Proceedings TIME 2022

Proceeding of the 2 nd International Conference on
TECHNOLOGY INNOVATIONS IN MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

(TIME-2022)
9 th -10 th February 2022
Proceeding of the 2 nd International Conference on
TECHNOLOGY INNOVATIONS IN MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
(TIME-2022)
9 th -10 th February 2022
Organised by
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Sharda School of Engineering & Technology
Greater Noida-201310, U.P., India
Edited by
Dr. BhimSingh
Dr. AkankshaMishra
Dr. HimanshuPayal
Dr. VineetKumar
SSB
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Message from the Chancellor
Technology is changing at a very rapid pace. The purpose of this change is to uplift the
quality of human life in terms of comfort, joy and prosperity. To keep sync with this changing
technological world one has to remain in touch with the current research and state of art
practices being adopted by industry and academia.
The initiative of the Mechanical Engineering Department to organize the 2nd International
Conference on “Technological Innovations in Mechanical Engineering (TIME-2022)’’ is an
effort in this regard. I congratulate the Department for making such an effort and wish for
the success of the conference. I sincerely hope that all the participants will have a fruitful
discussion.
P.K. Gupta
Chancellor
(i)
Message from the Pro-chancellor
It gives me immense pleasure to know that the Department of Mechanical Engineering

is organizing 2nd International Conference on “Technological Innovations in Mechanical
Engineering (TIME-2022)’’. We are grateful to Professors from IITs and other reputed National
and International Institutes for accepting our request to deliver keynote speech on various new
innovations in Mechanical Engineering during the conference.
Most companies involved in mechanical and automobile engineering are grappling with
issues of speed, customer sensitivity, and confidentiality and are seeking cost effective and eco-
friendly solutions to engineering problems.
I am sure that in these two days, participants and experts will discuss various aspects of
emerging technologies in Mechanical Engineering.
I wish a big success to the organizing team.
Y.K. Gupta
Pro-chancellor
( ii )
Message from the Vice Chancellor
I am most grateful to God, the most gracious and most merciful for his blessings in giving
us this precious opportunity to gather at this international conference. This conference is a step
towards achieving our vision in becoming a world-class academic and research institution in
order to produce human capital with first class mentality.
Sharda University is committed towards academic excellence to provide high-quality
education with the help of highly qualified, experienced and focused teaching faculty members.
Sharda University adopts modern ICT tools and state-of-the-art infrastructure for imparting
quality classroom and laboratory exposure. I wish you all a successful and meaningful period
during your education with the Department of Mechanical Engineering, School of Engineering
& Technology, Sharda University.
It is a great pleasure to welcome all delegates and participants to this conference, coming
from near and afar. I would like to congratulate the School of Engineering & Technology,
for their commitment in organizing this conference. I am very certain that this occasion will
be able to provide a platform towards strengthening our relationships in knowledge sharing
while at the same time provide the necessary thrust in joint research collaborations and product
commercialization within the research society. It is my aspiration that this conference will be a
foundation for the growth of new ideas towards a better tomorrow.
Prof. (Dr.) Sibaram Khara

Vice Chancellor,
Sharda University
( iii )
Message from the Conference General Chair
On behalf of all the academic staff and students of the School of Engineering & Technology,
I would like to extend our warmest welcome to all the participants to this International
Conference. Our commitment and dedication is to focus on experiential, cooperative and
project-based learning that allows our students to continue to adopt, grow and succeed in
solving real-world problems. The school provides funding to innovative ideas of the students
to develop products, patents and startups. The school has collaborated with IIA, IEA, Greater
Noida Authority and other Industries to ensure benchmarking of programs and activities.
The school thrives to establish a partnership with industries, government organizations
and academia, and become a collaborative community of faculties, students, staff and alumni
to fulfil societal needs with professional ethics.
The broad scope of this event, which includes both theoretical and research aspects in the
field of Mechanical Engineering, provides a unique meeting ground for the researchers across
the globe. I would like to express my sincere gratitude to the distinguished invited speakers
for their presence and contributions to the conference. I also thank all the program committee
members for their efforts in ensuring a rigorous review process to select high quality papers.
Finally, I sincerely hope that all the participants will benefit from the technical contents of this
conference. I wish you all the very best in your future endeavors.
Prof. (Dr.) Parma Nand

Conference General Chair
Dean Academics & Dean SET, Sharda University
( iv )
Message from the Head of the Mechanical Engineering Department
It is a matter of pride and pleasure to welcome all the participants and eminent speakers
across the globe to this “2nd International Conference on Technological Innovations in
Mechanical Engineering (TIME-2022)’’. The conference brings together researchers and
practitioners from academia, industry, and government to share various novel ideas and enhance
their knowledge and network in the recent developments in Engineering and Technology.
I am thankful to the chancellor, Pro chancellor, Vice chancellor and Dean Academics for
their constant encouragement and support. I am thankful to Dean SET for providing all necessary
support required to organize the 2nd International Conference on Technological Innovations in
Mechanical Engineering (TIME-2022). I heartily thank the conference committee for extending
their unconditional support and time in organizing the International Conference. My special
thanks to all the keynote speakers, reviewers, authors and other contributors for their sparkling
efforts and their belief in the excellence of this international conference
Prof. (Dr.) Bhim Singh

Conference Chair
Professor & Head, Department of Mechanical
Engineering
School of Engineering and Technology (SET)
Sharda University
(v)
Message from the Keynote Speaker
I am extremely delighted to note that the School of Engineering and Technology, Sharda
University is organizing the 2nd International Conference on Technological Innovations in
Mechanical Engineering (TIME-2022). The current competitive business scenario and the
goals of sustainable development have challenged the engineers and scientists to conceptualize,
design and develop technologies that not only offer a competitive edge but are also environment
friendly. It is rightly said that Innovate: to stay ahead and innovation is going to be a key
differentiating element among the organizations. The expert talks and the presentation of
research articles will definitely help the audience to assimilating the latest knowledge in the
field of Mechanical Engineering.
I wish that the international conference will provide a networking platform for
academicians, researchers, industry personnel and most importantly students to deliberate and
ponder on the latest innovations in the field of Mechanical Engineering.
I wish a resounding success to the event.
Inderdeep Singh
Professor and Head
Department of Design
Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee – 247 667
( vi )
It gives me immense pleasure that Department of Mechanical Engineering, Sharda

School of Engineering is organizing its 2nd International Conference TIME-2022 on the theme
‘Technological Innovations in Mechanical Engineering’ at Sharda University, Greater Noida,
India on 9th-10th February, 2022.
In a dynamic evolutionary world of today, where only change is constant, it is highly
desirable that we commercialize the innovation at an equally rapid rate. In order to cut short
the lead time of products from innovation to market, this kind of academic discourse is the
need of the hour. In view of the ever-growing trends in Thermal, Fluids, Energy, Robotics and
process engineering, this conference shall prove its’ pertinence. The rich deliberation among
the learned personalities in the conference shall help in furthering the cause.
I wish the conference great conference a great success and hope that deliberations will
provide a road map provide for the Technological Innovations in Mechanical Engineering.
Prof. Sachin Maheshwari

Netaji Subhas University of Technology (NSUT)
New Delhi
( vii )
It was a great honour and pleasure to reflect upon and share with the audience my research
journey looking into the past, present and future direction of engineering simulations. This
befitted the theme of the conference “Technological Innovations in Mechanical Engineering”
(TIME-22) organised by the Mechanical Engineering Department at Sharda University.
Heartfelt congratulations to the organisers for putting together an informative and enjoyable
event. I last visited Sharda University in January 2020, so it was nice to be back albeit virtually
this time round and look forward to continuing our international collaboration.
Engineering simulations continue to get cheaper, faster, and more accurate. They are used
in a wide range of applications to analyse problems, understand natural phenomena, and design
practical and cost-effective solutions. Simulations have come a long way with the advance
of computer power, allowing us to rely less on expensive and time-consuming experiments
characteristics of the pre-1980s. The early 2000s saw steady-state investigations followed by
transient studies the following decade. Currently, tools like Computational Fluid Dynamics
are integrated with other fields in what’s called multi-physics analysis and the future looks at
embedding Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning into the simulations.
Dr Salim M Salim CEng MIMechE SHFEA

Associate Professor
Faculty of Science & Engineering
Swansea University U.K
( viii )
My Sincere gratitude and honour to be able to present and share with the audience our view
of bringing Green energy to India. India has put solar at the heart of its future growth strategy
as it seeks to shape a greener, cleaner and more sustainable societies and economies. Solar PV
manufacturing is one of the key elements of the Indian Atmanirbhar ‘Make in India’ initiative
by PM Modi, and represents a vital technology for the energy system. These developments
are reflected in recent announcements for new production capacities throughout the Indian
market. During the session, we have discussed the current status of PV manufacturing in India,
benchmarking the Chinese and worldwide market, and also strengthening local manufacturing
and technological prospects and outline how the current regulatory framework could evolve
to foster the development of a new competitive manufacturing base across Indian continent.
This conference on “Technological Innovations in Mechanical Engineering” (TIME-2022)
organised by the Mechanical Engineering Department at Sharda University reflected the true
essence of the initiative. Our sincere congratulations to the organisers for putting together
an informative and productive conference. Looking forward to a long-lasting and upcoming
collaboration between India and Germany via the university.
Dr Peter Fath
Founder and CEO, RCT Solutions GmbH, Germany
( ix )
Message from the Organizing Secretary
Engineering is a rapidly changing, interdisciplinary field that gives opportunities to express

one’s creativity in a more tangible way. The International conference held at Sharda University
helped in empowering and equipping the engineers. The scope for the invention of newer
technologies will sustain global demand for adequately skilled and innovative mechanical
engineers in the future. This conference provided interdisciplinary platform for researchers,
academicians and industry personal to present and discuss the most recent innovations, trends,
and challenges encountered and the solutions adopted in the field of Mechanical Engineering.
I extend my gratitude to Chancellor, Pro chancellor, Vice chancellor, Dean SET and HOD
(ME Dept) for their constant support and guidance. I would also like to thank Ministry of Heavy
Industries (MHI) for believing in us and sponsoring our event. I place on record my hat tip to
our esteemed Keynote Speakers, Session Chairs for enlightening us with their knowledge. I am
thankful to my Organizing team and Non-teaching staff who worked round the clock to make
this event, a resounding success.
Dr. Himanshu Payal

Organizing Secretary
Assistant Prof., Department of Mechanical
Engineering
School of Engineering and Technology (SSET)
Sharda University
(x)
The biggest challenge of today era in the field of education is to keep the students and
faculties updated with the latest trends in their respective fields. 2nd International Conference
on Technological Innovations in Mechanical Engineering (TIME-2022) organized by the
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Sharda University provides a great platform to
meet such challenges. This conference provides an opportunity for students, researchers,
academicians and industrialist to showcase their research and innovative ideas in the field of
Mechanical Engineering.
As a face of organizing member of TIME-2022, Its indeed an immense pleasure for me to
express my profound gratitude to the keynote speaks, advisory committee and session chairs for
being a part of TIME-2022 and enriching our participants with their erudition. This conference
is sponsored by Ministry of Heavy Industries (MHI) Government of India under the promotion
of Capital Good’s Scheme. I am grateful for the way each and every member of the department
stepped in to make this event a runway success.
Dr. Akanksha Mishra

Assistant Prof., Department of Mechanical
Engineering
Sharda University
( xi )
It gives me great pleasure and honor to be part of the organizing team of the 2nd
International Conference on Technological Innovations in Mechanical Engineering (TIME-
2022) organized by the Department of Mechanical Engineering, Sharda University. The
objective of the conference is to provide a common platform for interaction between national
and international academia, industry, including personnel from vaious reputed research and
development organisations.
I would like to express my gratitude to Sharda University, Hon’ble Vice Chancellor, Dean
of School of Engineering, HOD of Mechanical Engineering Department, respected faculty
members and administrative staff and volunteers and reviewers of the manuscripts. I would
like to express my gratitude to Ministry of Heavy Industries (MHI), Government of India
for providing financial support under the promotion of Capital Good’s Scheme and to all the
authors for their participation and to the invited speakers and distinguished chairpersons for
sharing their knowledge in conducting the technical sessions.
Once again, I extend a warm welcome to all the delegates, invitees, guests and participants
of this International Conference, TIME-2022.
Dr. Vineet Kumar

