applied

sciences
Article
Grid-Connected Solar Photovoltaic System for Nile Tilapia
Farms in Southern Mexico: Techno-Economic and
Environmental Evaluation
Elizabeth Delfín-Portela 1,2,† , Luis Carlos Sandoval-Herazo 1, *,† , David Reyes-González 1 ,
Humberto Mata-Alejandro 3 , María Cristina López-Méndez 1 , Gregorio Fernández-Lambert 1
and Erick Arturo Betanzo-Torres 1, *,†

1 Tecnológico Nacional de México/Instituto Tecnológico de Misantla, Division of Graduate Studies and

Research Veracruz, Km 1.8 Carretera a Loma del Cojolite, Veracruz 93821, Mexico
2 Tecnológico Nacional de México/Instituto Tecnológico Superior de Xalapa, Sección 5A Reserva Territorial
S/N, Santa Bárbara, Veracruz 91096, Mexico
3 Tecnológico Nacional de México/Instituto Tecnológico de Boca del Río, Carretera Veracruz,
Boca del Río 94290, Mexico
* Correspondence: lcsandovalh@gmail.com; (L.C.S.-H.); eabetanzot@itsm.edu.mx (E.A.B.-T.)
† These authors contributed equally to this work.

Citation: Delfín-Portela, E.;
Sandoval-Herazo, L.C.;
Reyes-González, D.; Mata-Alejandro,
H.; López-Méndez, M.C.;
Fernández-Lambert, G.;
Betanzo-Torres, E.A. Grid-Connected
Solar Photovoltaic System for Nile
Tilapia Farms in Southern Mexico:
Techno-Economic and Environmental
Evaluation. Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 570.
https://doi.org/10.3390/app13010570
Academic Editors: Tiago Verdelhos
and Ana Cristina Rocha
Received: 15 November 2022
Revised: 22 December 2022
Accepted: 23 December 2022
Published: 31 December 2022
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Abstract: Tilapia farming is the predominant aquaculture activity, with 4623 aquaculture farms in
Mexico alone. It is relevant to apply technological alternatives to mitigate production costs, mainly
those associated with supporting energy savings for aeration and water pumping in aquaculture
farms. There is limited information confirming the feasibility of implementing photovoltaic systems
connected to the grid (On grid-PV) in aquaculture farms. The working hypothesis proposed for the
development of the work was that On Grid PV systems in Tilapia aquaculture farms in Mexico are
technically feasible, economically viable and environmentally acceptable. Therefore, the objective of
this research is to design a grid-connected photovoltaic system for rural Tilapia aquaculture farms in
Mexico and analyze it with a feasibility assessment through technical, economic and environmental
variables, as part of the link between academia and the productive sector. Methodologically, the
On Grid-PV design was carried out in an aquaculture farm in Veracruz, Mexico, as a case study.
It was developed in two stages: the field phase (1), where a non-participant observation guide
and a survey with open questions were applied to perform the energy diagnosis, and the cabinet
phase (2) where the calculation of the economic and environmental variables was carried out with
the clean energy management software Retscreen expert, the engineering design was based on the
Mexican Official Standard for electrical installations, and Sunny Design 5.22.5 was used to calculate
and analyze the electrical parameters of the On Grid PV. The results revealed an investment cost of
USD 30,062.61, the cost per KWp was of 1.36 USD/Watt, and the economic indicators were the net
present value (USD 41,517.44), internal rate of return (38.2%) and cost–benefit ratio (5.6). Thus, the
capital investment is recovered in 4.7 years thanks to the savings obtained by generating 2429 kW/h
per month. As for the environment, it is estimated that 11,221 kg of CO2 equivalent would be released
into the atmosphere without the On Grid-PV. In conclusion, the hypothesis is accepted and it is
confirmed that On Grid-PV installations for Tilapia farms are technically feasible, economically viable
and environmentally acceptable; their implementation would imply the possibility for aquaculture
farms to produce Tilapia at a lower production cost and minimized environmental impact in terms
of energy. It is recommended that aquaculture farmers in Mexico and the world implement this
eco-technology that supports the sustainable development of aquaculture.
Keywords: Oreochromis niloticus; sustainable aquaculture; eco technologies; rural development;
renewable energy; solar energy; solar photovoltaic system

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 570. https://doi.org/10.3390/app13010570 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 570 2 of 31

1. Introduction
The energy used in aquaculture farms is the second important aspect in semi-intensive
and intensive systems, caused by the cost of electricity for pumping and aeration; some
authors report that the cost of energy generally represents between 10% and 15% of the total
production costs [1]. However, in Mexico, aquaculturists claim that the price of electricity
is very high and is a reason why many farms close their operations. In this regard, the Na-
tional Commission of Fisheries and Aquaculture (CONAPESCA) reported 458,260 GW/h
of energy subsidies for the sector, which represented an amount of USD 9,488,197.89 for
504 producers in 29 states of the country [2,3]. Although the Mexican government cov-
ered part of the energy costs, the coverage is still limited, since the set of national UPAs
(Aquaculture Production Units) is larger. The cost of energy is a key factor in the sum of
production costs in aquaculture, since electricity prices in commercial and industrial tariffs
in Mexico are high, compared to other producing countries, being up to 134% without
subsidy and 84% with subsidy for the agricultural sector, including aquaculture [4].
Currently, the cost per kilowatt/Hour (kW/h) in the commercial tariff where most of
the UPAs in Mexico are located is the so-called PDBT (Small Demand Low Voltage) up to
25 kW of energy demand; its cost is USD 0.19 per kW/h, plus a fixed charge of USD 1.87
per month, regardless of energy consumption [5]. This subsidy is important mainly due
to the fact that the aeration equipment operates 24 h a day, which has an impact on the
operation of farms, especially those with a semi-intensive to intensive production system.
A survey applied to 219 aquaculture farmers revealed that the cost of electricity per
month (EC) in 41.13 % of the cases is a limiting factor to compete [6]. This aspect reveals that
the cost of electricity in Mexican aquaculture farms is high, and an alternative is required
to minimize this cost.
Competitiveness in the aquaculture sector is threatened by the growing importation
of Tilapia from the Asian continent, which has been increasing in recent years, leaving the
Mexican aquaculturists at a disadvantage due to the low price of the product offered in
Mexico [1], in addition to the problems associated with the recent COVID-19 pandemic,
which has led to a decline in the sales of aquaculture products and a substantial increase
in production costs. Faced with the inability to sell, aquaculturists have maintained
cultured species by feeding them, due to declining demand and increased risks caused by
confinement measures, disruption of supply chains, and uncertainty about the future, all of
which are disruptions in the global market [7–9].
Water, feed and energy use is indispensable for the development of aquaculture;
however, in these uncertain times, innovation is needed to mitigate these costs and support
the recovery and competitiveness of small and medium-sized aquaculture enterprises
(SMEs) in coastal, urban and rural areas [10,11].
The pertinence and relevance of the research is to contribute to the acceleration of the
penetration of On Grid-PV in the aquaculture sector to generate its own energy, reduce
pressure on public spending on subsidies and help keep production costs low, ensuring
energy and food security [1,12–14]. On the other hand, in the scientific literature related to
Nile Tilapia production, there is no evidence of studies that propose and demonstrate the
technical, economic and environmental feasibility of using Photovoltaic Systems Connected
to the Grid (On Grid-PV) to mitigate production costs, which in the case of aquaculture is
the second most relevant cost [6,13].
Therefore, the objective of this research is to design a grid-connected photovoltaic
system for rural tilapia aquaculture farms in Mexico and analyze it with a feasibility
evaluation, through technical, economic, and environmental variables, as part of the linkage
between academia with the productive sector, with emphasis on the minimization of one of
the indispensable resources in aquaculture, such as electricity, giving rise to the concept of
Photovoltaic Aquaculture Systems (PV-AQS).
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 570 3 of 31

2. Literature Review
2.1. Importance of Aquaculture and Tilapia Production in Mexico
Tilapia is a type of fish of African origin whose habitat is the tropical regions, where
the necessary conditions exist for its reproduction. This fish was introduced to Mexico
in 1964, and Oreochromis niloticus gained importance [14], representing 80% of the Tilapia
cultivated worldwide [15]. In Mexico, several types of Tilapia are mainly cultivated: Nile
Tilapia Oreochromis niloticus (Linnaeus 1758), Tilapia GIFT (Genetically Improved Farmed
Tilapia), Tilapia Stirling, and Genetically Male Tilapia (YY-GMT® ), Rocky Mountain derived
(O. niloticus × O. aureus), Tilapia rendalli (Boulenger 1897), Oreochromis aureus (Steindachner
1864), Oreochromis mossambicus (Peters 1852), Oreochromis urolepis (Norman 1922), O. aureus
(Steindachner, 1864), Red Tilapia derived (O. aureus × O. niloticus × O. mossambicus ×
O. urolepis hornorum), recently a hybrid called the Pargo-UNAM derived from Rocky
Mountain (25%), O. niloticus pink (25%) and red Tilapia (50%), which is in expansion, was
developed in Mexico. Available data indicate that Mexico is the fifth world producer in
controlled systems, this species being the one with the highest national consumption [16,17].
The main species cultivated in Mexico in aquaculture are shown (Figure 1), high-
lighting the production of Pacific white shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei) followed by Tilapia
spp. as the main species, with 74% and 19%, respectively. This highlights the relevance of
working with them, since they represent the largest number of official aquaculture farms
in the Registry of National Fisheries and Aquaculture (RNPA), with 4626 aquaculture
facilities [18–20].

