could expound on her personal feelings, recollections, and
opinions (Pitout 2009:494). The time allocated was one hour to ensure that there was
more than enough time to conduct the interview. Additionally, the dialogue throughout
the interview was tape recorded on a cell phone and notes were also taken discretely
to jot down observations made by the interviewer. The questions asked by the
interviewer were open-ended, which allowed the interviewer to ask follow-up
questions, depending on the answers provided by the interviewee. Thus avoiding
asking questions that were irrelevant to the study. Upon completion of the interview
the recording was checked to ensure that there had been no malfunctions and the
notes were reviewed and elaborated on for clarity. The content of recording was then
repeatedly listened to in order to transcribe its contents which essentially pertained to
the questions asked by the interviewer and responses of the interviewee (Pitout
2009:49).

The results of the in-depth interview indicated that her musical interests and
preferences were diverse, as she did not have a single preference for music and
instead listened to a variety of genres such as rap, r&b, country, reggaeton, and pop
music. She also mentioned that the music she listens to is determined by her mood.
Her favourite television programmes are Supernatural, Grimm, Superstore, From, and
14
Resident Alien; these shows all have similar themes which are thriller, mystery, and
comedy. She has claimed that her favourite film stars are Tom Holland and Lewis Tan,
whom she considers entertaining. She has indicated that she does not have a
preference for brand name clothing and that if it looks nice, she would buy it regardless
of whether or not it is a brand name item of clothing. Her favourite foods are Alfredo
pasta and tortilla wraps, to which she claims she could eat every day. Furthermore,
her perceptions of why it is important to be accepted by her peer group relate to having
mutual trust with her friends, whether that means having a small number of friends
rather than a large group of friends who secretly dislike her. In terms of her media and
social media access and usage, she has a laptop and smartphone that she uses for
WhatsApp, Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, and Tiktok. Her daily screen time on
these social media platforms is four hours on average.

It is evident that the findings largely correlates with gratification theory. Pitout
(2017:391) defines gratifications theory as an approach that focuses on media viewers
that consciously choose media to satisfy certain needs. To put it another way, the
approach is concerned with how audiences interact with the media, allowing for a wide
range of responses to and interpretations of media messages (Pitout 2017:391). This
is evident throughout the responses received from the interviewee, as she actively
uses media to satisfy her needs. This is apparent in her choice of music which is often
selected based on how she feels and it follows a range of different music genres such
as pop, rap, r&b, country and reggaeton that she personally enjoys. It can also be
seen in her favourite television programmes which follow a particular genre pattern of
thriller, mystery and comedy shows which are her preferred choice of genres when
she seeks out television programmes such as Supernatural and Grimm to watch.
Moreover, it is essentially evident in the type of content she consumes on social media
which is niche to her preferences such as her love for baking, doing her makeup,
making diy projects and watching funny clips. The interviewee was found to be
confident, open and forth coming in regards to the answers she provided in the
interview.

In summary, this essay covered various questions pertaining to the cultural and tastes
and preferences of Anastasia Rufus an eighteen-year-old of South Asian/Indian and
Cape Malay descent. The answers to these question were actively sought out by
means of an in-depth interview that was conducted at the interviewer’s residence. The
findings essentially covered topics on her musical interests and preferences which
were identified as pop, rap, reggaeton, country and r&b music. It also looked at her
favourite television programmes which are Supernatural, Grimm, Superstore, From,
15
and Resident Alien, as well as her favourite film stars who are Tom Holland and Lewis
Tan. Next, it looked at her preference of brand name clothing to which she had none
and it also discussed her favourite foods which are Alfredo pasta and tortilla wraps.
Furthermore, her perceptions of why it is important to be accepted by her peer group
is linked to having a close nit, trustworthy and supportive group. Lastly, she has a
laptop and a smartphone that she uses to access and use media and social media,
including WhatsApp, Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, and Tiktok. In terms of what the
cultural tastes or preferences of a teenager from one’s own ethnic, language or cultural
group were. Her tastes and preferences were not necessarily synonymous to her
South Asian/Indian and Cape Malay background but rather takes on a more modern
than cultural approach which largely reflects the preference of the interviewer. For
instance, she prefers a modern approach in terms of the type of music she enjoys
listening to, which is made evident by her preference for new school music as
compared to late 90s and 2000s music. Notably, unlike many teenagers her age she
is not too concerned with branded clothing. Additionally, her screen time for social
media is arguably quite low for someone in her age category. Moreover, she is
outspoken in what she wants out of her relationship with her peers.