Associate Prof., Department of Mechanical
Engineering
Sharda University
( xii )
PATRON
Shri Pradeep Kumar Gupta
Chancellor, Sharda University
Shri Yatendra Kumar Gupta
Pro-Chancellor, Sharda University
CO-PATRON
Prof. Sibaram Khara
Vice Chancellor, Sharda University
Shri Prashant Gupta
Executive Director, Sharda University
GENERAL CHAIR
Prof. Parma Nand
Dean Academics and Dean SET, Sharda University
CONFERENCE CHAIR
Prof. Bhim Singh
Head, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Sharda University
ORGANIZING SECRETARY
Dr. Vineet Kumar
Dr. Akanksha Mishra
Dr. Himanshu Payal
ORGANIZING COMMITTEE
Dr. Ananda Babu
Dr. Sudesh Singh
Dr. Ashutosh Sahu
Dr. Anil Kumar
Dr. Lavish K.Singh
Mr. R.S.Ojha
Mr. Abhishek Bhattacharya
Mr. Nitesh Kumar
Ms. Saigeeta Priyadarshini
( xiii )
ADVISORY COMMITTEE
Prof.Srinivasa Rao Pedapati, Universiti Teknologi Patrons, Persian UTP, Perak, Malaysia
Prof.Yeaoh Keat Hoe, Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman Cheras, Malaysia
Prof.Mustafa Acarer, Selcuk University, Konya, Turkey
Prof. Abdul Khaliq, Taibah University, Ministry of Higher Education, Government of
Saudi Arabia, Yanbu AL-Bahr
Prof. Amit Kumar Mondel, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Dubai, UAE
Dr. Shival Dubey, Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic
Prof. Harpreet Singh, IIT Ropar
Prof. Shalini Gautam, IIT Dhanbad
Prof. Pankaj Chandna, NIT Kurukshetra
Prof. Anish Kumar Sachdeva, NIT, Jalandhar, Punjab
Prof. Parmendra Kumar Bajpai, NSUT New Delhi
Prof. Ravinder Jeet Singh Walia, PEC Chandigarh
Prof. Subhasis Majhi, IGNOU Delhi
Prof. Ashish Agarwal, IGNOU Delhi
Prof. Ashwani Dhingra, MDU, Rohtak
Prof. Rupinder Singh, NITTTR Chandigarh
Prof. Subhash Kamal, MGMCET Mumbai
Prof. Pushpendra Singh Bharti, GGSIPU New Delhi
Prof. Rajendra M Belokar, PEC Chandigarh
Prof. Navneet Kumar, Galgotia College of Engineering & Technology, Greater Noida
Prof. Vijay Gupta, Sharda University, Greater Noida
Prof.Pramod Kumar Singh , Sharda University , Greater Noida
KEYNOTE SPEAKERS
Prof. Inderdeep Singh, IIT Roorkee
Prof. Sachin Maheshwari, NSUT, New Delhi
Dr. Peter Fath, Chief Executive Officer,RCT Solutions
Dr. Salim M Salim, Associate Professor and Director of International Partners,
Swansea University U.K.
( xvi )
contents
Page No.
01 Tribological Performance of Cold Spray Coatings: A Review 1

Arun Kumar
02 Experimental Investigation of Rotary Friction Welding 7
Process under the Continuous Stream Of Water Flow by
Using SS304/SS316 Material
Vaibhav V. Kulkarni , Prafull C. Kulkarni
03 Studying the effect of bimetallic Sic micro-particles on the micro- 25
structure as well as the strength of Al6061-Al7075 composite
Satish Kumar , Naseem Ahamad , Shahzad Ali,
Uma Sharma , Shatrughan Singh
04 Sheet Metal Shrink Flanging Process: A Review 31
Sachin Kumar Nikam , Yogesh Dewang,, S.K.Panthi , Sandeep Jiaswal
05 Aluminum Silicon Carbide Metal Composite’s Mechanical 45
Characterization: A Review
Tukej Kumar, Utkarsh Pal, Vatan Saloniya, Naveen J
06 Investigating the effect of micro SiC particles 53
reinforced in Al-Cu composite
Uma Sharma,, Naseem Ahamad , Shahzad Ali ,
Satish Kumar , Shatrughan Singh
07 An Insight into High Temperature Tribological Coatings: A Review 59
Arun Kumar
08 A Review on Tensile and Water Absorption Properties of Borassus 70
Fruit Fibre-Reinforced Polymer Composites
Saigeeta Priyadarshini , MD Nadeem Alam, Lavish Kumar Singh
( xv )
09 A review on types, manufacturing methods and applications of FGM 79
Parveen Kumar, Satish Sharma, Ratnesh Kumar Raj Singh
10 Implementation of lean production system using Value 84
Stream Mapping and 5S+safety
Shailendra Shisode ,Vaibhav V. Kulkarni, Nilesh Dhokane
11 Lean guidelines for effectiveness of Indian Automobile Industries 97
Pooja Rani , Ashwani Kumar Dhingra , Abhishek
Bhattacharya , Bhim Singh
12 Significant Impact of Industry 4.0 Technologies on Lean 105
Production System: A Review
Hirendra Singh , Bhim Singh
13 Review: Implementation and Challenges of Lean 4.0 in Indian MSME’s 118
Neeraj kumar , Ashwani Kumar Dhingra , Bhim Singh
14 Literature Review of New Management Technology on JIT 125
Neeraj kumar , Ashwani Kumar Dhingra , Bhim Singh
15 An overview of the Contribution of the Emerging Technological 131
Innovations in Combating the Novel Coronavirus (COVID-19)
Haruna Muhd Inuwa, Abdullahi Usman,
Vineet Kumar , Lavish Kumar Singh
16 Review: Application of Machine Learning in Mechanical Engineering 144
Pooja Kapoor
17 A Review on The Fourth Industrial Revolution’s Barriers and Drivers 149
Hirendra Singh , Bhim Singh
18 Identification of Lean Manufacturing Wastes: A Literature Study 159
Virender Chahal , M.S. Narwal
19 Phase Change Materials in Solar Water and Heating 183
System Technologies: A Review
Nishant Singh , Arpit kumar, Parmanand Kumar
20 Experimental Analysis of a Concentric Parabolic 199
Solar Water Heater with Concentric Tubes
Nishant Singh , Vidhut Prakash Mourya , R. V. Sharma ,S. Kumar
21 Indirect Applications of Encapsulated PCM for Buildings and Structures 211
Abdullahi Usman , Akanksha Mishra
( xvi )
22 Efficiency Enhancement of Solar PV Cells Using 217
Intermittent Water-Cooling Method
Nilesh Dhokane , Surendra Barhatte , Shailendra
Shisode , Shivprakash Barve
23 Design and selection of material and process for a folding 225
chair to be used by local sewing workers using house of quality
Naisarg H. Sagathiya
24 Stressing Building Energy Consumption through Net 235
Zero Energy Building (NZEB) in Northern Nigeria
Adam Muhammad Adam, Akanksha Mishra
25 Design of air conditioning system for a residential building: a review 240
Ramesh Das, R S. Ojha, Vineet Kumar, Sudesh Singh
26 An ISM approach for cost factors in a product lifecycle costing 251
Naveen J, , Himanshu Payal
27 Application Deployment and Performance Measurement in 260
Various Cloud Domains for Microservices
Sushant Jhingran , Nitin Rakesh
28 Algorithm-Based Sentiment Recognition Music Player 267
Akshat Ajit ,Chayanika Arora , Jagriti Pal ,
Ardhendu Neogi , Sushant Jhingran
29 Industry 4.0 and its Technological Enablers: A Review 278
Arpita Asthana , Himanshu Payal
30 Arduino Based 6-Axis Mini Industrial Robotic Arm 284
Manasa.S, Sumek Nayan Jha , Himanshu Payal
31 A Review on Laser Cutting Technology 294
Used in Industrial Applications
Saurabh Kumar, Ashutosh Sahu, Saigeeta
Priyadarshini, Lavish Kumar Singh
32 Lean Supply Chain – Modern day approach for effective supply 304
Vivek Kumar Pansari
33 Renewable energy in Nigeria: most recent trends and future prospects 308
M.B. Muhammad
( xvii )
PRODUCTION AND MANUFACTURING
ENGINEERING
Tribological Performance of Cold
Spray Coatings: A Review
Arun Kumara
a
Indian Institute of Technology, Kalyanpur, Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh-208016, India
abstract
Not only mechanical components in industries like aerospace, automotive, manufacturing
etc. but also our body parts like hip, shoulder and knee joints undergo severe surface degradation
due to presence of surfaces in contact. Continuous motion between a pair of moving parts
results in material loss due to wear and finally leads to loss of functionality. Recently, thermal
spray coatings have been widely explored to improve surface properties of such surfaces. Cold
spray coatings, new in this class, are being explored in recent times due to superior properties
than thermal coatings. This report includes the review of tribological performance of cold spray
coatings. It has been concluded that various matrix composite coatings like Al-Al2O3, Ti-6Al-
4V (Ti64) Co-Cr, used to repair aerospace components, can be improved tribologically by
reinforcement of super hard nano particle. Also, spray parameters of cold spray process affect
fatigue strength of coating. Moreover, effect of metallic and ceramic coatings on non-metallic
substrates needs more attention from researchers.
Keywords: Tribology, Friction, Wear, Cold spray
Introduction: Tribology and Its Significance

Tribology is the branch of science which deals with study of surfaces in motion that
interact with one another. Nearly, all man-made machines have a pair of surfaces in continual
or intermittent motion with each other. Gears, bearings, IC engines, seals, clutches, couplings,
cams are a few examples of these machines [1]. Not only man-made machine, even our human
body consists of various interacting surfaces e.g., hip joint, shoulder joint, knee joint etc.
As a result of interaction, these machines and joints undergo wear and finally break down
to failure. Friction is the principal cause behind wear and energy dissipation. Friction, wear
and lubrication affect the efficiency and life span of any machine in the industry and thus the
economy of any country. According to a report by H. Peter Jost, the adoption of advanced
tribological techniques could lead to a saving of 515 million pounds annually in the United
Conference Proceeding 1
Kingdom, 11% of energy consumption in USA. A Canadian report estimated the savings to
be 22%. Overall, it is concluded that any country can save about 1-1.4% of its gross national
product by adopting advanced tribological techniques [2]. Tribology, exists in the world even
before first industrial revolution started, has important role to play in the fourth revolution also
[3]. Tribology is getting linked with “Industry 4.0” with its various branches as “tribology
and cyber physical systems”, “tribology in maintenance field”, “Tribology and engineering
materials and technologies”, “Tribology and big data”, “Tribology and robotics” [4]. Although
the field of tribology is very wide consisting of broad range of practices from conventional
to new tribological practices. This paper will focus on tribological performance of cold spray
surface modification coatings.
Cold Spray Process

Introduction
Cold spray, also called the supersonic particle deposition process, is a technique used to
deposit a broad range of metals, alloys, and other materials in a solid state at a temperature
well below the melting point on the desired substrate. There are various other names associated
with this process such as cold gas dynamic spraying, kinetic spraying, high velocity particle
consolidation, high velocity particle deposition process [5][6][7].
Cold Spray Principle
Cold spray process works on a simple principle: a high velocity gas jet (300-1200 m/s),
produced by a converging/diverging nozzle, accelerate desired powder particles (1-50µm) and
spray them on a substrate placed roughly 25 mm from the exit of nozzle. These highly accelerated
powder particles get deposited upon impact with substrate and form coating. Powder particles
deform plastically upon impact and form splats due to high kinetic energy rather than high
temperature. This phenomenon helps in avoiding temperature associated problems like high
temperature oxidation, residual stress, evaporation, melting, crystallization, gas release etc. [5].
Construction And Working of Cold Spray System
A typical cold spray system consists of mechanism to feed powder, Compressed gas source,
Gas preheater in order to
compensate for the quick
expansion of gas in nozzle,
Supersonic nozzle (De laval
nozzle), Spraying chamber
with the motion system,
System for controlling
and monitoring gas spray
attributes like pressure and
temperature of gas. Fig. 1 is
a typical schematic diagram Fig. 1: Components of cold spray system [8].
of cold spray process.
2 Conference Proceeding
Working of the cold spray system is very simple but exciting. Metallic or non-metallic
powder particles with size ranging from 5-100 µm are accelerated when injected into high-
velocity gas stream. A converging-diverging nozzle expands pressurized gas to obtain this
high supersonic velocity. This phenomenon leads to the reduction of pressure and temperature.
Powder particles are brought to nozzle by a distinct gas jet and then fed into the nozzle near
throat. These particles then accelerate and strike on the substrate with high velocity and get
plastically deform to form coating. Coatings obtained are less porous and have high bond
strength than same class of coating processes. Due to comparatively low temperatures (-100°C
to +100°C) of the expanded gas jet that comes out of nozzle, the technique is referred as cold
spray [9].
Most common cold spray system used widely is high pressure cold spray system. In this type of
set up, preheated (1000°C) air or nitrogen at low pressure (25-30 bar) is forced into nozzle and
accelerated up to 1200 m/s. This high supersonic velocity is obtained when enthalpy converts
into kinetic energy. Powder particles are ‘axially’ introduced to the upstream of the converging
section of nozzle at pressure more than that of accelerating gas as shown in fig. 2. This will
prevent backflow of powder particles carrier gas. Rapidly accelerating solid particles strike the
substrate with high kinetic energy so as to cause mechanical and metallurgical bonding.
Fig. 2: High pressure cold spray system [5].