Figure 1. Main species cultivated in Mexico under controlled systems [17–19].

Rural aquaculture in Mexico was born as a complementary activity for social support
to rural communities, with the aim of increasing the consumption of animal protein and
improving the nutritional levels of the population. Tilapia were introduced to Mexico
from the United States of America and were first kept in the Temascal fish farm in Oaxaca,
Mexico [18]. The different types of aquaculture constitute an important component in
the development of farming systems, which contribute to reducing food insecurity, mal-
nutrition and poverty by providing food of high nutritional value, generating income
and employment [1,10,11]. For this reason, it is important to enhance the management of
aquatic resources and increase the sustainability of farms [21–23].
In Mexico, according to the General Law on Sustainable Fisheries and Aquaculture, ru-
ral aquaculture is considered to be those small-scale aquatic organism production systems
carried out by families or small rural groups, in extensive or semi-intensive crops, for self-
consumption or partial sale of harvest surpluses [24]. Other classifications in aquaculture
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 570 4 of 31

are Aquaculture of Limited Resources (ARELs) and Micro and Small Enterprise (AMyPEs),
representing about 59,088 ARELs and 12,737 AMyPEs in Latin America and the Caribbean,
where a technological change in the sustainable use of water and energy is important [25].
The above data suggest that a current census, not yet available for all aquaculture countries
in the region, would yield a much higher figure [26,27]. These data suggest the impor-
tance of aquaculture and the need to initiate the development of innovative solutions for
sustainable aquaculture supported by photovoltaic energy.

2.2. Global Trends in Renewable Energy Production

Coal-fired electricity generation (35% of global energy supply in 2020) and nuclear
power generation decreased by 4.5% and 3.5%, respectively, and this was partially offset
by increases in wind (+12%), solar (+20%) and hydroelectric (+2%) power generation.
Renewable power generation increased by more than 6% thanks to continued growth in
wind and solar power generation, while the share of hydropower has remained stable at
around 16% of the global energy supply [28]. However, the global energy matrix is still not
balanced, as the dependence on fossil fuels for electricity production is very high; globally,
28% of energy comes from renewable sources and 72% from non-renewable sources; the
share of wind and solar energy is growing at a fast and steady pace (+1.2pt. in 2020),
reaching 9.5%. The COVID-19 pandemic and the ensuing economic recession failed to slow
down renewable installations, which reached historic records in 2020 with the addition of
more than 126 GW of solar capacity and nearly 112 GW of wind capacity globally [29].

2.3. Solar Energy Potential, Regulations, Solar Resource and Costs in Mexico
Since the publication of the first interconnection contract for small-scale solar energy
sources, as well as the entry into operation of the first large-scale photovoltaic plant in 2011,
the installed capacity of solar energy increased, and this increase has been reinforced by
the significant growth of the linked interconnection contracts (small and medium scale), in
which since 2011 (Figure 2) a significant growth up to 2020 of 1388 MW can be observed [30].

Figure 2. Evolution of installed solar power capacity in Mexico in MW [30].

In Figure 3, estimates are shown made by SENER (Ministry of Energy) and CRE (En-
ergy Regulatory Commission), where it is projected to install between 9179 and 13,869 MW
by 2035, distributed generation solar photovoltaic systems [30,31].
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 570 5 of 31

Figure 3. Estimated evolution of distributed generation capacity installed in Mexico, 2016–2035 in

MW [31,32].

The legislation for the On Grid-PV Systems in Mexico was published in 2007 in the
Official Journal of the Federation [33]. This regulation allowed residential and commercial
users to connect to the Federal Electricity Commission (CFE) grid with the use of On
Grid-PV (RES/176/2007) for electricity generation. The connection to the CFE grid is to
supply the energy generated by the installed panels and thus exchange energy with the
CFE through bi-directional energy meters. The low voltage limit was set at 10 kW for
residential use and up to 30 kW for commercial use, and this allows users to contribute
with their electricity generation from a small proportion of their total energy consumption
in their electrical installation [34].
Currently, the regulations to be complied with for this type of system are described
in the following laws: the Electric Industry Law [35], the Electric Power Public Service
Law [36], the General Law on Climate Change [37], the Electric Transition Law [38], the
Mexican Official Standard NOM-001-SEDE-2012 [39], and The CFE Specification G0100-04
for the interconnection to the low voltage electric grid of photovoltaic systems with capacity
up to 30 kW [34].
The solar resource potential in Mexico stands out because the annual amount of solar
radiation received is higher than that of other countries. Mexico is located in the so-called
global maximum irradiation belt, between 30 north and 30 south latitudes, which makes
the amount of solar radiation high throughout the national territory, with an average of
5.5 kW/m2 /day [40,41]. In the structure of primary energy production, the Ministry of
Energy (SENER) reported that only 2.8% of the national energy produced is obtained
from sources such as geothermal, solar and wind. In this sense, the renewable sources
that increased their participation in the gross domestic energy supply in 2018 were solar
(58.20%) and wind (23.2%). Thus, the net generation of electricity with self-sufficient solar
energy in 2018 was 327.77 GW/hour [40].
Despite the low diffusion of photovoltaic technology, it is very important to note
that, over the last 10 years, it has increased favorably, incorporating even more users,
and in the aforementioned data collection period production increased from 872.40 kW
to 53,170.53 kW in 2019. This is a reflection of the increase in electricity tariffs, which are
expected to rise by up to 50% in 2022, before softening in 2023 and 2024 [41].
On the other hand, the decrease in photovoltaic technology brings solar panel prices
down from 5 USD/Watt to 1 USD/Watt and makes these investments attractive; the inter-
connection scheme with CFE for cogeneration has boosted the photovoltaic solar industry
in our country, and as of 31 December 2015, small and medium scale interconnection
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 570 6 of 31

contracts across Mexico reached up to 117.56 MW of installed capacity. It is estimated that,

by 2022, 2.18 GW of small and medium-scale cogeneration will be reached [39,40].

2.4. Constitution of Photovoltaic Systems

Photovoltaic systems are formed by several elements to be defined [34], firstly the
Photovoltaic Cell, which is the smallest semiconductor element capable of converting
sunlight into electrical energy via direct current; secondly a Photovoltaic Array (PVA)
consisting of a circuit formed by several branches of photovoltaic modules connected in
parallel. With these elements of energy source the construction of a Photovoltaic Generator
(PVG) is possible, defined as a generating unit capable of converting incident solar radiation
directly into electrical energy in the form of direct current. It consists of the electrical and
mechanical integration of the following components, as shown in (Figure 4).

Figure 4. Components of a photovoltaic system based on [34].