16
5 MEASURING MEDIA AUDIENCES
Bornman (2017:517) defines audience research as an “empirical research aimed at
uncovering the mysteries of the audience and its behaviour and distilling it into hard
data”. The aim of this observation is to measure the audience of a local community
radio station called Rise and Shine. This essay will first discuss the purpose behind
measuring the audience of this radio station. Second, it identifies three research
questions in audience measurement of the radio station. Third, it discusses two
methodologies and technique’s namely surveys and diaries that can be employed in
relation to the radio station. Forth, it looks into the state of audience measurement in
South Africa. Finally, it touches base on problems associated with radio audience
measurement that are applicable to Rise and Shine radio station.

The Rise and Shine radio station's audience is being measured since there is a need
for more exact identification of market categories owing to variables such as product
flood and saturated marketplaces. As a result, determining the radio station's audience
is required in order to more effectively target advertisements to certain segments
(Bornman 2017:517). Additionally, in order to provide specialised, quality and relatable
content to their audience Rise and Shine requires detailed information on their
audiences for all the media. Understanding who their listeners are will assist them
greatly in understanding what type of messages or content such as music, news
segments, traffic updates and radio advertisements they need to convey; and the best
time, frequency and methodology they need to convey this content (Bornan 2017:519).

The three research questions in audience measurement for Rise and Shine radio
station are as follows; what are the type of audience concerned with the Rise and
Shine radio station? What number of audience members of Rise and Shine radio
station are there? What is the reception of specific programmes by a large number of
the audience of Rise and Shine radio station?

The two methodologies and techniques that can be employed in measuring audiences
for Rise and Shine radio station are social surveys and diaries. A survey questionnaire
is regarded as a self-reporting method because it asks the respondent questions about
demographic characteristics, media consumption patterns, values, attitudes, and
opinions (Bornman 2017:531). With the proportionate representation of various factors
such as gender and age groups in mind, the survey may be delivered to one
respondent at each address. The survey can cover aspects such the audiences
listening habits, listening times, frequency of listening and attitudes about the station
in question (Bornman 2017:551). Diaries are used to record information about
17
audience behaviour over time (Bornman 2017:533). Importantly, diaries are used to
track a specific behaviour or its frequency; they cannot track attitudes or other factors
of interest (Bornman 2017:534). Audience members can be given diaries to document
their media consumption habits, listening patterns, or behaviour over the course of a
week or a month of listening to the radio.

Audience research in South Africa dates back to 1945, when the publication Report
on Radio Listening in South Africa was released (SAARF 2022; Smit 2006; Van
Vuuren 1994). The focus of this report was on the radio listening habits of the SABC's
radio services at the time. South African Research Services, a private research
organisation, conducted the study. Following the report, there were intermittent
attempts to report on newspaper and magazine circulation through surveys, most of
which were commissioned by the publishers themselves. National Readership
Surveys were among these. Regular investigations into radio audiences were also
conducted by the SABC at its own expense. With the advent of television in the early
1970s, a small group of foresighted individuals in the marketing, media, and
advertising industries recognised the need for a comprehensive, unbiased,
trustworthy, consistent, and technically superior research service into South African
media consumers. As a result, the South African Advertising Research Foundation
(SAARF), a cooperative research structure for measuring media audiences in South
Africa, was established (SAARF 2022).

The nature of the audience has become increasingly more complex. It is the
advantages of radio as a medium which is the fact that it is mobile and allows people
to go about their daily activities rather than needing everything to come to a halt that
makes audience measuring difficult. Keeping this in mind, it creates possible problems
for Rise and Shine’s radio audience measurement. Considering that radio listeners
are often mobile, as listening is often more casual than habitual and as radio
programmes are often of an ongoing nature and not unique, it becomes difficult for
people to code and thus to retrieve radio listening (Twyman 1994). This could
potentially disrupt or undermine the quality of data collected from audience members
who participated in the study by means of a survey or filling in a diary as it effects their
ability to recall their radio listening habits.

In conclusion, this essay discussed factors concerning the audience measurement of

Rise and Shine radio station. It examined reasons for measuring the audience of Rise
and Shine such determining who the audience is to target advertising to designated
segments more efficiently and to understand their audience better to provide quality
18
content. Next, it identified three research questions which were; what type of audience
is concerned with Rise and Shine radio station? What number of audience members
of Rise and Shine radio station are there? What is the reception of specific
programmes by a large number of the audience of Rise and Shine radio station?
Additionally, it discussed two methodologies and techniques in measuring audience’s
namely social surveys and diaries. It also touched base on the state of audience
measurement in South Africa and discussed problems associated with radio audience
measurement that are applicable to Rise and Shine radio station.