Mechanism of deposition in cold spray process
True bonding mechanism of slid particles
with the substrate is still not very clear. As per
some existing models, it is concluded that upon
impact, the solid particles get plastically deformed,
disrupt the oxide layer and get deposited with high
contact pressure and bond strength. It has also been
observed that there is the formation of metal jet due
to substrate melting. The material near the interface
behaves like a viscous fluid. This phenomenon is
clearly evident in fig. 3 where copper particle is
Fig. 3: Impact of copper particle on
deposited on an aluminum substrate.
aluminum at successive times [5].
Application areas of cold spray coatings include repair and restoration of technical
components and art sculptures, aerospace industry to repair space shuttle rocket boosters,
medical field in implants, power producing plant from boiler tubes to turbine blades [5], [7]–
[11].
Tribology of Cold Spray Coatings

There are many instances in aerospace, automotive, mining industries where a mechanical
component is exposed to severe surface conditions. These conditions arise either due to
operating or ambient conditions. Such conditions lead to wear and corrosion of components.
This results in poor performance and a shorter life span of components. One method to prevent
corrosion is to apply barrier coatings where a noble metal or metals that form stable oxide
layers are used to isolate the base material. But, in cases where the component is subjected to
various mechanical movements like sliding, rolling etc., barrier coatings fail. So, to enhance the
mechanical and tribological performance of material, various protective coatings are applied on
the surface to be prevented. Historically, preventive coatings have been fabricated by various
processes like ‘physical vapor deposition (PVD)’, ‘chemical vapor deposition (CVD)’, ‘plasma
spray’, thermal spray processes etc. One of the most recent and developing coating technique
is ‘cold spray’. Although it is characterized as sub part of thermal spray processes yet it is
fundamentally different from its class.
For prevention of corrosion there are many metallic coatings available e.g., Al, Ta, Ti etc.
but, for wear prevention these coatings are not the first choice. Researchers go for ceramic or
metal matric composite (MMC) coatings with reinforcements of solid lubricants. Tribological
performance of various MMC and ceramic coatings were explored by Chromik et.al. [12]. It was
concluded most versatile MMC is Al-Al2O3, which is used to repair aerospace components. To
further improve the microstructure, mechanical and tribological properties of aluminum metal
matrix composite, a study with reinforcement of super hard nano particle of nano diamond
in composite was carried out by Loganathan et. al. [13]. As a result of the reinforcement, the
micro-hardness increased by 96% compared to Aluminum coating, which increased by 135%.
2 wt.% nano diamond heat treated coating friction coefficient lowered to 35%. A 34% reduction
in wear rate was achieved when compared to as-sprayed condition.
Another cold sprayed MMC coating Ti-6Al-4V (Ti64)-CoCr, commonly used in aerospace
applications owing to its light weight, was explored for its mechanical and tribological
properties. Ti64-CoCr coatings were found to be less porous (0.9%), harder (434HV) and more
wear-resistant than pure Ti64 coatings [14].
As discussed before substrate surface preparation has vital role in performance of coating
and substrate. This concept was used by Ziemian et.al. [15] where effect of substrate preparation
and cold spray coating of commercially pure aluminum on fatigue life of Al2024 samples was
studied. Substrate was grit blasted and shot peened before deposition of coating. Fatigue test
was performed at two stress levels i.e., 180 MPa and 210 MPa. It was observed that fatigue
strength was significantly improved by 50% and 38 % at two stress levels respectively. In
another study carried out by Ghelichi et. al. [16], fatigue behavior of Al5052 alloy coated with
cold sprayed Al and Al7075 powder was studied. The compressive residual stress generated
during the coating process was found to be responsible for a considerable improvement in
fatigue life. Moreover, Al7075 coated samples exhibited and increment of 30% in fatigue
strength. This study solidifies the fact that fatigue strength is dependent on spray parameters.
Till now, various studies have been performed in which metallic or composite coating was
cold sprayed on metallic substrates. Effect of metallic coatings on non-metallic substrates such
as polymers was studied by Lupoi et.al. [17]. Commercial copper, aluminum, tin powders were
cold sprayed on plastics like PC/ABS, polyamide-6, polypropylene and polystyrene. Results
show that copper particle upon impacting the polymer led to generation of contact stress and
hence erosion of substrate. Aluminum owing to its light weight did not damage the surface of
substrate. Same was the case with tin particles impingements.
Conclusions
This paper has tried to review some of the research going into field of cold spray coatings.
It has been concluded that various matrix composite coatings like Al-Al2O3, Ti-6Al-4V (Ti64)
Co-Cr, used to repair aerospace components, can be improved tribologically by reinforcement
of super hard nano particle. Spray settings strongly influence particle deposition efficiency and
coating tribological and mechanical characteristics. Another conclusion that can be drawn that
effect of metallic coatings on non-metallic substrates such as polymers is in research focus
considering variety of applications
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substrate surface roughening and cold spray coating on the fatigue life of AA2024
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Experimental Investigation of
Rotary Friction Welding Process
under the Continuous Stream Of
Water Flow by Using SS304/SS316
Material
Vaibhav V. Kulkarnia, Prafulla C. Kulkarnib
a
Vishawanath Karad MITWPU, Kothrud, Pune-411038
abstract
Rotary friction welding is a solid-state welding process which generates the heat through
mechanical friction between two similar and dissimilar material rotating parts. One part is
stationary and other one is rotating part. At the heat generation phase the forging force is applied
where the welding joint takes place. During friction welding process no melting of material
occurs, but metal starts to get deform after heat generation at welding zone which is known as
heat affected zone. The major advantages of friction welding which include low distortion at
the joint and absence of defects like high joining strength, ability to weld alloys and metals
which cannot be welded by using conventional methods etc. In this research work, welding
samples were prepared on the rotary friction welding machine by variation of parameters
like diameter of specimen, friction pressure and forging force. In this study the joining of
metal carried out under a continuous stream of water under the wet environment condition and
reading observations measured. The materials was selected for study like stainless steel SS 304
and SS 316 and only similar type of combinations were used. An experimental investigation
setup was prepared for under water trials with the wet environment condition on rotary friction
welding machine. Mechanical properties like tensile test, hardness and microstructure analysis
of welded joints were evaluated at the heat affected zone.
Keywords: Rotary friction Welding (RFW), Hardness Testing, Tensile Testing,
Microstructure Analysis
Introduction
Welding is one of the most common joining processes in the metal industry, applied
in facilities from job shop outfits to highly-automated computer-controlled factories. The
involvement of interdependent factors in the process, such as human resources, market
conditions and welding machinery, which varies with the type of metals to be welded and the
needs of the customer, demand the use of advanced and comprehensive system design and
inspection. Solid-state welding process in which welding of two components take place under
the melting temperature of the materials without the using of any filler material.
Fig.1. Friction welding Machine and Principle

Rotary friction welding (RFW) is a solid state friction welding process which producing
the welding joints with high quality of weld. In this process, one of the two components which
is to be welded is rotated and another is given motion in an axial direction towards the rotating
component. Thus the relative motion between the components and axial force is applied to
produces the friction at the interface joint and welding takes place. The heat-induced by this
friction is used to fabricate a high-quality weld joint. Friction welding is more economical
and time-consuming, which requires a low input of energy and high production rate with less
material wastage in joining dissimilar metals or alloys.
The main aim of this research work is to investigate that Rotary Friction Welding under
a continuous stream of water is possible or not. There are so many questions arises regarding
the same as like can the material be welded under a stream of water? How can we perform
rotary friction welding under stream water? What are the observations? What is the welding
temperature range? What will be the effect on the weld? What will be the effect on hardness?
What are the results of tensile testing of samples welded under a stream of water? What are the
results of Microstructure Examination? and so on. We have tried to find the answers to the above
questions in this research work. This research deals with the parametric study and analysis of
rotary friction welding under a stream of water. The problem statement of our research work
is to conduct an experiment to join samples of SS 304 and SS 316 of the same cross-section
using rotary friction welding under a stream of water and perform mechanical testing for the
strength of welded samples using hardness test of weld joints and at different locations in the
heat-affected zone, tensile test and microstructure analysis of weld joints. The experimental
investigation study has been carried out on continuous drive type of rotary friction welding
(RFW) machine. This process involved one component is continuously rotating at a particular
rpm and another component is held stationary. During this step, the stationary specimen is
displaced axially with friction force resulting in heat generation necessary to fabricate the
friction welding joint. And in the final step, a higher amount of forging force is applied while
the rotation of machine which is halted, thus finally resulting of welding joint takes place.
Literature Review
Rotary Friction welding technology is a very exclusive metal joining process and it is
upcoming technology in the solid state welding process. Researchers have been working since
many years on the study of parametrical analysis of friction welding process for joining of
various similar and dissimilar type of metals. The process invented during in the year 1890’s
and the first patent was filed during the year of 1891 and which was granted to J. H. Bevington.
After commercialized the friction welding process many researchers were started doing
experimentation on conventional lathe machine with some modifications and studied various
combinations of materials with different sizes and shapes. During 1961s-62s the Caterpillar
Tractor Co. worked on the friction welding process to develop the method of inertia welding
process. It is a commercial used process and applicable in various heavy industrial applications
like automotive, submarine as well as aeronautical component manufacturing. In 1980’s, The
Welding Institute (TWI-UK) demonstrated the viability of the linear friction welding (LFW)
technique for metals using modified equipment. Many researchers has been worked on the
friction stir welding (FSW) process with new friction stir tool design and done the parametric
analysis study of various outputs with different material used as well. And also worked on
aluminum, copper and alloying material for joining of two similar and dissimilar metals. The
research oriented study has been carried out on mechanical properties of welded joint with
tensile test, hardness and microstructural testing of welded joint. In some literature, the study
has been conducted on various parameter analysis and thermal analysis of heat affected zone
by using suitable software’s.
Material Selection:
During friction welding of steels, the weld interface produces heat with a temperature
range of 900 to 1300°C.In general, austenitic stainless steels are easily weldable. Based on
physical properties on ferritic, martensitic and duplex stainless steels, austenitic stainless steel
is considerably different than others. SS 304 contains 18% chromium and 8% nickel while
SS 316 contains 16% chromium, 10% nickel and 2% molybdenum as their major alloying
additions. The molybdenum is added to help resist corrosion to chlorides (like seawater and
de-icing salts).300 Series stainless steel rods are classified as austenitic and are hardenable only
by cold working methods. Type 304 & 316 is the most widely used alloy of all stainless steels.
300 Series Stainless steel alloys resist corrosion, maintain their strength at high temperatures
and are easy to maintain. The selection of stainless steel is one of the important classes of
engineering materials considered in the past and present scenario.So, the material selected for
study is round bars of ASTM A276 SS 304 and SS 316 of different diameters (Φ 10mm, Φ
12mm, Φ 14mm).
Table 1 - Chemical Composition
Material % C Mn Cr V Ni Mo Others
SS 304 0.08 2.00 18-20 1.00 8.0-10.0 - S=0.03, P=0.045
SS 316 0.08 2.00 16-18 1.00 10.0-12.0 2 S=0.03, P=0.045
The mechanical and physical properties of grade ASTM A276 SS 304 round bar and SS
316 round bar are displayed in the following table.
Table 2 - Mechanical and Physical Properties
Property Density Melting Elastic Tensile YS(0.2% Elong Hardness
Point Modulus strength Offset) (min) (max)
(min) (min)
SS 304 8000 kg/ 1400 °C 193 GPa Psi-75,000 Psi-30,000 35 % Rockwell
m3 2550°F MPa-515 MPa-205 B-92 (HRB)
Brinell
201(HB)
SS 316 8000 kg/ 1454 °C 193 GPa Psi-75,000 Psi-30,000 40 % Rockwell
m3 2650 °F MPa-515 MPa-205 B-95 (HRB)
Brinell
217(HB)
Experimental Setup
Experimental Setup is done as shown in the above figure-1.Material rods are fitted in the
spindle and tool post and alignment of rods is checked. Position of the ‘T’ channel and pipe
is arranged in such a way that the stream of water should be supplied directly on the welding
region and turn on the machine cycle. Just before joining of rods joint together and welding
start the formation of HAZ, a continuous stream of water is passed on the specimens with
help of coolant pump of 3 phase, 0.15 HP AC motor rotating at 2800 rpm. Because of water
present the material starts to become hardening of steel as well as heat dissipation from the
weld interface which reduces the heat-affected zone (HAZ) formed near the weld interface,
it is important to study the effect of the same on the weld properties. Note down observations
and the readings from the control panel. As soon as the cycle is finished and the welding has
completed the pump and the friction welding machine has been turned off. The specimens
welded as per the experimental investigation process and after which they were prepared for
mechanical testing like tensile test, hardness and microstructure examination.
3.2 Design and preparation ‘T’ shaped support component
Our aim is to conduct the trails under the continuous flow of water and observe the rotary
friction welding. But the problem with machine structure which is quite complicated and it was
not possible to conduct the trials with direct flow of water, due to that we design the ‘T’ shape
structure which is fitted in between to the fixed and rotating chuck as per the available space in
between to chuck when rotary friction takes place. For that we have develop CAD model and it
has been developed using solid works software with accurate dimensions measurement of the
friction welding machine. The main characteristics of glass are transparency, heat resistance,
pressure and breakage resistance and chemical resistance. As glass is heat resistance it can
perform well under welding temperature range. So in this research work, we have designed a
small scale model of ‘T’ support using glass material and for the experimental purpose. The
adhesive used is silicone glue which contains silicon and oxygen atoms, making it good water-
resistant solution. Silicone glue is often used in sealing glass on aquariums. With its water-
resistant properties, it provides an ideal solution for glass tank manufacturers.
Fig.2. – CAD Model
3.3 Specimen preparation before welding:
Finally, the material were used for study like ASTM A276 SS 304 and SS 316 for rotary
friction welding under a continuous stream of water and dimensions are Length 110 mm approx.
and Dia.12, 14 for SS 304 and Dia.10, 14 mm for SS316 were selected respectively.
Fig.3.Friction welding sample specimen
3.4 Rotary Friction Welding Without Water and under stream of Water
Setup:
Table 3 – Components for attachments
Sr. No. Description Quantity
1 3 Phase Coolant Pump With Electric Cable 1
2 Hose Pipe and Nozzle 1
3 Glass ‘T‘ 1
4 Plastic Bucket 1
5 Infrared Thermometer Range (1550°C) 1
Fig .4. Without Water Fig.5.With Underwater
3.5 Specimen preparation after welding:
SS 304 (12 mm) SS 304 (14 mm)
SS 316 (10 mm) SS 316 (14 mm)