Indeed, the photovoltaic principle is obtained from solar cells, through a set of cells
that form a module; the union of several modules forms a photovoltaic panel and the
connection of several panels forms a photovoltaic array, which in turn is transformed into a
PVG. It should be clarified that, up to this point, the energy produced is in direct current
(DC), so the element called the inverter is the power electronic device whose main function
is to convert the DC signal of a PVG in AC signal (Alternating Current), synchronized
with the CFE network. It is the central element of the interface between the PVG and
the power grid, and the AC output can be single-phase or three-phase. In addition, it
performs other protection and control functions for the efficient and safe operation of the
On Grid-PV [33,34].
Additionally, there is the possibility of building autonomous or interconnected systems
to the grid; an autonomous system is a generator system that converts sunlight directly into
electrical energy, with the appropriate characteristics to be used by the intended electrical
load [42], i.e., the user accesses this energy by connecting directly from the system to the
selected load, which is used in remote locations where there is no access to electrical service
for interconnection to the grid.
On Grid-PV systems are photovoltaic electricity provider systems in which direct
current power from the PVG is converted into alternating current power, with the voltage
and frequency specified by the grid and synchronized with it. By connecting in parallel with
the grid, On Grid-PV contributes to the supply of the demanded power to the grid. If there
is a local load on the property, it must be supplied by one or both sources simultaneously,
depending on the instantaneous values of the load and the output power of the On Grid-PV.
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 570 7 of 31

Surplus power from the On Grid-PV is injected into the grid and deficits are demanded
from the grid.
Figure 5 shows the block diagram of an On Grid-PV system; the arrows indicate the
power flow [34,43]. The PV system consists of (1) PV modules to convert solar radiation
into DC electricity, (2) a power inverter to convert the electricity from the panels into
AC electricity and (3) a bi-directional meter that measures both the amount of electricity
consumed from the CFE and also a “discount” of the electricity that is generated in the
system and delivered to the CFE; this is also known as a Distributed Clean Generation
(DCG) scheme.

Figure 5. Block diagram of an On Grid-PV system [34,43].

This type of interconnection scheme in Mexico is known as an interconnection contract

with net metering of energy (Net Metering), where the energy produced is discounted from
consumption, in the same supply contract with its energy company [33,44].

2.5. Photovoltaic Systems in the Agricultural Sector in Mexico

The use of photovoltaic systems in the agricultural sector shows the importance of
considering that the energy consumption in this sector was 189.27 PJ, increasing by 4.04%
in 2018 compared to the previous year. Diesel is the most important fuel used in this
sector, which accounted for 74%, followed by electricity with 23.54% of the total energy
consumed [45].
The main applications in the agricultural sector focus on pumping water in small
irrigation areas for home gardens and greenhouses. On the other hand, in regions where
connection to the CFE is possible, On Grid-PV systems have been used in agribusinesses
seeking to mitigate production costs, including slaughterhouses, processing plants, packing
plants, dairies, poultry farms, and agrotourism developments. Thus, through the Shared
Irrigation Trust (FIRCO) program, from 2008 to 2016, more than 600 systems with loads
less than 15 kilo Watt panel (kWp) were installed in the country [45].
An analysis of the data concludes that the application to aquaculture farms has not
been developed; this gap motivates the performance of the present work, with the expecta-
tion of a specific but not limited solution proposal, which allows replication in other similar
aquaculture facilities. The 4623 Tilapia farms in the country are small-scale, with conditions
equivalent to those of the study site, where the main problem lies in feed and energy costs.

2.6. Photovoltaic Systems in the Aquaculture

Empirical evidence indicates that the application of On Grid-PV systems in aquaculture
is scarce [46–49]; reviewing the systems developed in the world, most of them are Off Grid-
PV and the most frequent uses to supply energy in aquaculture are solar aerators to
oxygenate the water, solar feed dispensers, solar pumps, and solar water, heat systems,
floatovoltaic, thin-film FV, submerged FV and surface mounted FV. This may be due to the
fact that many aquaculture farms are not served by electricity and these types of systems
are a solution to this problem.
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 570 8 of 31

Table 1 shows the photovoltaic research applied to aquaculture found in the literature,
where Off Grid-PV applications stand out, mainly in Asian countries where aquaculture is
a production power.

Table 1. Photovoltaic systems in the aquaculture in the empirical evidence.

Type of Developed
Country Species Indicators Reference
System Application
Economic
Financial Capacity
USD
Aeration system and
Off Grid-PV Pakistan NA 15,158.09 ***** 19,190.39 * 24.7 kW [50]
lights
Automation system to
stabilize the
Off Grid-PV Turkey NA NA NA 1.1 kWp [51]
temperature of fish
cage with water pump
Produce pure oxygen
Hybrid system 998.65 kWp
Vietnam Shrimp 152,386 NA for oxygenation and all [52]
999.09 kWr
the energy of the farm
Blue Water pump and air
Off Grid-PV Thailand Swimming NA NA 374.2 Wp compressor micro [53]
Crab modular RAS t
Modeled energy
requirements using a
Off Grid-PV E.E.U.U. NA NA NA ND daily energy for [54]
In-pond Raceway
system (IPRs)
0.61 ** Water quality
Off Grid-PV Thailand NA NA 50 Wp [55]
USD/kWh monitoring system
Energy system models
2350–2410 per for floating and
Off Grid-PV Thailand Shrimp 50 **** 200 kWp [56]
kWp floating-tracking PV
systems
Solar photovoltaic (PV)
0.219 ***
Off Grid-PV Egypt NA 260 105 kWp pumping for aeration [57]
kWh
of aquaculture ponds
Floating solar
0.16 ** photovoltaic system to
Off Grid-PV Thailand Shrimp 2225 985 Wp [58]
USD/kWh power aeration and
monitoring system
Nile Tilapia 46.993 *
Energy requirements
Off Grid-PV Mexico and Beta 25,000 0.438 ** 12.5 kWp [59]
for aquaponics system
vulgaris USD/kWh
Air pump and a water
Off Grid-PV India NA NA NA NA [60]
pump for water quality
NA: Not available; NPV Net present value *; LCOE: Levelized Cost of Energy **; Profit (USD/kWp); Cost of PV
Electricity *** (USD/kWp) **** Cost ***** Note Off Grid-PV requires battery energy storage.

The limited information on both systems (On Grid-PV and Off Grid-PV) of economic,
financial and environmental evaluations, some of which are non-existent, stands out. It
is important to consider this type of research in order to carry out integral evaluations
oriented towards the aquaculturist for correct decision making and to determine which
system to implement.

2.7. Research Limitations

According to the literature review, there are not enough studies on the technical
dimensioning and economic analysis of an On Grid-PV system for Nile Tilapia farming in
Mexico. Therefore, this study focused on determining the design of an On Grid-PV system
from a techno-economic and environmental perspective, based on the aquaculture farm
under study with its specific characteristics in terms of energy consumption. The reality in
Mexico is that, to date, we do not have a standard that provides us with precise instructions
for drawing up single-line diagrams of photovoltaic systems, which is why international
standards were used to improve on the minimum required in Mexican regulations.
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 570 9 of 31

2.8. Contributions
We propose an On Grid-PV system for the production of Nile Tilapia in Mexico based
on the guidelines for agricultural sector projects with photovoltaic technology and current
Mexican regulations; however, it can be replicated for the aquaculture of other species
where grid connection is available. The system consists of a photovoltaic array capable of
supporting the aeration, pumping and lighting loads and a monitoring system integrated
in the inverter to observe the operation of the system with different electrical variables of
interest online.
Its sizing was carried out considering the objectives of energy consumption and
cost reduction of the farm, analyzed with technical, economic and environmental criteria:
the main indicators are power of the photovoltaic system and its electrical installation,
construction costs, net present value, internal rate of return, benefit–cost ratio, payback
period, cost per kWp/USD and finally the effect of reducing CO2 emissions.

3. Materials and Methods

3.1. Location of the Study and Unit of Analysis
The analysis and design of the On Grid-PV was carried out for an aquaculture farm
of the Tierra Adentro Fish Farm company located in Tierra Blanca, Veracruz, Mexico
(Figure 6). Its activities are production, as well as livestock and agricultural activities such
as the production of Swiss American cattle, sugar cane and Persian lime crops.

Figure 6. Location of the study site and analysis unit: Tierra Adentro fish farm.