19
6 CONCLUSION

In closing, this portfolio encompassed a wide range of media studies topics, including
media, language and discourse, media and visual literacy, field research in media
studies and measuring media audiences. With regards to media, language and
discourse, it discussed concepts such as metaphors, political discourse and significant
concepts, words and jargon in relation to an online news report titled Acting Chief
Justice Raymond Zondo's outrage is misplaced extracted from the IOL news platform.
It also touched base on the audience of the newspaper and defined the five functions
of language namely referential, poetic, expressive, metalinguistic and conative
function. Additionally, it explained how passive and active voices are used as
grammatical choices.

Next, the media and visual literacy theme covered a brief synopsis of the Friend’s
sitcom and discussed the cognitive approach in terms of its main theoretical themes
namely visual perception, projection, selective perception, salience, dissonance,
random meanings, and idiosyncratic meanings and shared meanings. Moreover it,
analysed the Friends sitcom according to the cognitive approach and essentially
described how studying the semiotic approach influences one’s understanding of
gender stereotypes in the media. The field research theme in media studies conducted
an in-depth interview with a teenager from one’s own ethnic, language or cultural
group on their cultural tastes or preferences. Finally, the measuring media audiences
theme explored measuring the audience of rise and shine radio station.

20
7 SELF-ASSESSMENT AND SELF-REFLECTION

1 What have you learnt (what knowledge have you gained) by doing the
assignment/portfolio examination task?
I have learnt how to analyse the content of a newspaper in terms of its discourse,
jargon and metaphors.

2 What skills, abilities and orientations (attitudes and values) have you
accomplished?
The ability to plan and conduct an ethnographic field audience research study by
using participant observation, the in-depth interview and document analysis.

3 Which strengths could you apply in your future life and work environment?
That there is no such thing as too much research, research broadens the mind.

4 Which shortcomings do you need to address in future?

Understanding how to apply the cognitive approach to stereotypes.

5 To what extent have you achieved the learning outcomes formulated for each
study unit?
Formulating a research problem that is applicable to field research.

21
SOURCES CONSULTED

Bornman, G. 2017. Media Studies. Volume 3: Media content and media audiences.
1st edition. Revised reprint. Cape Town: Juta.

De Beer, R. and Wheeler, M. 2022. Acting Chief Justice Raymond Zondo's outrage
is misplaced. IOL, 17 January.
[O]. Available: https://www.iol.co.za/dailynews/opinion/opinion-acting-chief-justice-
raymond-zondos-outrage-is-misplaced
Accessed on 01/05/2022

Du Plooy, G. 2017. Media Studies. Volume 3: Media content and media audiences.
1st edition. Revised reprint. Cape Town: Juta.

Fourie, PJ (ed). 2017. Media Studies. Volume 3: Media content and media audiences.
1st edition. Revised reprint. Cape Town: Juta.

Hasa, B. 2020. What is the Difference Between Cognition and Perception.

[O]. Available: https://pediaa.com/what-is-the-difference-between-cognition-and-
perception
Accessed 30/04/2022

Hogan, R.T. (2021). What Is The Target Audience For Newspaper Advertisers? –
SLFP.
[O]. Available at: https://www.slfp.com/what-is-the-target-audience-for-newspaper-
advertisers/
Accessed 15/05/2022

Kauffman, M. & Crane, D. (prod). 1994. The one where it all began. Friends. [television
programme]. Warner bros. Studios. Broadcast: Netflix streaming.

Kauffman, M. & Crane, D. (prod). 2001. The One With the Rumour. Friends. [television
programme]. Warner bros. Studios. Broadcast: Netflix streaming.

Pitout, M. 2017. Media Studies. Volume 3: Media content and media audiences. 1st
edition. Revised reprint. Cape Town: Juta.

22
Sonderling. S. 2017. Media, Language, and Discourse in Media studies. Volume 3:
Media content and media audiences, edited by PJ Fourie. Cape Town: Juta: 515–576.

Reid, J & Van Heerden, M (eds). 2009. Only study guide COM303A for COM3703.
Media Studies: media content and media audiences. Pretoria: University of South
Africa.

Reid, J. 2009. Media audience theory, in Only study guide COM303A for COM3703.
Media studies: content, audiences, and production, edited by J Reid and M van
Heerden. Pretoria: University of South Africa: 218-229.

Smit, P, Technical Support Executive, South African Advertising Research

Foundation (SAARF). 2006. Interview by Author. [Transcript]. 10 August, Bryanston.