Fig. 6 Sample specimen after rotary fiction welding
3.6 Experimental Observations:
Table 4 – Readings and Observations.
SPECIMEN SPINDLE SPINDLE TOTAL FINAL LOSS SHRINK WELD SOFT FRICTION UPSET
SIZE SIDE SIDE (L1 + LENGTH (ACTU TEMP. FRICTION PRESSUR PRESSUR
& Qty. LENGTH LENGTH L2) (AFTER AL) PRESSURE E = 17 kg/ E = 30.5
1 2 WELD) =8.1 Kg/ mm2 kg/mm2
mm2
Conference Proceeding
SS304 1 102 107 209 200 9 9 1286.2 13 23 48
(ϕ 12
mm)
2 103 106 209 200 9 8.3 1284.6 13 23 48
3 103.5 103 209.5 201.6 7.9 8.3 1293.1 13 23 48
4 103.5 104 208 201 7 9 1291.7 13 23 48
5 105 105.5 210 202.2 7.8 8.2 1301.3 13 23 48
SS304 1 107 108 210 202.6 7.4 7.9 1293.1 15 32 58

(ϕ 14
mm)
2 104 104 208 200.3 7.7 8.1 1302.1 15 32 58
3 104 105.5 209.5 201.9 7.6 7.5 1287.2 15 32 58
15
16
4 108 107 215 209 6 7.9 1283.1 15 32 58
5 107.5 107.5 215 207 8 7.9 1290.7 15 32 58
SS316 1 101 108 209 202.8 6.2 7.9 1270. 10 17 34

(ϕ 10
mm)
2 101 103 204 197.6 6.4 7.6 1254.1 10 17 34
3 108 102 210 203 7 7.6 1268.2 10 17 34
4 102.5 103 205.5 197.9 7.6 8.2 1261.5 10 17 34
5 104 106 210 202.2 7.8 8.6 1259.7 10 17 34
SS316 1 104 105 209 202.5 6.5 7.5 1255.3 15 32 66

(ϕ 14
mm)
2 103 108 211 203 8 7.7 1253.2 15 32 66
3 102 103 205 199 6 6.9 1271.6 15 32 66
4 102.5 104 206.5 200.2 6.3 7.2 1269.8 15 32 66
5 104.5 107 211.5 207.5 4 6.8 1256.3 15 32 66
Conference Proceeding
Table 5 – Material / Diameter vs Average Loss and Average Welding Temperature
Material Diameter (mm) Average Loss (mm) Average Welding
Temperature (℃)
SS 304 12 8.12 1291.38
SS 304 14 7.34 1290.24
SS 316 10 7.00 1262.76
SS 316 14 6.16 1260.31
For material SS304 (12, 14 mm) as the diameter of the sample increase, losses decrease.
and SS316 (10, 14 mm)- As the diameter of the sample increase, losses decrease. So, for both
materials when diameter increases, loss decreases. Diameter 14 mm (SS 304, SS 316) - SS
316 loss is less as compared to SS 304. So, when comparing for the same diameter for these
materials, SS 316 loss is less. Case 1: SS 304 (12, 14 mm) - As the diameter of the sample
increases, temperature decreases. Case 2: SS 316 (10, 14 mm) - As the diameter of the sample
increases, temperature decreases. So, for both materials when diameter increases, temperature
decreases. Diameter 14 mm (SS 304, SS 316) - SS 316 welding temperature is less. So, when
comparing for the same diameter for these materials, SS316 has less welding temperature than
SS 304. Therefore from observations, we conclude that for SS 304 and SS 316 samples, for
same diameter HAZ for both rods is almost same with +/- 1mm. With the increase in diameter
temperature decreases. With the increase in diameter loss decreases. With the increase in
diameter HAZ decreases. With the decrease in temperature HAZ decreases.
Mechanical Testing
4.1 Hardness Test:
Rockwell is a fast hardness test method developed for production control, with a direct
readout, mainly used for metallic materials. The Rockwell hardness (HR) is calculated by
measuring the depth of an indent after an indenter has been forced into the specimen material
at a given load.
Fig.7. Hardness Indentation Locations
Table 6 – Hardness Test Results
Point 4A 3A 2A 1A Point of 1B 2B 3B 4B
Number Contact
Material Diameter Distance 8 6 0.5 0.2 0 0.2 0.5 6 8

from Weld
Center
(cm)
SS 304 12 mm 62 59.5 57.2 57 60 56 57 60.5 61
SS 304 14 mm 61 61 56.5 57 55 52 54 60 62
SS 316 10 mm 55 55.5 56 57 53 59 58.5 57 59
HRA
SS 316 14 mm 61 59 58 51 48 51 51 61 61.5
SS 304 b. SS316
Graph 1: – Hardness value vs. Distance from weld centre
Considering HRA scale at 60 kgf hardness and diamond cone indenter for SS304 and
SS316, Hardness of SS304 is more as compared to SS316 as manganese and nickel percentage
is more in SS316. At the point of weld minimum hardness is observed which proves that
Austenitic stainless steel SS 304 and SS 316 cannot harden via heat treatment (friction welding).
The hardness value gradually increases from the point of contact with each point of indentation.
With an increase in hardness value, strength, elongation increases. Instead, these steels work
harden (they attain hardness during their manufacture and formation). The 300 series stainless
steel can be hardened but only by work hardening. That is by cold working the material, either
by cold rolling down to lighter and lighter gauges, or by drawing through a die or other size
altering operation. Annealing stainless steel will remove the work hardening effect and softens
them, adds ductility and imparts improved corrosion resistance.
4.2 Tensile Test:
Fig.8.-Tensile Test Machining

Table: 7.-Tensile Test Machine Specifications
Model UTE 40
Measuring Capacity 400 kN
Measuring Range 0 - 400 kN
Load Resolution (20000 counts full scale) 20 N
Clamping jaws for round specimens of diameter 10 - 25 and
25 - 40 mm
Load Range with Accuracy of Measurement +/- 1% 8 to 400 kN
First of all, Samples are prepared using 0.2% Tensile Machining. The test method used
for the Tensile Test Using Extensometer is ASTM A 370-2019. The machine used is FIE Make
Universal Testing Machine, UTE - 40 (400 kN).
MAXIMUM LOAD: 400 kN kN MAXIMUM ELONGATION: 250 mm