The Fish Farm grows Spring Tilapia® from the Akvaforsk Genetics Center; Module
I has 4 polyethylene tanks of 3.10 m diameter by 1.20 m height to receive fingerlings,
12 polyethylene tanks of 6.10 m diameter by 1.20 m height for pre-fattening, and 3 polyethy-
lene tanks of 4 m diameter by 1.20 m height for pre-fattening. Module II, for Tilapia
fattening, has a surface area of 720 m3 and consists of 6 geo-membrane tanks 12 m in
diameter by 1.20 m in height.
The equipment has 4 regenerative blowers of 3.72 kW for oxygen supply, and wa-
ter is supplied through a deep well of 100 m deep with a water flow of 25 L per sec-
ond and a 29.8 kW pump. Power is supplied through a medium voltage electrical grid
(13.2 kV/440 V/220 V) with a 30 kVA three-phase transformer and a backup power system
with a 40.5 kW three-phase generator; wastewater is collected in a reservoir, which is used
for agricultural irrigation.
Tierra adentro is located on the climatic zone type Aw” 2 (w) (e) g, warm sub-humid,
with an average temperature of 27.4 ◦ C [61]. Precipitation in the area reaches an average
annual mean volume of 1573.2 mm, with the highest rainfall in the second half of the year;
it is located within the Southern Gulf Coastal Plain province [62–64].
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 570 10 of 31

The type of research was approached as a case study, whose emphasis is on the practi-
cal resolution of a previously demonstrated problem [65,66]. Thus, a case is considered as
a systemic unit or entity identified in its limits and characteristics and located in relation
to its context [67,68] and which is the main object or subject of study [69,70]. The unit of
analysis of the present work is the Tierra Adentro Fish Farm company.

3.2. Design and Regulatory Criteria

For the design of the Photovoltaic Systems Connected to the Grid (On Grid-PV), the
applicable standards were used, such as:
1. Connection of photovoltaic systems to the low voltage electrical grid, with capacity
up to 30 kw according to CFE specification G0100-04 [34].
2. The Mexican Official Standard NOM-001-SEDE-2012, related to electrical installa-
tions (use), especially article 690 related to photovoltaic solar systems of the same
standard [39].
3. Technical Specification for grid-connected Photovoltaic Systems associated with pro-
ductive agricultural and livestock projects [71], which establishes the minimum techni-
cal specifications to be met by photovoltaic systems interconnected to the grid, for use
in productive agricultural or agribusiness projects promoted by the SADER (Secretary
of Agriculture and Rural Development).
4. Manual for the technical–economic evaluation of “Photovoltaic Systems Intercon-
nected to the Electric Grid supported through the Shared Risk Trust Program” [72,73],
in which the technical and financial criteria are established to ensure the feasibility
and quality of photovoltaic projects in the agricultural sector and ensure the efficient
allocation of economic resources for projects in the country.
The technical data collection was carried out following the recommendations pre-
viously suggested for the On Grid-PV design [74] that were adapted for the study site;
Figure 7 shows the phases applied during the research and their considerations, both in the
field phase (1) and in the office phase (2). A non-participant observation guide and a survey
with open-ended questions were used as field tools to develop the energy diagnosis.

3.3. Software Used and Data Analysis

The Retscreen® Clean energy management expert version 8 for Windows (Government
of Canada, ON, CA, USA) and Sunny Design 5.22.5 (Niestetal, DEU: SMA Solar Technology
AG Corp, Rocklin, CA, USA) were used to calculate and analyze the electrical parameters
and the economic and environmental indicators.
The equations used in the RETScreen Financial Analysis Model are based on standard
financial terminology that can be found in [75]. The model makes the following assump-
tions: the initial investment year is year 0; the costs and credits are given in year 0 terms,
thus the inflation rate (or the escalation rate) is applied from year 1 onwards, and the timing
of cash flows occurs at the end of the year.
The economic evaluation criteria established by [71,72,76] were also considered.
For descriptive statistics, solar radiation and air temperature, JAMOVI software 2.3
(Jamovi.org) was used. Autocad software version 2022 for Windows (SR, CA: Autodesk,
Inc, San Rafael, CA, USA) was used for the design of the single-line diagram.
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 570 11 of 31

Figure 7. Applied methodology for the development of the research. Public financing *, Private
financing **.

3.4. Solar Power Calculation and Equipment and Sources of Information

The calculation and sizing of the On Grid-PV was carried out with the instruments
shown in Table 2, in addition to the energy billing of the aquaculture farm reported for
12 months by the supplying company (Comisión Federal de Electricidad).
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 570 12 of 31

Table 2. The calculation and sizing of the On Grid-PV solar photovoltaic energy was carried out with
the following instruments.

Equipment and Sources of Information Description Specifications

A non-participant observation guide and Open-ended questions were used as field
a survey. tools to develop the energy diagnosis.
Technical data of panels. With polycrystalline technology.
Inverter technical data. With grid-connected technology.
Fluke Multimeter. For voltage and current measurements.
Solar radiation meter. Amprobe Solar-100.
Fluke 434-II Power Quality Analyzer For measurement of electrical power (W),
(ACE-Fluke 434-II). voltage (V) and current (A)
Photovoltaic system calculation and
Software. economic, financial and environmental
indicators.
Software. Single-line system diagram design.
Software. Descriptive statistics.
[34,39,42,71,74] and Sunny Design Version 5.22.5 (Niestetal, DEU: SMA Solar
Electrical installation calculations.
Technology AG Corp, Rocklin, CA, USA).
Applicable to installed equipment,
aeration, pumps and lighting.
International Electrotechnical
Commission (IEC) and UL 1703
certifications.
IEC 61727 and UL-1741 certifications.
CAT III, 600V, VCA ± (1.0% + 3),
VDC ± (0.5 % + 2).
Range: 1999 W/m2 ; accuracy ±
5–10 W/m2 ; resolution 0.1W/m2
Accuracy: Voltage: 0.5% of nominal
voltage, Current: 0.5%, Power: 1%,
Frequency: 0.01 Hz).
Retscreen® Clean energy management
expert software version 8 for Windows
(ON, CA: Government of Canada).
Autocad SR, CA: (Autodesk, Inc, San
Rafael, CA, USA).
JAMOVI software version 2.3
(Jamovi.org).

The input variables of the photovoltaic system used are: air temperature, relative
humidity, precipitation, daily-horizontal radiation, atmospheric pressure, wind speed
and soil temperature, which were obtained with the software Retscreen® Clean energy
management expert version 8 for Windows, with the geographical coordinates of the
study site.
The variables for the design of the On Grid-PV were the power consumed during
12 months of the aquaculture farm in kW/hour/month, as well as the maximum demand
in kW, obtained from the energy billing of the aquaculture farm, the census of loads carried
out in situ to elaborate the energy diagnosis, and the distribution and type of loads installed.
With all the elements described above, the power required for On Grid-PV was
determined and the required energy was defined, determining to design the system with a
target of 50% reduction of energy costs, according to the farm manager’s requirement with
Sunny Design Version 5.22.5 (Niestetal, DEU: SMA Solar Technology AG Corp, Rocklin,
CA, USA).
The number of solar panels was determined manually by dividing the required kW
output of the system by the kW output of the PV module. On the other hand, for the
determination of the inverter, several available brands were analyzed considering the
required power of the system and the maximum generated power of the inverter, with the
criterion of dividing the required power between two inverters to generate the required
load to minimize costs and with the option of having at least 2 MPPT.
For the calculations of the electrical installation of the system, the requirements of
NOM SEDE 001 2012 were followed [34]; see Supplementary Material S1.

4. Results and Discussion

4.1. Meteorological Data and Solar Hours
To determine the solar radiation potential, an average value of 4.60 kW/hour/m2 /day
was found at the study site, with a peak during May, June and July and a noticeable
decrease in November, December and January. However, 4.60 is a very acceptable value
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 570 13 of 31

for the system calculation. Table 3 shows the data found for the study site obtained with
Retscreen expert V.8.

Table 3. Meteorological data and solar radiation at the study site, obtained with Retscreen® .

Daily-
Air Relative Atmosphere Wind Soil
Month Precipitation Horizontal
Temperature Humidity Pressure Speed Temperature
Solar Radiation
Units
◦C % mm kWh/m2 /d kPa m/s ◦C
January 21.6 80.2 38.44 3.65 100.7 5.5 21.8
February 22.3 79.8 26.60 4.23 100.6 5.4 22.9
March 24.3 78.4 23.87 4.86 100.4 5.2 25.1
April 26.2 77.4 36.0 5.35 100.2 5.1 27.6
May 28 77.8 74.40 5.46 100.1 4.4 29.1
June 28.3 80.2 231.20 5.07 100.1 4.2 28.4
July 27.7 81.9 285.20 5.27 100.3 3.7 27.2
August 27.6 82.4 282.72 5.05 100.3 3.5 27.2
September 27.4 81.9 307.50 4.46 100.2 4.0 26.9
October 26.2 80.2 161.20 4.29 100.3 4.6 25.6
November 24.2 80.0 84.30 3.95 100.6 5.1 23.8
December 22.3 79.8 38.13 3.55 100.7 5.1 22.2
Annual mean 25.5 80.0 1586.66 4.60 100.4 4.6 25.6

The basis for the design of an On Grid-PV system is the availability of the solar
resource in a solar site and the grid connection; the former is crucial to define the peak
power of the system. The data obtained are used for the system design, concluding that
the solar radiation potential is feasible, with a historical minimum of 3.55 and a maximum
of 5.46 kWh/m2 /d, very appropriate values for the development of photovoltaic systems.
The statistics of the photovoltaic power potential [77] indicate that the average radiation of
the country is 5.77 kWh/m2 , which represents a huge potential for electricity generation by
solar energy. Internationally, Mexico is considered one of the countries with the highest
sunlight capture [40,41].