South African Advertising Research Foundation (SAARF). 2022. South African

Advertising Research Foundation.
[O]. Available: http://www.saarf.co.za/
Accessed 15/05/2022

Twyman, T. (1994). Measuring audiences to radio, in Measuring media audiences,

edited by R Kent. London: Routledge.

University of South Africa. Department of Communication Science. 2019. Tutorial

letter 301/4/2019 CMNALLE. Pretoria.

University of South Africa. Department of Communication Science. 2022. Tutorial

letter 201 for COM3703. Pretoria.

Van Vuuren, D.P. 1994. Die SAUK se televisiedienste, in Televisie – skyn en

werklikheid, onder redakteurskap van JB du Toit. Kaapstad: Tafelberg:108-127.

Writers Online. (2019). The effect of a metaphor on your readers.

[O]. Available: https://www.writers-online.co.uk/how-to-write/creative-writing/the-
effect-of-a-metaphor-on-your-readers
Accessed on 15/05/2022

23
ADDENDUM A: NEWSPAPER REPORT

24
25
ADDENDUM B: IN-DEPTH INTERVIEW TRANSCRIPT

Interviewer: Jadie’-Lee Moodly (JM)

Interviewee: Anastasia Rufus (AR)
Date and time: Monday, May 9th 2022 13:00
Location: Durban, Kwa-Zulu Natal

JM: Thank you for taking the time out of your day to participate in this interview. I just
have a few questions for you to answer. Please note that this interview is taped
recorded for analysis purposes. If this is okay with you we can proceed.

AR: Yes it is fine with me. I’m more than happy to answer your questions, because
the subject also interests me.

JM: Great! Let us begin with what your musical taste and preferences are?

AR: I would say that my musical tastes are quite varied. What I listen to often depends
on how I am feeling at the time. I do not have any favourite music genres in particular.
My playlist is mixture of rap, r&b, country, reggaeton, and pop music. It also really just
depends on my mood.

JM: In regard to the music genres you identified, would you say you prefer old school
or new school music?

AR: I definitely prefer new school music. I do not really care much for music from the
late 2000s, 90s and so on.

JM: What are your favourite television programmes?

AR: Some of my all-time favourite television shows are Supernatural, Grimm,

Superstore and Resident Alien. Recently I have been watching a television show
called, From, so far I am finding it quite entertaining.

JM: What genres to these television programmes fall under?

AR: Mostly thriller, comedy and mystery. These are my favourite genres in terms of
the television programmes that I watch.

26
JM: Who are your favourite film stars?

AR: I would have to say Tom Holland from Spiderman and Lewis Tan from Wu
Assassins.

JM: Do you have any particular reason for liking these actors?

AR: I just find them really entertaining to watch in general.

JM: What is your preference or not for particular brand names when buying clothes?

AR: I do not really have a preference for brand name clothes. If it looks nice I will
buy it, it does not have to be a brand name item of clothing.

JM: What is your favourite food?

AR: I absolutely love Alfredo pasta and tortilla wraps I could eat it every day.

JM: What are your perceptions of why it is important for you to be accepted by the
peer group you have?

AR: I think it is really important that my friends accept me as who I am, as well as kind
and supportive. Often you get those people who call themselves your friend but talk
bad behind your back or just do not like you. I have experienced this before, so now it
is crucial for me to have mutual trust with my friends even if that just means having
two genuine people in my life rather than a whole group of people who secretly cannot
stand me. I feel safe in my current friend group, there are no instances where I feel
out of place or pressure to do something that I would not want to do. Honestly, I would
not have it any other way.

JM: What access to, and usage patterns of, the media and social media do you
have?

AR: I have a laptop and smartphone that I use for WhatsApp, Facebook, Instagram,
Twitter and Tiktok. My screen time between these apps is at least four hours a day.

JM: What do you often use these social media sites for?

27
AR: I use social media to communicate with friends as well as browse make up
tutorials, funny videos, memes, DIY project videos and even baking content. I love
doing most of these such as doing my makeup or creating DIY projects at home or
even baking in my spare time so I find that watch this content keeps me entertained
and informed.

JM: Okay, I believe that concludes the interview. Thank you for your time and
participation.

AR: Anytime!

*in-depth interview concluded*

28
ADDENDUM C: QUESTION 3.2.2 - RACHELS WEDDING DRESS

ADDENDUM D: QUESTION 3.5.4 - RACHEL WAITRESSING AT CENTREL PARK

29
ADDENDUM E: QUESTION 3.5.5 - CHANDLER PLAYING FOOTBALL

ADDENDUM F: QUESTION 3.5.7 - CHANDLER AND ROSS EMOTIONS

30