INPUT DADA
INITIAL G.L. FOR 201.6 mm 200.3 mm 202.8 mm 200.2 mm
% ELONGATION
CROSS SECTION 113.09 mm2 163.53 mm2 72.8 mm2 167.18 mm2
AREA
FINAL 6 mm 7.5 mm 5.5 mm 9.5 mm
DIAMETER
FINAL GUAGE 221 mm 245 mm 227.5 mm 222 mm
LENGTH
FINAL AREA 28.27 mm2 44.17 mm2 23.75 mm2 70.88 mm2
OUTPUT DATA
LOAD AT YIELD 79.82 Kn 91.23 kN 42.3 kN 117.63 kN
ELONGATION AT 9.595 mm 12.9 mm 9.55 mm 12.8 mm
YIELD
YIELD STRESS 705.81 N/mm2 557.88 N/mm2 580.80 N/mm2 703.613 N/mm2
(YS)
LOAD AT PEAK 89.6 kN 109.6 kN 56 kN 136 kN
ELONGATION AT 18 mm 32 mm 13 mm 31.6 mm
PEAK
TENSILE 792.29 N/mm2 670.21 N/mm2 768.91 N/mm2 813.49 N/mm2
STRENGTH
(UTS)
LOAD AT BREAK 48.65 kN 63.06 kN 51.3 kN 89.46 kN
ELONGATION AT 28.2 mm 41.49 mm 14.5 mm 42.3 mm
BREAK
B R E A K I N G 430.19 N/mm2 385.62 N/mm2 704.38 N/mm2 535.112 N/mm2
STRENGTH
% RED. IN AREA 75 % 72.98 % 67.38 % 57.6 %
% ELONGATION 9.6 % 22.31 % 12.17 % 10.88 %
YS/UTS 0.890 0.8324 0.755 0.865
UTS/YS 1.123 1.201 1.323 1.156
Fig.9.SS 304 (12 mm) sample breaking Fig10.SS 304 (14 mm) sample breaking
Fig.11.SS316 (10 mm) sample breaking Fig.12.SS316 (14 mm) sample breaking
Graph 2 – SS 304 Stress vs Strain Graph 3 – SS 316 Stress vs Strain
4.3 Tensile Test observation:
For Same Material: Elongation at yield changes with change in the diameter. Greater the
diameter greater is the yield elongation. Yield stress is inversely proportional to the diameter.
Breaking load is directly proportional to the diameter.
For Different Material: Yield elongation for SS304 is more as compared SS316
material. Breaking load for SS316 is less as compared to SS304.Yield stress for SS316 is more
as compared to SS304 material.
Microstructure Analysis
The following fig. a,b,c,d shows the under 200x magnification microstructure cutting
section of heat affected zone [HAZ] of rotary friction welding for specimens. The etching
of stainless steel grade material is quite tricky due to the anti-corrosive property of stainless
steel. Austenitic or 300 series stainless steel is having a high content of chromium and nickel,
making it harder to etch. In this research work, the etching has been completed after specimen
preparation with the acrylic mold and silicon emery paper (1500 grit) generally used for
polishing. Then the lapping process is performed after 5 to 6 ml nitric acid etchant solution is
used for specimen preparation. As per the microstructure observations, the austenitic stainless
SS304 and for SS316 grade material super picral means picric acid plus alcohol prepared the
solution, and on the surface of the specimen drop, 2 to 5 ml solution and phases reveals clearly.
SS-304 Specimen Ø 12 mm SS-316 Specimen Ø 10 mm
a. b.
SS-304 Specimen Ø 14 mm SS-316 Specimen Ø 14 mm
a. b.
Fig.13 Microstructure analysis
It was observed on the metallurgical microscope, temperature, grain structure, pressure,
and oxidation affects the overall rotary friction welding. Due to temperature differences, the
austenitic structure is converted into a martensitic structure. In microstructure examination, fine
grains are observed at some locations, and grains are distorted entirely at the welded zone in the
absence of twin boundaries of base metals. Stringing action is found in dynamic crystallization,
which may affect the mechanical properties of metals. Higher the percentage of Nickel and
Chromium, the higher the percentage of breaking load and elongation.
Conclusion
Friction welding as in application-based process has dramatic future scope in the fields
of aviation and automobile, right from shock absorbers to shafts of an airplane and automotive
vehicle use of friction welding proves to be an important parameter in providing factors such
as handling thermal stresses, mechanical stability and tensile strength. This research work can
be considered as an initial step in this field where we conducted rotary friction welding under
a stream of water on friction welding machine using samples of SS-304 and SS-316. The
welded samples were tested using UTM machine, Rockwell Hardness Tester and variation
in the strength and hardness were justified with the microstructure test. SS 316 loss is less as
compared to SS 304, So when comparing for the same diameter for these materials, SS 316 loss
is less. SS 316 welding temperature is less. So when comparing for the same diameter for these
materials, SS316 has less welding temperature than SS 304. For same diameter HAZ for both
rods is almost same with +/- 1mm. With the decrease in welding temperature of the material
SS 304 and SS 316 HAZ decreases. Considering HRA scale at 60 kgf hardness and diamond
cone indenter for SS304 and SS316, Hardness of SS304 is more as compared to SS316 as
manganese and nickel percentage is more in SS316. At the point of weld minimum hardness
is observed which proves that Austenitic stainless steel SS 304 and SS 316 cannot harden via
heat treatment (friction welding). The hardness value gradually increases from the point of
contact with each point of indentation. With an increase in hardness value, strength, elongation
increases. From the tensile test, it has been observed that the weld joint is strong enough, the
weld joint does not break at the weld joint but instead, the fracture occurs on the parent material
on the SS 304 sample. Due to incomplete weld formation, fracture on weld occurred on the SS
316 sample. Weld strength of SS 304 is stronger than SS 316. Obtained Tensile strength of SS
316- 729.390 MPa is higher than SS 304-634.937 MPa. Ultimate and 0.2 proof load is higher
in SS 316 as compared to SS 304.
Future Scope
The future work can be conducted to continue this project to verify the strength of the weld
observed under different types of coolant, under different types of oil with the comparative
study by welding same material sample of SS304 and SS316. Also, a combination of SS304 and
SS316 samples can be welded and tests can be performed to understand the strength observed
by using a combination of materials. Similar study can be carried out in future with dissimilar
material combinations of interlayer materials like aluminum, copper etc. Study the various
experiments for different interlayer thickness of the weld and their properties. Underwater
welding is important offshore application for building underwater structures and joining of
pipelines at deep sea environment.
REFERENCES
[1] Ahmet Can, Mumin Sahin and Mahmut Kucuk, Faculty of Eng. and Arch, Trakya
University 22180 Edirne, Turkey “Thermically Evaluation And Modelling Of Friction
Welding” ISSN 0562-1887 ZX470/1365 UDK 621.791.1.
[2] Badanie Współczynnika Tarcia W Procesie Zgrzewania Tarciowego Stalowych
Elementów Rurowych, “Examination of Friction Coefficient in Friction Welding
Process of Tubular Steel Elements,” Archives of metallurgy and material Volume 56
2011 Issue 4.
[3] Mehmet Uzkut, Mustafa AkadĞ, BekirSadık Unlu, Selim Sarper Yilmaz Celal Bayar
Universitesi, Turgutlu Myo, MakineBolumu, Turgutlu, Manisa, Turkey “Friction
Welding and Its Applications in Today’s World”.
[4] Kalsi, N.S., Sharma, V.S. “A statistical analysis of rotary friction welding of steel with
varying carbon in workpieces”. Int J Adv.Manuf.Technology, 57, 957–967 (2011).
[5] ShanjeeviChinnakannan (December 20th 2017). “Friction Welding of Austenitic
Stainless Steel with Copper Material, Austenitic Stainless Steels - New Aspects”,
Wojciech Borek, Tomasz Tanski and ZbigniewBrytan, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/
intechopen.70558.
[6] Alves, Eder Paduan, PiorinoNeto, Francisco, & An, Chen Ying. (2010). Welding of
AA1050 aluminum with AISI 304 stainless steel by rotary friction welding process.
Journal of Aerospace Technology and Management, 2(3), 301-306.
[7] Seshagirirao B, Sivaramakrishna V and Sai K G. (2015); “Experimental Investigation
of rotary friction welding parameters of aluminum (H-30) and mild steel (AISI-1040)”,
India IJIRSET, Vol. 4, Issue 5, May 2015. ISSN (online): pp.2319 – 8753.
[8] Handa A and Chawal V (2013); Experimental study of mechanical properties of
Friction welded AISI 1021 steel, sadhana, Vol. 38, Part 6, Dec, pp 1407-1419.
[9] Bhate S S and Bhatwadekar S G (2016); Literature review of research on rotary
Friction, IJITR, Vol. 4, Issue No.1, Dec.- Jan. 2016, pp.2601 – 2604.
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steel with varying carbon in work pieces, IJAMT, online: 12 May 2011, 57:pp.957–
967.
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modeling of friction welding of Al and SS-304, IJERSTE, ISSN: 2319-7463 Vol. 3
Issue 6, June- 2014, pp.319-327.
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and aluminium materials, IJMMSE, ISSN 2278-2516 Vol.2, Issue 3, Sep 2012,pp.53-
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(2014); Evaluation of mechanical properties of friction welded joints of EN-24steel
cylindrical rods, IJMER, ISSN 2278 – 0149, Vol. 3, No. 4, October 2014.
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of the heat affected zone (HAZ) properties of 100Cr6 steel joined by rotary friction
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2017.
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of Mechanical Engg. Vol.1, No.1, January 2012.
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ISSN: 2321-8169 Vol. 5 Issue: 6 online: pp.1557-1560.
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stainless steel by rotary friction welding process, JATM, Vol.2, No.3, pp. 301-306.
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304L austenitic stainless Steel, J. Manuf. Sci. Prod., 14(1): 1/11.
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2017, P-ISSN (P): 2348-6406.
Studying the effect of bimetallic
Sic micro-particles on the micro-
structure as well as the strength
of Al6061-Al7075 composite
Satish Kumara, Naseem Ahamada, Shahzad Alib, Uma Sharmaa* , Shatrughan Singha
a
Department of Mechanical Engineering, College of Engineering & Technology, IILM
Academy of Higher Learning, Greater Noida-201306 (INDIA)
b
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Noida Institute of Engineering & Technology.
Greater Noida-201306(INDIA)
abstract
FSW is one of the solid welding technique which offers number of advantages when
compared to other types of welding techniques as by using FSW porosity is reduced no filler
material required as well as a non-consumable tool is used which results in upgraded mechanical
properties as well as reduced internal defects. The purpose of present study is focused on
the effect of reinforcement of bimetallic micro-particles of SiC on micro-structure as well as
hardness of Al6061-A7075 composite by varying welding parameters I.e. tool spindle, feed
rate, keeping wt.% of SiC constant. The results of SEM concluded that the bimetallic SiC
micro-particles are uniformly distributed within the MMCs when spindle speed 1700rpm feed
rate as 7mm/min and the results of Rockwell hardness test shows that the best joint having
rockwell hardness as 91.78HRB. is produced when tool speed is kept as 1700rpm, feed rate as
10mm/min.
Keywords: Butt weld, FSW, Spindle rotation,feed rate, SEM, Rockwell hardness ;
Introduction:
FSW was first invented in 1991 by TWI but from the time till now it has gained momentum
among the researchers as it provides the most feasible way to weld dissimilar metals or
composites . there are number of parameters which contributes to increase in its demand some
of which as that internal defects are reduced joining takes place in solid state only which
makes the work piece less prone to oxide formation no filler metal is used as the material is
welded in solid state itself hence requires less energy input. The heat which is responsible for
joining is caused by the friction that is present in between the work piece as well as the tool
pin by which it can be said that tool geometry is one of the parameter which effects HAZ.
As there is both heat and mass transfer taking place during FSW so it can also be called as
thermomechanical processthe extent of both heat as well as mass transfer are influenced by
number of welding parameters such as tool rotation speed, feed rate, offset, out of all it is
observed that type of tool geometry used has high impact on the material flow. Improper stirring
action because of insufficient heat produced at the tool pin and work piece interface gives rise
to number of defects like tunnel defect, worm hole etc. Because of which the joint produced is
of strength than the parent metal itself. FSW is used to join number of dissimilar material like
Al-Mg, Al-Cu, aluminium stainless steel magnesium and its alloys as well . Though number
of experiments in the FSW of Al-Cu performed successfully still welding of them requires
more research work. Joining of dissimilar metals is more difficult when compared to similar
metals because of difference in chemical, thermal and mechanical properties one such property
is temperature. as the ductility of the welded material too decreases in order to tackle those
difficulties reinforcement is done number of reinforced particles can be used TiC and SiC
are observed to me most commonly used . In case of Al-Cu composite type of IMC mostly
encountered are CuAl2, CuAl and Cu9Al4[1-2] . It was observed that there is considerable
effect of welding parameters on the grain structure of the joint produced[3] and in some cased
tool rotation speed resulted in more residual when increased as compared to welding speed in
case of AA5083-AA5083[4] Hector et al [5] examined the FSW of dissimilar aluminium alloy
can bind with great tensile strength and when heat treated can find application in spacecraft and
structural manufacturing structures of ship, etc[6,7]. In case where high corrosion resistance as
well as strength required as in case of ships etc two dissimilar al alloys can be joined . FSW is
subjected to no. of defects like pin hole , tunnel, piping defect etc. due to insufficient material
flow [8]. Although some research papers on FSW of aluminium alloys with other materials
[9–12]. In one such study scope for finding thermal properties using temperature distribution
at the weld zone is also provided[13], however it is observed that no study is carried out to
see the effect of SiC bimetallic micro particle on the micro structure as well as hardness of
Al6061-Al7075 composite which is carried out in our research work. This study is basically the
extension of study carried by satish kumar et. Al [14]
Experimental details:
the vertical milling machine shown in fig.2 is used with proper arrangement having proper
clamp and fixture arrangement which is shown below in fig.2 . Milling cutter with cylindrical
profile and shoulder is used in order to carry out FSW at 1500rpm,1700rpm and 2100rpm at
feed rate of 7mm/min and 10mm/min.The tool used is made of HSS because of high toughness,
impact strength and ability to sustain high temperature. The dimension of both Al6061- Al7075
plates were taken 120×20×5 mm3 . Both The specimens were prepared as per the ASTM
standard. The mechanical properties of Al6061 is shown in table1. And the composition of Al-
7075 shown in table2 and the chemical composition of the reinforcement is shown in table.3
The geometry of tool used is shown below which is of cylindrical profile is shown in fig.3.
Table.1 mechanical properties of Al-6061

Mn Si Fe Cu Zn Ti Mg Cr Al
Al-6061 0.13 0.5 0.6 0.28 0.20 0.12 0.9 0.30 Rest
Table.2 mechanical properties of Al-7075
Zinc Magnesium Copper Manganese Iron Silicon Aluminium
Al-7075 5.0 2.8 1.4 0.07 0.27 0.06 Rest
Table.3 Composition of SiC.
Density(g/ Water Sinter Rockwell Bend Compression
cm3) absorption temperature hardness strength intensity
(%) ( ºC) (HV) (kgf/mm2) (kgf/mm2)
3.1 0.1 2200 2200 4000 20000
Methodology & Results:

In present study the welding parameters that were taken into consideration was tool
spindle speed, feed rate keeping constant wt.% of SiC in Al6061-Al7075 Composite is shown
in table.3.. Tool depth was kept 4.3mm and no need was felt to grind tool even after carrying
out FSW of 6 samples Tool geometry before and after welding is shown in figure.4
Fig.4 schematic showing tool profile before and after carrying out FSW of all samples.
Welding parameters taken into consideration shown below
Table.4. Welding parameters as well as Rockwell hardness test results
S.No. Tool speed(rpm) Feed rate (mm/min) Rockwell Hardness(HRB)
1. 1500 7 72.6
2. 1500 10 80.85
3. 1700 7 78.87
4. 1700 10 91.78
5. 2100 7 89
6. 2100 10 72.732
3.1 Microstructure:
Scanning electron microscopy is one such technique which is mostly used in order to
know the internal morphology of the composite it makes use of electron beam for surface
imaging. By performing SEM it is concluded that clustering of SiC taking place within the
metal matrix composite images of which is shown in figure below.
Figure.5 surface imaging of Al6061-Al7075 composite with reinforcement at varying

welding parameters.
3.2 Hardness Test:

Rockwell hardness test is a technique to measure the permanent depth of indentation
produced by a force i.e. major as well as minor load using suitable indentor the schematic for
which is shown below in fig.6 as well as fig.7
The results of the Rockwell hardness test is shown in table.3.
Conclusion:
In the investigation it was observed using SEM that the SiC micro-particles shows non-
uniform distribution and clustering of SiC can be seen in the SEM images at varying different
welding parameters like tool speed, feed rate. The parameters which are responsible for non
uniform distribution as well as clustering can be studied further.From the Rockwell hardness
test it can be concluded that the best joint having Rockwell hardness as 91.78HRB is produced
at 1700rpm, and feed rate as 10mm/min.
REFERENCES
[1] L. E. Murr, Y. Li, R. D. Flores, E. A. Trillo and J. C. McClure: ‘Intercalation vortices
and related microstructural features in thefriction-stir welding of dissimilar metals’,
Mater. Res. Innov., 1998,2, 150–163.
[2] J. Ouyang, E. Yarrapareddy and R. Kovacevic: ‘Microstructural evolution in the
friction stir welded 6061aluminum alloy (T6-temper condition) to copper’, J. Mater.
Process. Technol., 2006,172, 110–122.
[3] H.J. Aval, S. Serajzadeh, A.H. Kokabi, Evolution of microstructures and mechanical
properties in similar and dissimilar friction stir welding of AA5086 and AA6061,
Mater. Sci. Eng., A 528 (2011) 8071–8083.
A. Steuwer, M.U. Peel, P.J. Withers, Dissimilar friction stir welds in AA5083–AA6082:
The effect of process parameters on residual stress, Mater. Sci. Eng., A441 (2006)
187–196.
[4] L.G. Hector, Y.L. Chen, S. Agarwal, C.L. Briant, Friction stir processed AA5182and
AA6111 aluminum alloys. Part 2:Tensile properties and strain field evolution, Journal
of Transactions of Nonferrous Metals Society of China. 16(2007) 404-417.
[5] K.P. Boopathiraja, R. Ramamoorthi, V. Vadivel Vivek, K. Vickram, S. Vinodh Kumar,
K.P. Yuvaraj, Characterization and surface modification on composites by friction
stir processing – A review, Mater. Today:. Proc. (2020), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
matpr.2020.03.524.
[6] R. Sakano, K. Murakami, K. Yamashita, Development of spot FSW robot system
for automobile body members, Proceedings of the 3rd International Symposium of
Friction Stir Welding-Japan, 2007.
[7] C.G. Rhodes, M.W. Mahoney, W.H. Bingel, R.A. Spurling, C.C. Bampton, Effects of
friction stir welding on microstructure of 7075 aluminum, Scr. Mater. 36(1997) 69–75.
[8] H. Jamshidi Aval, S. Serajzadeh, A.H. Kokabi, ‘‘Evolution of microstructures and
mechanical properties in similar and dissimilar friction stir welding of AA5086 and
AA6061, J. Materials Science and Engineering A. 528(2011) 8071-8083.
[9] M.S. Ilangovan, V. Rajendra Boopathy, V. Balasubramanian, Microstructure and tensile
properties of friction stir welded dissimilar AA6061–AA5086 aluminium alloy joints,
Transactions of Nonferrous Metals Society of China. 25(2015) 1080-1090.
[10] J. Guo, P. Gougeon, X.G. Chen, Microstructure evolution and mechanical properties of
dissimilar friction stir welded joints between AA1100-B4C MMC and AA6063 alloy,
Mater. Sci. Eng., A 553 (2012) 149–156.
[11] L. Karthikeyan, V.S. SenthilKumar, Relationship between process parameters and
mechanical properties of friction stir processed AA6063-T6 aluminum alloy, Mater.
Des. 32 (2011) 3085–3091.
[12] U. Sharma, N. Ahamad, S. Ali, S. Kumar, P. Gupta (2021). “Performing a comparative
study of mechanical properties of Al-Cu composite reinforced with or without
bimetallic SiC micro-particle” Materials Today: Proceedings – Elsevier https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.matpr.2021.11.382
[13] S. Kumar, N. Ahamad, S. Ali, U. Sharma, P. Gupta (2021). “Investigation of the influence
of bimetallic micro SiC particles reinforced in FSW of Al6061-Al7075 composite”
Materials Today: Proceedings – Elsevier, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2021.12.433
Sheet Metal Shrink Flanging
Process: A Review
Sachin Kumar Nikama , Yogesh Dewanga, S.K.Panthib, Sandeep Jiaswala
a
LNCT University Kolar Road, Bhopal 462042, India
b
CSIR-AMPRI, Bhopal, India, Bhopal 462042, India
abstract
Shrink flanging is another form of sheet metal forming industry has got various applications
in the manufacturing of parts of appliances, automotive and aeronautical industries. The
goal of research work is to focus on a critical study of the sheet metallic flanging cognitive
operation, and especially the less defective parts as well as proper energy distribution along the
bending edges during shrink flanging process. My work is to compile all the positive aspects
as well as difficulties during flanging operation for further findings and rectifications. Various
investigations made by previous researchers for the Shrink flanging process are reviewed on
the basis of theoretical experimental and mathematical aspects. Finite element simulation is
observed to be an effective technique for a prophecy of defects during design operation.
Keywords: Sheet metal, flanging, shrink, stretch, wrinkling, Finite Element Method
simulation;
Introduction
Sheet metallic forming is one of the broadly used production techniques in global
industries, particularly with inside the automobile industry [1]. There are special types of sheet
metallic forming techniques that is utilized in automobile production consisting of drawing,
bending, blanking, coining, embossing, flanging, hemming etc [2]. Out of those sheet metallic
forming techniques, flanging is one of the prominent forming method for generating surfaces
of wall by bending along axis which is almost parallel to the threshold of sheet metallic [3].
In the past decades, flanging was considered as an integral part of sheet metal bending or
drawing processes, but with the growing demands for technological development in the area
of manufacturing of automotive industry, especially for car body forming. The significance of
flanging process as separate sheet metal forming process has been recognized over the years
[4]. In flanging the threshold of the sheet is bent to enhance stiffness and to provide rigidity of
a sheet metal panels [5]. Flanging is used to form sheet metal panels, automobile front fenders,
panels, deck lids, quarter panels and for producing hidden joints and or to produce mating
surfaces in sheet metal part. Sheet metal forming processes include processes such as deep
drawing, shearing, blanking, punching, piercing, trimming, drawing, bending, flanging and
coining, embossing, flanging and hemming processes[7]. Out of these processes flanging is one
of the important secondary sheet metal forming operation. This process has got various forms
in terms of different geometrical features such as straight, shrink, and stretch, hole, joggled
flanges.[12-15] Stretch flanging is one the prime form of contoured flanging process in which
the stretch phenomenon occurs along the free edge. Tensile forces are being induced along the
free edge after formation of stretch flange [17-19].
It is important to notice that stretch flanging process is being studied by researchers in
past both through conventional forming as well as through incremental forming technology. In
the area of conventional forming, Dewang et al. studied effect of punch-die clearance, initial
flange length, punch and die profile radius through FEM simulation [24].Sigvant et al. [25]
investigated the problem of shear edge quality and its associated edge fracture in stretch flange
forming of dual phase steels both through FEM simulation and experiments. Kumar et al. [26-
27] evaluated the stretch flanging process through FEM simulation and experimentation using
AA 5052 sheets. They mainly considered the effect of punch profile radius and evaluated the
crack, thinning and fracture phenomenon in stretch flange forming. Yu et al. [28] gathered
through FEM simulation and experiments that edge cracks appeared during stretch flanging at
greatest curvature position.
Besides this, stretch flanging process was also investigated through incremental forming
technology. Voswinckel et al. [29] adapted the newer concept of adaptive blank holder in stretch
flanging process through incremental forming. Cao et al. [30] investigated the stretch flanging
process and devised new forming strategy with new flanging tool through incremental forming.
Zhang et al. [31] also worked on the stretch flanging process both through FEM simulation and
experiments on the basis of double sided incremental forming process. The objective of the
present work is to investigate the effect of initial flange length on radial strain, circumferential
strain, shell thickness distribution, maximum strain in flange and maximum thinning (%) in
rectangular sheet blanks of AKDQ steel [32] and cold rolled steel [33].
Types of flanging process

There are various types of flanging process namely straight flanging, stretch flanging,
hole flanging and shrink flanging. Basically the difference between all three processes is the
deformation of the work piece along the edges by applying the force with different position
which results in less crack and proper energy distribution.
2.1 Straight flanging process
In straight flanging process, sheet is bent usually to 900 along a die with a punch to
form straight flange as shown in fig.1. A die used in this process known as wiping die whose
application is much similar to bending of cantilever beam, when a load applied on the cantilever
beam its bending axis is parallel to the threshold of the die similarly it found in wiping die case.
The job piece is placed between the die and pressure pad before the punch contacts to job piece.
Flanging dies are usually cam operated, which result in lack of efficiency. In order to improve
efficiency hold-down pads should be used including in addition to press capacity.
Fig.1. Schematic diagram of straight flanging process [2]

2.2 Stretch flanging process.
Another type of flanging process is stretch flanging process in which tensile forces will
act along free edge of flange which gives rise to tensile stress and strain in circumferential
direction. Excessive tensile stresses in circumferential direction at the top the flange edge will
lead to edge cracking Fig. shows the stretch flange with concave curvature where A>B.
Fig.2.Schematic diagram of stretch flanging [19]

2.3 Shrink flanging process.
Shrink flanging is a type of contoured flanging in which the sheet’s edge is bent along a
convex curve As demonstrated in fig.3, the flange arc length in this method is greater than the
flange arc length following sheet deformation in shrink flanging.
Fig.3 Schematic diagram of shrink flanging [19]
Compressive forces act along free edge of shrink flange which will reduce the arc length of
top surface of shrink flange. Due to excessive compressive forces in circumferential direction
will lead to wrinkling. Accurate prediction of wrinkling is one of the issues in shrink flanging
which actually will reduce the accuracy of the assemblies. Chunfeng et al. [14] recommended
that blank holding force has to be large enough in addition to rational structure of die and to
keep away from wrinkling force has to be applied on both sides as flange height will be become
larger. Wang et al. [15] employed energy method which provides a stress-based establishment
for the commencement of wrinkling in sheet metal shrink flanging process. Hamedon et al. [16]
observed that the punch having slow touch is powerful in stopping the prevalence of wrinkling
with inside the shrinkage flanging. This paper presents a collection of review of research work
pertaining to analytical, numerical and experimental analysis and defects involved and remedial
action applied to sheet metal shrink flanging process.
Various aspects of Shrink Flanging Process

3.1 Materials used in shrink flanging process
Shrink flanges are basically used for joint and assembly of automobile panels. For
manufacturing of defect free shrink flanges and durability in the automobile front fenders
and in panels the selection of material is a vital issue. Life of the stamped products depends
upon the formability of materials under service conditions. Table 1 shows the materials used
in shrink flange forming used by the researchers in the past. From past decades to present
scenario, in majority of cases, various grades of steel as well as of aluminum alloys were
utilized by researchers as a work piece for shrink flange forming investigations, especially for
car body forming.
Table 1. Material used as work piece in sheet metal forming by past researchers.
Author Year Materials
Wang et al. 1995 High strength steel sheets
Asnafi N. 1999 AA 2024-O
Wang et al. 2001 AA6111-T4,AA6022-T4,AKDQ steel
Zhang et al. 2003 AKDQ steel
Hu et al. 2003 Aluminium-killed steel, 09CuP
Lei C. 2011 AA 7075-O
Hamedon et al. 2016 Ultra-high Strength steels heet JSC1180YN
Draghici C. 2017 Cold rolled low carbon steel sheet(DC04)
Fernandez et al. 2021 AA2024-T3
Killi et.al 2021 AA-6061-T6
3.2 Mathematical Analysis of shrink flanging process
Wang et al. [18] presented the strain model which was established on Wang’s and
Wenner’s work on stretch flanging. They displayed that the maximum compressive strain to
be dependent upon dimensions of flange and anisotropy of sheet metal, which must exceed the
limit strain to avoid wrinkling. Asnafi N. [19] They also presented an analytical mathematical
model for axisymmetric shrink flanging, recommending that the compressive strain value
should not surpass the greatest strain value to avoid wrinkling.. This limit strain has to be
evaluated in order to predict the initial and final shape of a wrinkle-free shrink flange. Hu et
al. [20] suggested modified analytical model for shrink flanging process that take in account
the effect of planar anisotropy based on total plasticity theory and membrane strain theory
for accurate estimation of shape of rolling-stock’s retractor, blank’s trim-line, shape and for
verification of flange height. Zhang et al. [21] for the convex surface-straight the compressive
strain value should not surpass the greatest strain value to avoid wrinkling.. This limit strain has
to be evaluated in order to predict the initial and final shape of a wrinkle-free shrink flange. Hu
et al. [20] suggested modified analytical model for shrink flanging process that take in account
the effect of planar anisotropy based on total plasticity theory and membrane strain theory
for accurate estimation of shape of rolling-stock’s retractor, blank’s trim-line, shape and for
verification of flange height. Zhang et al. [21] for the convex surface-straight.
3.3 FEM Simulation of shrink flanging process
Finite element simulation is one of the accurate methods for analysis of shrink flanging
process. With the development and advancement in the latest computing facilities, the usage
of computer simulation has increased over the past two decades. Commercial software
packages based on FEM are now used widely for the purpose of process design and analysis.
FEM simulation of shrink flanging process is not an easy task. Whereas a few investigators
previously had worked on the shrink flanging process through FEM analysis. Wang et al. [18]
utilized a computer program FLANGE for simulation of axisymmetric shrink flanging process
of highest value of strength of steel sheets for prediction of maximum circumferential strain
along free edge and the deformed profiles(wrinkles) in the shrink flange. Asnafi [19] utilized
Finite Element code LS-DYNA three dimension for simulation of axisymmetric shrink flanging
process of 1and 1.6 mm thick AA 2024-
O sheets for prediction of wrinkling.
Figure shows the FEM of axisymmetric
shrink flanging process which comprises
of blank, blank-holder, die and tray pad.
Bao and Huh [22] utilized LS-DYNA
software for finite element method
simulation of convex surface shrink
flanging process of sheet metals. Figure
shows the finite element method model
of convex surface shrink flanging which
comprises of die, punch, sheet and Fig 4. Finite element model of shrink flanging
binder.
Fig.5. FEM model of convex surface shrink flanging
Lei (2011) utilized commercial FEM software package Pam stamp for analysis of shrink
flanging and prediction of springback of 1.75 mm thick sheets of AA -7075- O in rubber
forming. The FEM model consists of rubber, die and sheet metal blank.
Fig.6. (a) Rubber, die and blank model (b) Final Deformed shape of shrink joggled
flange.
Draghici [23] utilized commercial
software package Autoform for carrying FEM
simulation of shrink flanging process for DC04
cold rolled steel sheet with thickness of 0.65
mm by considering the effect of six geometrical
parameters. Hamedon et al. [16] utilized
commercial software package LS-DYNA for
optimization of projection angle of punch in
shrink flanging process. They found that very
large wrinkles occur for flat punch (α = 00) Fig.7. Schematic diagram of deformation
especially near to the corner of sheet. process of sheet metal (a) initial stage (b,
c) middle stage (d) Final stage
3.4 Experimental Analysis of shrink flanging process
In the domain experimental analysis of shrink flanging process, researchers had worked in
the designing of die specially to avoid common defects encountered during forming. Chunfeng
et al. [14] presented the whole structure of die for shrink flanging process as shown in fig.
which consists of blank holders at the bottom, die, blank, punch, blank holders at the side and
ejector pin. In order to avoid wrinkling in shrink flanging, they recommended that the punch
size be equal to the size of the work piece, the radius of curvature of the die be bigger than the
radius of curvature of the punch, and the blank holding force be applied on all sides.
Fig.8 Structure of the die for shrink curved flanging: 1- blank holder at the bottom;
2-die; 3-blank; 4-punch; 5-blank holders at the side; 6-ejector pin.
Wang et al. [18] used the die with the tooling set to conduct axisymmetric shrink flanging
experiments on high strength steels, as shown in fig.9
Fig.9. Schematic diagram of axisymmetric shrink flanging tool set up [19]