4.2. Energy Consumption of the Fish Farm

Based on the energy diagnosis, a monthly consumption of 3275 kW/hour was esti-
mated, structured in energy for water pumping (24%), energy for the aeration system (57%),
energy for lighting (12%), and energy for electrical outlets (7%). Thus, the consumption
of the aeration system is clearly observed as a key factor in the use of electrical energy; in
aquaculture farms, about 60% of the energy used is for the aeration systems and up to 40%
for water pumping [78], and these data coincide with those found by this study and high-
light the importance of working more efficiently in the energy consumption of aquaculture
production units. The relationship between energy consumption and Tilapia production
per month is very important, since a minimum production of 143 kg per month is needed to
reach energy payments. If production increases then energy consumption increases, being
a directly proportional relationship. In general, with the current low voltage tariff there is
an annual consumption of 39,300 kw/hour at a total cost of MXN 120,161.56, (USD 6056.14).
According to this, a sale of 1716 kg of Tilapia is required to obtain economic resources to
pay for electricity, with a sale price per kilogram of live Tilapia of MXN 70.02 (USD 3.52) in
the local market.

4.3. The Grid-Connected Photovoltaic Systems (On Grid-PV) Design

4.3.1. Selection of Solar Panels
The energy requirements are determined as a target of 22,000 watts, so 56 panels are
required to obtain the 22 kWp; therefore, it is determined to use the monocrystalline panel
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 570 14 of 31

JAM72S09-390/PR. The technical specifications of the panels are shown in Table 4. The
following data are required for sizing the inverter.

Table 4. Specifications of the JA Solar JAM72S09-390/PR 390 Wp panels [79].

Electrical Parameters AT STC (At Standard Test Condition) Unit

Rated Maximum Power (Pmax) 390 W
Open Circuit Voltage (Voc) 49.35 V
Maximum Power Voltage (Vmp) 40.21 V
Short Circuit Current (Isc) 10.22 A
Maximum Power Current (Imp) 9.70 A
Module Efficiency 19.5 %
Power Tolerance 0~+5 0~+5 W
Temperature Coefficient of Isc (α_Isc) +0.060%/°C %/°C
Temperature Coefficient of Voc (β_Voc) −0.300%/°C %/°C
Temperature Coefficient of Pmax (γ_Pmp) −0.370%/°C %/°C
STC Irradiance 1000 W/m2 , cell temperature 25 °C, AM1.5G

4.3.2. Maximum Current (I max), Where (Isc) Is the Short-Circuit Current of the Panel
The maximum circuit current is calculated by multiplying the nominal Isc of the PV
module by the number of source circuits, and then multiplying this value by 125% to
account for extended periods of sunlight above the tested solar intensity. The maximum
current obtained was 12.77 amperes.

4.3.3. Conductor Results

According to [34] on branch circuits, it establishes that, before the application of any
adjustment or correction factor, it must have an admissible ampacity not less than the
non-continuous load and greater than 156% of the continuous load; it specifies for the Isc
(short circuit current) data that no more than three current-carrying conductors should be
placed in a pipe, and the 12 AWG conductor is selected based on an ambient temperature
of 30 ◦ C.

4.3.4. For Voltage Drop (VD) in Direct Current

The conductor resistance is obtained from conductor properties of [34], which corre-
sponds to 3.98 Ω and the distance d of the circuit is 25 m. The VD obtained was 1.27 volts,
which corresponds to a voltage drop of 0.57 %.

4.3.5. Operating Voltage of The String System

(a) RMPPV (Rated Maximum Power Point Voltage)
The operating voltage is obtained by multiplying the RMPPV of the module by the
number of modules in a series source circuit, obtaining 562 volts.
(b) The Maximum System Voltage is calculated by multiplying the value of Voc, and then
multiplying that value by the number of modules in a series string.
Module Voc = 49.35 Volts Nominal temperature = 25◦ C Number of Modules = 14. For
the above, 690.9 volts per strings <1000 Volts was obtained (compliant for a 1000 Vmax
inverter). Due to the fact that the maximum open circuit voltage per string was much lower
than the 1000 Volts supported by the system, the temperature correction was not calculated.

4.3.6. Inverter Sizing and MPPT (Maximum Power Point Tracking)

The MPPT is the maximum power point tracker, a circuit employed in most modern
PV inverters, and its function is to maximize the power available from the connected solar
module arrays at any time of operation [78]. An inverter without an MPPT circuit would
result in suboptimal operating conditions between any PV module (or string of modules)
and the inverter.
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 570 15 of 31

The MPPT circuit constantly monitors the array voltage and current and attempts to
bring the operating point of the inverter to the maximum power point of the array, resulting
in the highest energy harvest; in most applications with two strings or more, two MPPTs
are better than one [80].
For sizing the inverter, the following data are necessary: maximum layout power
(Kwp): 22 kwp divided into two inverters yields 12 kwp per inverter, maximum current
(Isc): 12.77 amps, open circuit voltage (Voc): 690.9 volts, operating voltage (Vmp): 562 volts.
It is recommended to use a Solis-3P12K-4G inverter, 3-phase 220–380 Volts, 2 MMPT
with two MPPT trackers, whose characteristics are shown in Table 5.

Table 5. Solis-3P12K-4G three-phase 220/380 VAC with two MPPT [81].

Datasheet Solis-3P12K-4G inverter

Value Unit
Input DC
Recommended max. PV power 18 kW
Max. input voltage 1000 V
Rated voltage 600 V
Start-up voltage 180 V
MPPT voltage range 160–850 V
Max. input current 22/22 A
Max. short circuit current 34.4/34.4 A
MPPT number/Max. input strings number 2/4 A2:B2 Inputs
Output AC
Rated output power 12 kW
Max. apparent output power 13.2 kVA
Max. output power 13.2 Kw
Rated grid voltage 3/N/PE, 20/380, 230/400 V
Rated grid frequency 50/60 Hz
Rated grid output current 18.2/17.3 A
Max. output current 19.1 A
Power Factor >0.99 (0.8 leading - 0.8 lagging %
THDi <1.5 %
Max. efficiency 98.7 %

4.3.7. Grounding
The minimum size of the grounding conductors for pipes and equipment following
the provisions of [34] is a bare grounding conductor caliber 12 AWG; for the characteristics
of the photovoltaic arrangement, the grounding system is identified with a green color in
the single line diagram.

4.3.8. Overcurrent Protection

All conductors in the photovoltaic circuits and output sources must have overcurrent
protection. For a continuous current of 12.77 amperes, four fuses of 15 amperes shall
be used, and each series shall be protected with two fuses for the positive and negative
conductors. Additionally, a 4-position cabinet shall be installed and the arrangement of
fuses and fuse holders shall be placed for each inverter installed.

4.3.9. Piping
Dimensions of conductors and insulated cables for appliances, and a six-wire surface
with 12 XLPE gauge will be used: two for positive, two for negative and one bare cable.
For inverters, 12 inch (16 mm) thick heavy metal conduit pipe shall be used [34].

4.3.10. AC Current Results

This is in accordance with [34], which indicates in article 210 “Derived circuits”, that
before the application of any adjustment or correction factor in derived circuits up to
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 570 16 of 31

600 volts, a permissible ampability must have no less than the non-continuous charge and
greater than 125% of the continuous load.

4.3.11. Protection against Overcurrents

All the conductors of the photovoltaic circuits and of the output source must have
protection against overcurrent. Thus, with data of 19.70 amperes, a thermomagnetic switch
of 3 × 40 amperes is selected to protect to the system.