Asnafi [19] conducted shrink flanging experiments by using fluid forming on Quintus
Fluid Cell Press with a 70MPa pressure capacity by utilizing die as shown in fig.He found that
upon increasing blank holding pressure the wrinlkes goes on decreasing and no wrinkling is
obatinedfor maximum applied pressure.
a b
Fig. 10 Shrink flanging dies[19]
a b
Fig.11 (a,b)Wrinkling in shrink flanges for 5,10,20 and 70 MPa (from bottom to top) of
AA 2024-O
Zhang et al. [21] devised an experimental set-up for conducting experiments for
conducting convex surface-straight edge shrink flanging tests. The experimental set-up consists
of flat sheet which is kept between blank-holder and flange die, in order to bend flat sheet into
contoured surface. They utilized a 2.5 x 2.5 milimeter square grid for strain measurement along
the flange edge as shown in fig. (a). Fig (b) shows sheets bend to different flange angles as well
as showing onset of wrinkling.
Fig.12 Process setup for flanging (a) Front view (b) Side view
a b
Fig.13 (a) Specimen showing grid (b) bunch of specimens showing bend angle
progression with top specimen showing wrinkling along flange
Lei C. [24] conducted experiments of shrink flanging by uisng rubber forming with
soft and hard rubber with and without die compensation.He found that wrinkling appeared in
joggled flange ,but it disappered with increment in applied pressure by utilizing hard rubber.
Die compensation is based on the simulation and experimental results of inversing spring back.
It is also found that after die compensation,after application of different have a little effect on
springback.
a b c
Fig 14.Without die compensation experimental result. (a) Using softer rubber (b) Using
hard rubber (c) After die compensation
Hamedon et al. [16] utilized an experimental die and tooling set up for conducting shrink
flanging experiments as shown in fig. They conducted experiment of shrink flanging for α =
00 and 30°, L=10 mm and C=110% and found that by using flat punch of α = 00, wrinkling
occurs at the corner of sheet whereas by increasing punch contact angle of α = 300 no wrinkles
appeared at this condition as shown in fig.
Fig.15 Tool dimensions used in shrink flanging with punch having gradual contact
a b
Fig.16 Flanges in bent sheet for α = 300, L= 10 mm and C = 110% obtained from
experiment [16]
Draghici C. [23] empahaized on the practical application of shrink flanges which has
been utilized in the exterior parts of the car body panels and rear covers as shown in fig.He has
also exihited utility of shrink flanges in the structural parts.
Fig.17 Examples of shrink flanges applied in (a) parts withivisual imapcti(exterior

parts) (b) structureiparts [23]
Wang et al. [15] conducted
experiments for shrink flanging
by using sheets of AA 6111 T4 and
AA6022 of 1 mm thickness. They
discovered that as PVR lowers,
the sensitivity of wave number
on plan view radii increases, and
that wave number decreases as
flange length grows. Fig. shows
AA6111-T4 flanged panels with a Fig. 18 AA6111-T4 flanged panels with a PVR of 500
PVR of 500 mm and flange lengths mm and flange lengths of 10 and 15 mm.
of 10 and 15 mm.
3.5 Wrinkles appear in shrink flanging process.
Wrinkling is one of the major defect which occurs in shrink flanging process.Hu et al.
[20] found that major cause of wrinkling in shrink flanging is due to increment in compressive
stresses along flange edge. Chunfeng et al. [14] enumerated defects of shrink curved flanging
such as rising high of both ends on the bottom ,uneven flanging height ,wrinkling on the side
walls ,spring-back of the radius of curvature. They recommended having a punch equal in size
to the workpiece, radius of curvature of die should be greater than radius of curvature of punch
and the blank holding force also plays an important role in controlling of wrinkling in shrink
flanging process. Wang et al. [18] gathered elastic and plastic wrinkling along the flange edge
as one of the major defect of shrink flanging. They proposed wrinkling criterion for both elastic
and elastic-plastic wrinkling and found that wrinkling tendency is higher for aluminum sheet
as compared to steel sheet due to less Young’s Modulus. While on the other hand, for high
strength steels due to thin sheet, low strain hardening and strength is high and hence tendency
of wrinkling is high. Asnafi N. [19] utilized the wrinkling criterion proposed by Wang et al.
[18]and also considers that wrinkling is due to the excessive compressive strain along flange
edge. He utilized drop in current stiffness parameter (CSP) below zero value during FEM
simulation as an indicator for onset of wrinkling. Zhang et al. [21] also wrinkling as one of
the major defect for which, they had proposed a semi-empirical wrinkling criterion for convex
surface-straight edge shrink flanging, which is based on experiments. They found that ration
of sheet thickness to flange length is more influential in comparison in determination the onset
of wrinkling. Hamedon et al. [16] prescribed to use a punch having gradual contact with finite
projection instead of flat punch in order to avoid wrinkling in shrink flanging process.
Conclusions
The main goal of ongoing studies work is to carry out any other metal forming process for
commercial use via offering the best suitable strategies with the help of finite element method,
CFD evaluation, messing solving techniques as well as experimental validation. This paper
concludes numerous factors related to shrinking flanging procedure for industrial used having
benefits like powerful manner, price restrained, and design constraint-free with the approach.
All previous studies advised that shrink flanging is a brand-new innovative system inside the
coming electric car enterprise and others In the future, other simulation strategies like CFD
can be used to analyze the aerodynamic behavior over the bending sheet for auto industry and
other simulation limits may be adopted for sheet bending and forming with material waste
and operating time. Design is major challenge for future green energy automobile for weight
management and also material reduction for better dynamic stability that’s why shrink flanging
can be very challenge area for manufacturing as well as research and development so as per
reviewing this concept I strongly recommend for future research in this field with more result
orientated work as well as defect free production in sheet metal forming.
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Aluminum Silicon Carbide
Metal Composite’s Mechanical
Characterization: A Review
Tukej Kumar, Utkarsh Pal, Vatan Saloniya, Naveen J
Mechanical Engineering Department, JSS Academy of Technical Education,,
Noida,201301,U.P.(India)
abstract
In today’s business, there is a need for new goods with better and more stable structures
than old ones, due to the quick shift in demand. Metal matrix composites made of silicon
carbide and aluminum have become commonplace in our daily lives. With the use of reinforced
particles, there are several advantages, including higher durability, light weight, low thermal
expansion coefficient, high thermal conductivity, adaptive electrical characteristics, better
ageing resistance, and improved damping qualities. AMC is a unique company with unique
equipment. In this work, we will look at one such metal composite, which is an aluminum
metal matrix reinforced with different Silicon Carbide compositions. We’ll also talk about
different manufacturing processes and how they affect composite qualities.
Keywords: Aluminum composite, Stir Casting, Silicon Carbide, Tensile Strength,
Hardness, Mechanical Properties
Introduction
Metric composite composites are made up of two or more components, at least one of
which is metal and the other of which is ceramics or an organic substance. A Hybrid composite is
one that has at least three components. It must be the outcome of changing the morphologies of
structural characteristics of any compounds based on chemical composition or constituent phase
geometry structures comprising particles, shape size, and matrix shape in order to accomplish
complete integration of composite structures. Metal matrix composites (MMCs) are innovative
materials that have a wide range of applications in industries such as aerospace, automotive,
defence, nuclear power, electronics, biomedical, and sports. Solvents such as Silicon carbide
(SiC), Alumina (Al2O3), Boron nitride (B4N), Boron carbide (B4C), AlN, TiB2, and natural
fortification are also employed to concentrate Al compounds. Thermal conductivity, Increment,
low density, high durability, high fatigue tolerance, durability, durability, resistance, resistance,
increase, dimensional stability, strength and weight ratios. They’re also most effective at high
temperatures. Aluminum metal matrix composite composites are prepared using a variety of
synthetic processes (AMMCs). The most common methods are stir casting, powder metallurgy,
and pressing. The stir casting process is typically used for solidification since it is widely
available in other methods. Motivating casting processes further increase the binding capability
between the reinforced particles and the matrix due to their better dynamic action. The main
problem with dispersion is the dissolution or disintegration of the reinforced particles, which
happens when the density difference between the solidifications causes some particles to sink
and others to float. As a result, several simulation faults, such as porosities, punching holes, and
inserts, may develop. The purpose of this study was to look at how silicon carbide reinforcement
in aluminium matrix compounds affected strength, hardness, durability, and microstructure in
various composite compositions. A carbon tetrahedral and silicon molecule make up silicon
carbide (SiC), which has significant links to the gemstone grid. This results in a material that
is both robust and long-lasting. Acids, solvents, or soluble salts at temperatures up to 800 ᵒC
have no effect on SiC. SiC creates a protective silicon oxide covering 1200 ᵒC in the air and
can withstand temperatures up to 1600 ᵒC. This remarkable object has a high heat conductivity
mixed with a low thermal development as well as a good quality, making it warm and safe.
Without low quality Metal framework compounds (MMCs, for example, SiC molecules),
SiC clay vessels free of restricted grain contamination maintain their solidity at exceptionally
high temperatures up to 1600 ᵒC. Silicon (Si) is a commonly used single alloying component
in the majority of aluminium alloys. It is solely responsible for good castability, an increase
in overall quality, as well as erosion and wear blockage. Adding Si to Aluminium enhances
the composite’s warm dimensional stability, flexible modulus, and warm conductivity, but it
reduces its machinability, therefore it is dependent on its weight fixation (%).
Extreme elasticity appears to increase somewhat (for 3-8 percent Si) with a linear increase
later on as Si content increases (for 8- 15 percent Si). It was also revealed that when the Si
concentration (12 percent) increases, the hardness increases to 70 MPa, before decreasing to
60 MPa with additional expansion (15 percent Si).
Literature Review
S Rajeshkumar et al. The numerical investigation of parameter composition and contact
analysis of integrated spur gears is presented in this paper. Each design feature with a pressure,
compression, and conversion distribution is addressed in this study to compare the composite
gear to steel and polymer gears. In comparison to metal and plastic objects, the gear shift of
composite materials is quite minimal, according to the results. Furthermore, the spur gear’s
rotational speed effects the behaviour of parameters such as stress, difficulty, and conversion,
among others. As a result, the composite material is a superior substitute for metal and plastic.
Mohit Singh et al. In this research, composite materials were used to minimise
deformation, stress distribution, and weight of spur gear in order to improve gear performance
for gear box applications. They did this by creating a solid model of the gears in Creo cad
software and doing a software-based fem analysis to determine the stress created at various
loading conditions in relation to one another. When compared to normal steel, all composite
material materials have a significant reduction in mass, with the carbon epoxy composites
having the greatest reduction in mass. The materials and gears are capable of transmitting up
to 175 KW of electricity. Based on the results of the foregoing research, it can be stated that
composites can successfully replace steel gears in gearbox applications.
P.B Pawar et al. The Al-SiC compound is fitted with sensor transmitters in this study,
and different mechanical tests are carried out to assess the material’s capabilities. The Al-SiC
compound changed by stir cast distribution provides increased stiffness and durability over the
base metal, according to the results of numerical testing and analysis done on the gears. The
addition of 18% SiC improved the findings. Blended gears are typically 60% lighter than steel
gears while maintaining a same power ratio. The Al-SiC gear likewise has a low likelihood of
failure, according to the FE study. The gap between theoretical and FEA curved stress values
was found to be around 4%. These gears can handle up to 24 kW of power transmission.
S. Mahendran et al. A literature review of composite spur gear was conducted. Then, for
cast steel and composite materials, a research of stress distribution and weight reduction of spur
gear was carried out. On the basis of the research, both cast steel and composite material gears
in the context of vehicle gearboxes were examined. As a result of these findings, he concludes
that the composite spur gear has less deformation, stress caused, and weight than the cast steel
spur gear. As a consequence, he determined that composite materials are capable of replacing
cast steel gears in motor vehicle gear boxes for load transfer of up to 1.5KN, such as in the use
of the Tata Super Ace vehicle, with superior outcomes.
M. Palanivendan et al. Stir casting procedures were used to make an aluminium SiC
composite, which yielded the following results: a. When silicon carbide was added to aluminium
in proportional ratios, the hardness of the metal was improved owing to the strengthening of
covalent bonds, resulting in an increase in tensile strength. b. The material’s impact strength
was lowered. c. As the amount of SiC in the composite increased, the wear resistance dropped,
making it appropriate for long-term usage.
Manish Shukla et al. The In this study, AMCs are made using a stir cast extraction
procedure. The amount of silicon carbide (SiC) in composite materials varies. Hardness and
strength-to-weight ratios, as well as microstructure and mechanical structures, were studied.
In comparison to non-reinforced AMCs, the SiC content in the Al matrix has a similar
distribution; as the SiC concentration in the Al matrix increases, the AMCs’ complexity and
strength grow. Al-strength SiCs and their weight, which is three times that of soft metal, are
the aircraft industry’s most valuable asset. According to the review, more research has been
done on Aluminum matrix [AMC] compounds, however Titanium, Magnesium, and Copper
MMC still have a lot of work to do. Stir casted provides a wide range of microprocessor-based
precision electronics control panels for managing RPM stirrers, vibration, and timing.
Abhay A. Utpat et al. In this study, stir casting is utilised to create an aluminium silicon
carbide composite, which is then compared to a traditional steel alloy material used in gear
production. The stress-strain analysis of composites is also performed using ANSYS, and
the following conclusions may be taken from this study. Stir casting is used to make Al-SiC
composites, which is a cost-effective process. Al-SiC provides a number of advantages over
traditional materials, including increased material hardness and strength. For the same power
transmission capacity, composite material gears delivered a significant weight decrease when
compared to steel gears. The stress-strain values discovered in the FEA research reveal that
composite materials are stronger than alloy steel.
Neelima Devi. C et al. . Aluminum ¬ Silicon carbide alloy composites are employed in a
variety of applications, including engineering structures, aerospace and maritime applications,
automotive bumpers, sports equipment, and more. During solid testing, we discovered that the
weight and strength ratio of Aluminum silicon carbide is nearly three times that of soft metal.
The weight of aluminum silicon carbide alloy composite material is double that of aluminum
of the same dimension. At a SiC ratio of 15%, high strength is achieved. This demonstrates that
aluminum silicon carbide composite material is lighter and stronger than steel, making it ideal
for aircraft applications.
Mechanical Properties
Table-1 Hardness & Tensile Strength
Observers Method of Composition of Materials Observed Observed