4.3.12. Tubing for AC Conductor

Dimensions of conductors and insulated cables for appliances of [34], and 10 AWG
conductors are selected, three phase, one neutral and one ground connected (bare) will be
used. Heavy 1/2-inch-thick metal conduit will be used for inverters.

4.3.13. Photovoltaic Array Structures and Inclination

An anodized aluminum structure designed specifically for the proposed photovoltaic
system, fixed type, is considered for installation on a green area. It will be assembled on
concrete silos with their respective mounting and fastening accessories, and these will be
built for the mounting of the panels that will be carried out by means of expansive anchors
with stainless steel screws capable of withstanding winds of up to 140 km/h. The location
of the panels was determined by avoiding obstruction by shadows from buildings and trees
at the study site. Figure 8 details that the ideal orientation for directing the solar panels is
south (azimuthal angle of 180◦ ) and the inclination was determined to be 17◦ . By orienting
the modules in this direction, the PV module installation will receive the maximum possible
solar irradiation during the day and, therefore, the system performance will be optimal.

Figure 8. Details of structures and characteristics of the photovoltaic panels.

4.3.14. Estimated Energy Generation with the System

Table 6 shows the estimated energy generation with the system, with its main char-
acteristics, carried out during a period of 12 months, where the average generation was
calculated at 2429 kWh with a standard deviation of 242 kWh, using 56 panels of 390 W
power per module.
On the other hand, Table 7 shows the differences between the energy billing payment
without the photovoltaic system and the savings in the payment considering the installation
of the system during the analysis period, in accordance with the objectives set by the
company at the beginning of the research.
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 570 17 of 31

Table 6. Estimated generation of the On Grid-PV system.

Photovoltaic Generator: 56 Panels × Shanghai JA Solar Technology Co. Ltd. JAM72S03-390/PR (09/2018), Azimuth: 180◦ , Inclination: 17◦ ,
Mounting Type: Land
System Size PV Inverter
Photovoltaic System Efficiency: 78%
Generation: 22 kWp Solis-3P12K-4G, 3-phase 220–380 Volts
Average Consumption: 3275 kWh Generation Average: 2429 kWh Module power: 390 W
Generation kW/h base with On Payment with On
Period Year Power Factor (%)
kW/h Grid-PV Grid PV
July 2021 2761 439 28.09 241.75
June 2021 2590 610 37.67 211.21
May 2021 2713 487 30.88 230.36
April 2021 2657 543 34.04 220.19
March 2021 2655 545 34.15 219.88
February 2021 2088 1112 59.55 225.48
January 2021 2240 960 53.91 228.04
December 2020 2065 1135 60.34 225.38
November 2020 2400 800 47.06 235.67
October 2020 2343 857 49.61 232.20
September 2020 2378 822 48.06 234.21
August 2020 2258 942 53.18 228.60

Table 7. Comparison of actual consumption and the photovoltaic system in USD.

Without On Payment with On Savings with On

Period Years
Grid-PV Grid PV Grid PV
Totals 1 5471.82 2733.03 2738.79

4.4. Costs of Grid-Connected Photovoltaic Systems (On Grid-PV)

The installation cost of the power generation system is shown in Table 8, considering
the prices of panels, inverters and support structures. The corresponding quotation is re-
quested from three equipment companies for photovoltaic installations, located in Veracruz,
Mexico. With this budget, MXN 660,379 (USD 30,062.61) is required for the production of
22 kWp of photovoltaic energy. Thus, the construction cost per kilowatt installed yields a
total of MXN 30.01 per watt (USD 1.36), i.e., MXN 30,017.24 (USD 1620.93) per kilowatt. In
this sense it is considered a price consistent with the market. Sánchez Estone [40] states
that the cost per watt has dropped to USD 1 USD/Watt; in the case of this study, the result
at the exchange rate MXN 21.96 per USD 1 was 1.36 USD/Watt, and this estimate indicates
that it is possible to estimate the costs of Photovoltaic Aquaculture Systems (PV-AQS) with
this reference.

Table 8. Construction costs of the Grid-Connected Photovoltaic Systems (On Grid-PV) in USD.

Team Description Amount Cost USD

Photovoltaic Module JA Solar 390 W, 10-year direct
56 232.24 13,005.44
product warranty.
Solis-3P12K-4G 3 phase Inverter, Standard 5-Year
2 2503.27 5006.54
Warranty with WiFi Monitoring.
Mounting system: anodized aluminum structure,
Batch 1912.56 1912.56
stainless steel hardware with expanding anchor.
Mounting service: technical support, cable
installation for AC and DC piping, photovoltaic Batch 3739.17 3739.17
modules, inverters and grounding
CFE contracts (interconnection contract), delivery and
start-up of the system, inspection of the installation by 1 3187.61 3187.61
SENER and closing folder.
Load center and electrical installation in distribution
1 865.20 865.20
panel.
Three-phase bi-directional meter at 220 Volts. 1 1421.31 1421.31
Indirect field costs. Batch 924.78 924.78
Total $30,062.61
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 570 18 of 31

4.5. Objectives of the Aquaculture Farm with Grid-Connected Photovoltaic Systems

For the design (On Grid-PV), a 44% reduction in energy consumption was targeted.
The current consumption was about 39,300 kW/h, and a system generating 22 kWp was
calculated, mainly due to economic reasons and a user-defined criterion (See Figure 9).

Figure 9. Photovoltaic system design target, 44% reduction in grid energy consumption, obtained
from Retscreen expert V.8. Case proposal 22,008 kWh.

With this reduction target, energy costs will be reduced by 50%, as shown in Figure 10,
and the annual savings were estimated at MXN 60,144.00 (USD 2738.79), which impacts
the overall cost of production, and it is possible to use it for the reinvestments required in
the daily operation of the aquaculture farm.

Figure 10. Photovoltaic system design target, 50% reduction in electricity consumption costs, obtained
from Retscreen expert V.8.

4.6. Characteristics of the Grid-Connected Photovoltaic System (On Grid-PV)

The On Grid-PV will have a generating capacity of 22 kWp, with a system efficiency
of 78%. The number of monocrystalline panels required is 56, with a power per module
of 390 Wp. The one-line diagram of the system is shown in Supplementary Material S2,
which will have an average consumption of the production unit of 3275 kWh per month,
and the average generation was established at 2429 kWh per month, which represents a
44% reduction in energy consumption, seeking to reduce production costs per kilogram of
Tilapia by 34%, representing seven Mexican pesos per kilogram (0.31 USD/kg).
The arrangement of the modules is in parallel, with a maximum I of 15.94 amperes
and an Imp of 15.3 amperes of direct current. On the other hand, Vmp will be 592.2 volts
and e% of 3.17 Volts, and these characteristics are supported by the two microinverters.
The DC output of the array will be protected with a 20 amp fuse, which will be connected
to the two microinverters, each inverter will be protected with a surge suppressor with
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 570 19 of 31

a 3 × 40 amp thermomagnetic switch at the output, which will be connected to the AC

voltage load center, also protected with a 3 × 40 amp thermomagnetic switch, and then
connected to the bidirectional meter.
Finally, the entire system will be properly grounded with a bare conductor. The
construction time is estimated as 30 days, and the interconnection contract procedures in
60 days, since CFE and SENER intervene for the corresponding supervisions. The schematic
of On Grid-PV connected system for an aquaculture farm can be seen in Figure 11.

Figure 11. Schematic of an On Grid-PV connected system for an aquaculture farm.

As for the inverter monitoring system, this can be carried out via Wi-Fi or GPRS as
shown in Figure 12. This option allows the user to monitor the following variables in real
time [82]. On the other hand, Brooks [83] suggest when service maintenance is required
to some of the components, according to the regulations, there are disconnectors for the
primary direct current circuit and for the secondary alternating current circuit by means of
devices described in the diagram (Supplementary Material S2).

Figure 12. Schematic real time monitoring of an On Grid-PV connected system [82].
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 570 20 of 31

The variables that the user can visualize in real time are: (1) the value of the DC
input voltage; (2) the value of the DC input current; (3) the grid voltage value; (4) the grid
current value; (5) status: (a) the instantaneous status of the inverter (generating), (b) the
instantaneous output power value (power in Watts); (6) the grid frequency value in Hz;
(7) total generated energy value in kWh; (8) total energy generated this month in kWh;
(9) total energy generated last month in kWh; (10) energy generated today in kWh and
(11) energy generated yesterday in kWh.

4.7. Environmental Aspects: CO2 Emissions to the Environment

An aspect not directly related but important to consider is the saving in CO2 emissions
to the atmosphere thanks to the use of photovoltaic installations; in this sense it is estimated
that the designed system stops emitting 11.23 tons of CO2 equivalent to the atmosphere, so
the project offers this environmental advantage. It is equivalent to planting 288 trees, so it
can be said that this facility supports the environment by mitigating 24% of the emissions
to the environment thanks to the construction of photovoltaic installation. The summarized
aspects are shown in Figure 13.

Figure 13. Photovoltaic system design target, 24% reduction in CO2 eq emissions.

Poore and Nemecek [84] analyzed 14 agricultural and aquaculture products from
38,700 farms worldwide, finding that Tilapia aquaculture produces 5 kg of CO2 per kilo-
gram of product. This confirms the importance of relying on the application of photovoltaic
technology to minimize negative effects in the agricultural sector. The authors state that pro-
ducers have limits in terms of reducing impacts, so the use of technology that contributes
to sustainability favors the reduction of these environmental impacts.

4.8. Financial Analysis Grid-Connected Photovoltaic Systems (On Grid-PV)

It is important to note that the economic variables are generally accepted for the
evaluation of investment projects; an evaluation period of 15 years was considered, where
the results confirm the economic viability of the design, and these results are shown in
Table 9. The financial results indicate that an investment of USD 30,062.61 is sufficient to
obtain an average cost of 1.36 USD/Watt of the installed, proving that On Grid-PV systems
for aquaculture farms offer attractive economic indicators.
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 570 21 of 31

Table 9. Financial results of On Grid-PV systems for Nile Tilapia farm aquaculture.

Financial Parameters Unit Amount

Inflation Rate % 3.24
Project duration Years 15
Debt Ratio % 70
Debt interest rate % 8
Debt duration Years 5
Initial investment USD 30,062.61
Annual costs and debt payments
Annual costs USD −3664.96
Debt payments/5 years USD 5269.17
Total annual costs USD 1689.54
Annual savings and income
Annual savings USD 2738.79
Income from greenhouse
USD NA
gas reduction
Investment acceptance
Financial viability
criteria
Internal Rate of Return IRR Higher yield obtained with
% 33.8
before taxes (capital) CETES (6.68%)
Internal Rate of Return IRR Higher yield obtained with
% 13.5
before taxes (assets) CETES (6.68%)
Short investment payback
Return of capital Year 4.7
period
Short investment payback
Capital repayment Year 5.1
period
Benefit–Cost Ratio (BCR) USD 5.6 BCR > 1
Net Present Value (NPV) USD 41,517.44 NPV > 0 and positive

The criteria for accepting or rejecting investment projects are as follows: NPV must
be positive, IRR must be better than that offered by treasury certificates (CETES), for the
Mexican case this is 6.52% [85], and BCR must always be higher than unity. When these
three indicators are met, it is possible to consider the projects as viable [71,72,76].
Net Present Value (NPV) is the present value of future cash flows discounted at a
given rate or discount rate. NPV measures the economic value of the investment as the
sum of all discounted future net cash flows, all future cash inflows and outflows, and the
investment cash flows are discounted in the base year using an appropriate discount rate
and summed. When NPV > 0 (positive), the project will give a return in excess of the
required discount rate and therefore the project is attractive to the investor; the higher the
NPV, the more attractive the project [76]. The Net Present Value (NPV) obtained was MXN
911,723 (USD 41,517.44).
The Internal Rate of Return (IRR) is the discount rate at which the NPV of the project
equals zero; it is the sum of the discounted net cash inflows, equivalent to the sum of the
net cash outflows over the life of the project [76]. In our case, the result was 33.8%. In the
case of Mexico, there is a tax incentive of zero-income tax rate (ISR) for the promotion of
investments in photovoltaic energy projects. The IRR is a convenient way to compare the
profitability of projects with other types of investments, such as bonds and other financial
investments, being a popular measure among managers and decision makers.
The Benefit–Cost Ratio (BCR) is the ratio between the sum of the discounted net
operating cash flow and the investment flow, and when the BCR > 1 it indicates that the
project is feasible, since the net present value of benefits is greater than the costs. The higher
the BCR value above 1, the more attractive the project [76]; the BCR of the distributed
generation for aquaculture systems (DG-AQS) obtained was USD 5.6.
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 570 22 of 31

The capital investment is recovered in 4.7 years. Figure 14 shows the time needed
to recover the investment expressed in years. It is probably the most applied financial
measure in investments due to its ease of understanding; a project is “amortized” at the
moment when the accumulated net cash flows are equal to the net cash flows of the
investment [71]. This is why the time from the beginning of the project to reach this point
is called payback period.

Figure 14. Cumulative cash flow chart of the photovoltaic system, obtained from Retscreen expert V.8.

4.9. Sustainability in Aquaculture

Considering the principles of sustainability of aquaculture production systems, it
is essential to apply environmentally friendly technologies that help mitigate impacts
and minimize production costs [86]. According to FAO data [87], aquaculture currently
provides more than half of the world’s seafood for human consumption. Additionally, it
is increasing its share of supply as capture fisheries stagnate and the human population
continues to grow. In this context, the importance of advancing the debate on the impacts
and benefits of aquaculture with eco-technologies for its sustainable development is evident.
Based on the information presented in Figure 15, it is clear that aquaculture requires
resources to fulfill its role in the global food industry by providing quality protein for
human consumption [88,89].
Most of the current aquaculture production systems aim to be intensive [90], due to
the need to increase world food production from 25% to 70% by 2050 [91]. Therefore, it is
necessary for these systems to be sustainable and have a technological change; for this, it is
necessary to apply the eco-technologies described in Figure 16, where water and energy are
vital resources. Since the oceans will not provide the protein required by the population
in the future, aquaculture production will focus on production in ponds and controlled
environments at sea and on land [92–94].
Thus, the present research aligns with the goals of sustainable development, mainly fo-
cused on zero hunger (SDG 2), affordable and clean energy (SDG 7), responsible production
and consumption (SDG 12), and underwater life (SDG 14).
It is possible to develop a sustainable aquaculture with the use of eco-technologies,
each with its specific characteristics, which can be used individually or in an integrated
manner, depending on the approach determined by each aquaculture farm. Whether for
water saving in places of low availability or for energy efficiency, or energy saving in the
cases of farms where this aspect is relevant, each of them entails implementation costs with
their respective economic and financial feasibility analyses that are important to analyze in
future lines of research.
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 570 23 of 31

Figure 15. Principles of sustainable aquaculture and sustainable development objectives related
to aquaculture.

Figure 16. Eco-technologies for sustainable aquaculture.

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 570 24 of 31

4.10. Policies Aimed Particularly at Development

In Mexico, the Distributed Generation (DG) support program 2013 to 2020, executed
by the Trust for Electric Energy Saving (FIDE), financed 3219 photovoltaic projects intercon-
nected to the grid with a total of MXN 1191.68 million (USD 54,234,972.70) contributing
38.82 MW of installed capacity. These projects, in addition to bringing economic benefits to
the users of the electric energy service, help to increase their competitiveness and contribute
to the reduction of polluting emissions into the environment. This program grants financing
for the execution of projects at a preferential interest rate lower than that offered by other
financial institutions; the systems to be financed are photovoltaic projects interconnected to
the grid [95].

4.11. Application Conditions

Some countries in different regions of the world are already implementing programs
that contribute to energy sustainability through renewable energies. There are still many
areas of opportunity, particularly in Mexico due to its high solar radiation indexes through-
out its territory. According to data from the Geographic Information System for Renewable
Energies in Mexico and the Solar Radiation Observatory of the Geophysics Institute of the
UNAM (National Autonomous University of Mexico), irradiance values in most states are
higher than 5 kW/m2 , reaching maximum values of 6.89 kW/m2 , [41,77], which indicates
the large amount of solar resource available during most of the year. This competitive ad-
vantage of Mexico motivates the generation of electric energy through the implementation
of small, medium and large-scale distributed generation systems.
On the other hand, Figure 17 identified the following strengths, weaknesses, opportu-
nities, and threats (SWOT analysis) for the implementation of On Grid-PV in the Mexican
electricity market [72].

Figure 17. SWOT analysis of the implementation of photovoltaic systems in Mexico.

4.12. Financing for Aquaculture Farms for Photovoltaic Systems

Currently, there are several alternatives for the financing of photovoltaic systems
interconnected to the grid, mainly from commercial and development banks, in the case of
the Mexican Government:
1. Distributed Generation Support Program, operated by the Electric Energy Saving
Trust (FIDE) [95].
2. Business Eco-credit, provided by the (FIDE) Trust for Electric Energy Saving [96].
3. Solar financing offered by (NAFIN) National Financing entity [97].
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 570 25 of 31

4. Support Program for Sustainable Projects executed by the (FIRA) Agricultural Trust
Funds [98].
5. Fixed asset loans operated by (FND) National Financing for Agricultural, Rural,
Forestry, and Fisheries Development [99].
As for the private sector, coverage is limited, with some financial institutions observing
the viability of photovoltaic projects offer financial products; among them are:
1. CI Solar panel operated by CI Banco [100].
2. AgroActive credit, operated by BANORTE Bank [101].
3. Solar Panel credit operated by Caja Popular San Rafael [102].
This is in contrast to information obtained from SEMARNAT, [103] which published
the guide of programs to promote energy generation with renewable resources 2012–2018,
where unfortunately public funding for infrastructure for aquaculture farms was eliminated
with the current government of Mexico (2018–2024). Among the programs that supported
this type of projects were:
Bioenergy and Sustainability operated by the Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock, Rural
Development, Fisheries and Food (SAGARPA) and the Risk Sharing Trust Fund (FIRCO).
Agrifood Productivity operated by the Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock, Rural
Development, Fisheries and Food (SAGARPA) and the Risk Sharing Trust Fund (FIRCO).
Bioeconomy 2010, Generation and Saving of Electrical Energy through Renewable
Energy Sources and Energy Eco-science Measures operated by the Ministry of Agriculture,
Livestock, Rural Development, Fisheries and Food (SAGARPA) and the Risk Sharing Trust
Fund (FIRCO) and the Ministry of Energy (SENER).
Fund for Energy Transition and Sustainable Use of Energy operated by the National
Bank of Public Works and Services (BANOBRAS).

4.13. Limitations for Its Implementation

For its application in Mexico, subsidies of 50% of the cost of electricity are granted
to aquaculture farms registered in the National Registry of Fisheries and Aquaculture, an
aspect that depends on the policy of the government in power and there is a risk that in the
future it could disappear. Without On Grid-PV technology, it is possible that the profitability
of production will be affected. Another factor is the lack of knowledge regarding renewable
energies applied in the aquaculture sector as a central axis to reduce electricity costs, leading
to the limited photovoltaic applications in farms and studies reported in the literature.
This can be overcome with linkage actions between academia and producers in order
to demonstrate the feasibility of its application. The above demonstrates that this work
is relevant because its implementation is technically, economically and environmentally
feasible, aligned with the technical and financial requirements necessary to obtain financing
to support its construction in Mexico.
Finally, the Program for the Promotion of Fishing and Aquaculture Productivity
operated by the National Commission of Fishing and Aquaculture (CONAPESCA), an
important program for the development of productive infrastructure that ceased to operate
during the current administration, is an important factor for its implementation in other
aquaculture farms.

5. Conclusions
The study found that with Photovoltaic Aquaculture Systems (PV-AQS) it is possible
to reduce energy costs by 50%, without the need for large investments. The multi-criteria
analysis (technical, economic and environmental) jointly indicated that they are a viable
and sustainable solution for implementation.
The current data allow the establishing of the fact that the cost per kilowatt of a PV-
AQS represents an opportunity, so it is recommended to know the benefits of On Grid-PV
to plan its construction with the support of analyzed financial institutions that facilitate
credits for its realization. This is based on the fact that there is a real possibility, and they
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 570 26 of 31

are susceptible to access capital, which has an investment recovery period of less than
five years.
The data on costs in Mexico per Kwp of USD are useful for all types of farms and
future designs for the estimation of construction costs for small ARELs, SMEs and industrial
farms. The characteristics of the farms are very varied, and the only common factor is
that most of them require energy, since shrimp, carp, Tilapia, catfish or other species
farms all use electrical energy, mainly for pumps and oxygenation. Therefore, with the
information contained in the document, it was demonstrated that photovoltaic technology
is underutilized in the sector and that it is replicable in any farm in the production of any
species. For the design of an On Grid-PV for any production system, it is only required to
perform an energy diagnosis and its geographical location.

Future Lines of Research

In this blue revolution it is necessary that energy is stable, reliable and efficient to
promote investment, and it is suggested to focus on studying applications in aquaculture
farms with different production systems, extensive, semi-intensive and intensive crops of
different species. On the other hand, systems for aquaculturists with limited resources,
small and medium aquaculture companies and large scale, with On Grid-PV systems and
Off Grid-PV systems with energy storage to mitigate the intermittency of this type of
systems can be designed and evaluated.
Depending on each case, it is important to generate studies on the efficient use of
electrical energy in aquaculture facilities, because it is an important factor in the productivity
of the crops, mainly due to the energy required for the operation of the facilities.
Integrated aquaculture production systems are the future of sustainable aquaculture.
Photovoltaic technology coupled to Recirculating Aquaculture Systems (RAS), Biofloc Tech-
nology (BFT), Aquaponics Systems (AS), In Pond Raceway System (IPRS) and Aquamimicry
Technology (AT), plus Bio- RAS systems, will be a future trend.
These production systems are expensive in their electrical power requirements but,
supported by integrated hybrid photovoltaic systems with energy storage and intercon-
nected, they will increase the growing trend towards distributed electricity generation in
aquaculture farms. Therefore, converting an interconnected photovoltaic system to a hybrid
system is a real option now and, in the future, obviously some technical and installation
requirements must be considered for a viable and efficient project.

Supplementary Materials: The following supporting information can be downloaded at: https:
//www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/app13010570/s1, The Grid-Connected Photovoltaic Systems (On
Grid-PV) calculation, Supplementary Material S1. One-line electrical diagram the Grid-Connected
Photovoltaic Systems (On Grid-PV). Generation: 22 kWp, Efficiency of the Photovoltaic system: 78%,
required panels: 56, module power: 390 W, Supplementary Material S2.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, E.D.-P., L.C.S.-H. and E.A.B.-T.; methodology, E.A.B.-T.,
G.F.-L. and D.R.-G.; software, G.F.-L. and D.R.-G.; validation, G.F.-L., H.M.-A. and M.C.L.-M.; formal
analysis, E.D.-P., L.C.S.-H. and E.A.B.-T.; research, G.F.-L., H.M.-A., D.R.-G. and M.C.L.-M.; resources,
G.F.-L., H.M.-A. and D.R.-G.; data curation, L.C.S.-H., M.C.L.-M. and D.R.-G.; writing—original draft
preparation, E.D.-P., L.C.S.-H. and E.A.B.-T.; writing—review and editing, D.R.-G., G.F.-L., H.M.-A.
and M.C.L.-M.; visualization, D.R.-G., G.F.-L., H.M.-A. and M.C.L.-M.; supervision, D.R.-G., E.A.B.-T.,
L.C.S.-H. and G.F.-L.; project administration, E.D.-P., L.C.S.-H. and E.A.B.-T.; funding raising, E.D.-P.,
L.C.S.-H. and G.F.-L. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: The study received external funding from the Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología
(CONACYT) with the doctoral fellowship of the first author (D.P.-E), CVU 892099 and the postdoctoral
academic stay of the corresponding author (E.A.B.-T), CVU 770320.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 570 27 of 31

Data Availability Statement: The data presented in this study are available upon request from the
corresponding authors.
Acknowledgments: Thanks to the Tecnológico Nacional de México (TecNM) for supporting the
call for scientific research, technological development and innovation projects 2022, in the project
of linkage with the productive sector entitled: “Design and evaluation of a constructed wetland
agroecosystem integrated to an aquaculture recirculation system RAS-CW® with a circular economy
approach”. Project Number: CCRN3R (13812). Tierra Adentro Fish Farm® is thanked for their
technical support and data for the economic analysis under National Fisheries and Aquaculture
Registry number 300-100-96332 and aquaculture facility identification number 301-74-76. The authors
would like to express special thanks for the constructive comments from the editor and reviewers,
leading to significant and substantial improvements to the manuscript. Thanks to the National
Institute for Human and Social Development A.C. and CEO, Filiberto Toledano-Toledano, for their
recommendations for the final version of the manuscript.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.

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