Fabrication Fabricated Hardness Tensile Strength
(BHN) (MPa)
H.M mamun, Al Al and 0%Sic 24.51 28.40
Rashed. And Al and 5%Sic 38.66 59.37
Md.Habiur Al and 10%Sic 42.31 50.18
Rahman [2013] Al and 20%Sic 45.39 77.51
L.Poovazhagan. Al+(0.5%Sic and 61 51
[2013] 0.5%B₄C) Al+(1%Sic and 80 188
0.5%B₄C) 99 242
Al+(1.5%Sic and 121 219
0.5%B₄C)
Verma, Agrawal Stir casting Al+(2.02%Sic and 56 122.44
and 1.67%Cu) Al+(5.59%Sic 49 95.980
Awana. (2013) and 0.015%Cu) 96 134.90
Al+(6.33%Sic and 90 138.80
5.97%Cu)
Al+(8.6%Sic and
5.82%Cu)
Mahendra Al and 5%Sic 85.2 249
Boopat. (2013) Al and 10%Sic 87.3 266
P.B Pawar and Al and 0%Sic 28.4
Abhay. (2014) Al and 2.5%Sic 31.5
Al and 5%Sic 40.4
Al and 7.5%Sic 47.4
Al and 10%Sic 60.2
Manoj single, Al and 5%Sic 40.3
D.Deepak Al and 10%Sic 41.2
Dwivedi. (2009) Al and 15%Sic 43.8
Al and 20%Sic 44.3
T.R Mohan Al and 0%Sic 54.2
(2015) Al and 5%Sic 57.5
Al and 9%Sic 61.3
Al and 15%Sic 65.0
K.K Alaneme Al and 0%Sic 100
and A.O aluko Al and 6%Sic 115
(2012) Al and 9%Sic 145
Al and 12%Sic 155
Table-2 Tensile Test Observations
Authors Fabrication Composition Yield Ultimate % Of
Technique of Materials
Strength of tensile Elongation
FabricatedSpecimen Strength in 35mm
(MPa) (MPa) specimen
M.Palanivendhan Stir casting Al and 10%Sic Al 76.76 100.81 1.94
(2015) and 20%Sic 161.93 172.38 2.26
Al and 30%Sic 152.70 158.45 3.34
Table-3 Impact Test Observations
Authors Fabrication Technique Materials Average Absorbed Energy
(joules)
M.Palanivendhan Stir casting Al+10%Sic 10
(2015) Al+20%Sic 6
Al+30%Sic 3.3
Table-4 Wear Test Observations
Authors Fabrication Materials % Abrasion Loss
Technique
M.Palanivendhan Stir casting Al+10%Sic 8.6
(2015) Al+20%Sic 4.3
Al+30%Sic 3.7
Fabrication Methods
Figure.1 Fabrication Techniques

Stir casting, Powder metallurgy, Squeeze casting, In-situ process, Deposition Processes,
and Electroplating are among the fabrication techniques shown in the above diagram, along
with their proportion of utilisation in various industries.
Application of Aluminum Metal Matrix Composite

Aeronautical and aerospace parts, automotive parts (piston, cylinders, head and block,
chassis, connecting rods, brake parts, clutches), brake rotors for high-speed moving trains,
bikes, golf clubs, electronic substrates, high-power cable cores, self-defence equipment, and
safety tools are all made with Aluminium Matrix Composites (AMC) (bullet protection jacket,
helmet, bullet carrier)
Conclusions
(a) Due to the tightening of the bonds caused by the addition of silicon carbide in equal
amounts to aluminium, the stiffness of the metal increased, resulting in greater
strength. When Silicon carbide was added in excess of 10% by weight in the mix,
the material’s impact strength was lowered.
(b) Increase the SiC percentage by more than 10% by weight in combination to lower
wear resistance, making it appropriate for long-term usage.
(c) While the average power of both gears stays the same, combined gears are roughly
60% lighter than steel gear.
REFERENCES
[1] S Rajeshkumar and R Manoharan 2017 Design and analysis of composite spur gears
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Characteristic Behaviour of Aluminium Metal Matrix Composites, Materials Today:
Proceedings 5 (2018) 5830–5836
[3] P.B.Pawar and Abhay A. Utpat (ICMPC 2014) Development of Aluminium Based
Silicon Carbide Particulate Metal Matrix Composite for Spur Gear
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aluminium composite reinforced with silicon carbide. International Journal of Applied
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OF APPLIED ENGINEERING RESEARCH, DINDIGUL Volume 1, No 4, 2011
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forced
Uma Sharmaa*, Naseem Ahamada, Shahzad Alib, Satish Kumara, Shatrughan Singha
Department of Mechanical Engineering, College of Engineering & Technology, IILM
a
Academy of Higher Learning, Greater Noida-201306 (INDIA)

b
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Noida Institute of Engineering & Technology.
Greater Noida-201306(INDIA)
abstract
Friction stir welding (FSW) is one of the emerging technique which is a type of solid state
welding process this offers number of advantages when compared to other welding techniques
like porosity is reduced no filler material required improved mechanical properties are likely
to be achieved with reduction in internal defects as well. In the present study the effect of SiC
reinforcement on the micro-structure of Al-Cu composite is taken into consideration using SEM
as well as the hardness of the joint produced is also taken into consideration. The complete
analysis is carried out varying welding parameters like tool tilt and tool spindle keeping feed
rate constant providing different tool offset on cu side. The results of SEM concluded that
the bimetallic SiC micro-particles are non-uniformly distributed within the MMCs for which
further analysis need to be done and the results of Rockwell hardness test shows that the best
joint having rockwell hardness as 93.37HRB. is produced when tool speed is kept as 900rpm ,
tool tilt as 1, tool offset as 0.3mm, and feed rate as 7mm/min. Feed rate is maintained constant
throughout
Keywords: Butt weld; FSW; Tool tilt; Spindle rotation; tool feed; SEM;
Introduction:
FSW is a solid state joining technique which is most widely used these days because of
weld produced being less prone to defect no porosity no further special surface finish operation
and sound weld produced. This technique was invented by TWI in 1991 and have gained so
much popularity from then till now as its capable of joining dissimilar material by plasticizing
material with the help of frictional heat generated by the tool tip. The geometry of the tool used
places a large impact on the HAZ at the plasticized zone. FSW can also be called as one type
of thermomechanical process as it include both heat and mass transfer the extent of both heat
as well as mass transfer are influenced by number of welding parameters such as tool rotation
speed, feed rate, offset, out of all it is observed that type of tool geometry used has high impact
on the material flow Insufficient material flow give rise to no. of defects such as wormhole,
tunnel defect, voids and so on because of all this FSW have gained popularity in aerospace,
industrial sector, etc. FSW is used to join number of dissimilar material like Al-Mg, Al-Cu,
aluminium stainless steel magnesium and its alloys as well . Though number pf experiments
in the FSW of Al-Cu performed successfully still welding of them requires more research
work. Difference in physical and physical property of base metal even in the welding zone
requires optimum welding conditions which result in proper material flow as the insufficiency
of which will lead towards no. of defects making it difficult to achieve sound weld. Formation
of IMC is one of the problem mainly encountered while joining dissimilar materials which
results in reduced joint strength as well as the ductility of the welded material too decreases
in order to tackle those difficulties reinforcement is done number of reinforced particles can
be used TiC and SiC are observed to me most commonly used . In case of Al-Cu composite
type of IMC mostly encountered are CuAl2, CuAl and Cu9Al4[1-2] in order to reduce that SiC
reinforcement is used in the present study. It was observed in previous research that the effect of
welding parameter results in various changes as increase in welding peed decreased grain size
in case of AA7075-AA5083[3] and in some cased tool rotation speed resulted in more residual
when increased as compared to welding speed in case of AA5083-AA5083[4] Hector et al [5]
examined the FSW of dissimilar aluminium alloy can bind with great tensile strength and when
heat treated can find application in spacecraft and structural manufacturing structures of ship,
etc[6,7]. In case where high corrosion resistance as well as strength required as in case of ships
etc two dissimilar al alloys can be joined . FSW is subjected to no. of defects like pin hole ,
tunnel, piping defect etc. due to insufficient material flow [8]. Although some research papers
on FSW of aluminium alloys with other materials [9–12], however, no such attempt was made
in this research to explore the possibility of joining such dissimilar alloys Al6061-Cu10100
with bimetallic micro particles of SiC as reinforcement for which the behavior of composite is
analyzed both mechanical property as well as microstructure. Taking into consideration all the
research work carried till now present study is based on the effect of bimetallic micro-particle
of SiC reinforced in Al-Cu composite using SEM and Hardness test is also performed one
similar work is done by carrying out comparative study of Al-Cu composite with or without
reinforcement based on the tensile strength [13] that work is carried out further in present study.
Experimental details:
The vertical milling machine of xyz is used with proper arrangement in order to hold
pins in the collect and mounting of fixture. Milling cutter with cylindrical threaded pin and
shoulder is used in order to carry out FSW at 900rpm and 1500mm/min feed rate. Figure1
shows FSW setup whereas figure2.
Show arrangement of fixture to hold the sample in place. The tool used is made of HSS
because of high toughness, impact strength and ability to sustain high temperature. The
dimension of both Al6063 - Cu10100 plates were taken 120×20×5 mm3 . Both The specimens
were prepared as per the ASTM standard. The mechanical properties of Al6063 is shown in
table1. And the composition of SiC used as reinforcement is shown in table2. The geometry of
tool used is shown below which is of cylindrical profile is shown in fig.3.
Table 1: mechanical properties of Al-6063
Mn Si Fe Cu Zn Ti Mg Cr Al
Al-6063 0.13 0.5 0.6 0.28 0.20 0.12 0.9 0.30 Rest
Te Pb Zn Fe P Ag As O Sb
Cu-10100 0.0002 0.0005 0.0001 0.0010 0.0003 0.0025 0.0005 0.0004 0.0004
Table 2: composition of SiC

Density(g/ Water Sinter Rockwell Bend Compression
cm3) absorption temperature hardness strength intensity (kgf/
(%) ( ºC) HV) (kgf/mm2) mm2)
3.1 0.3 2150 2100 3950 20000
Methodology & Results

In present study the welding parameters that were taken into consideration was tool
spindle speed, tool tilt where weight percent of SiC as well as tool travel rate in axial direction
is kept constant Al-Cu Composite is shown in table.3.. Tool depth was kept 3.8mm and after
each pass tool is grinded as tool wears faster. Schematic for which is shown in figure.4
Fig 4: Schematic showing tool profile before and after each pass
Welding parameters taken into consideration shown below keeping feed rate as 7mm/min
throughout and wt. % of SiC as 1.
Table 3: Welding parameters as well as Rockwell hardness test results
S. No. Tool speed(rpm) Tool tilt ( ºC ) Tool offset (mm) Rockwell
Hardness(HRB)
1. 900 0 0 72.6
2. 900 1 0.3 93.37
3. 900 2 0.5 88
4. 1500 0 0 66
5. 1500 1 0.3 89
6. 1500 2 0.5 73
Microstructure:
Micro-structure was analyzed using SEM( scanning electron microscopy) which is a
surface imaging method in which electron beam is used to scan the surface. The image produced
by which is shown in figure .5 in which it can be observed that SiC micro-particles are non-
uniformly distributed within the MMCs the pattern of which can be observed by carrying out
further study.
Fig 5: Surface imaging of Al-Cu composite with reinforcement at varying welding

parameters.
3.2 Hardness Test:
Rockwell hardness test was carried out to measure hardness of weld. produced . the
schematic of Rockwell hardness testing machine is shown below in fig.6 as well as the indention
tool which was used to carry out the operation is also shown in fig 7. The result of it is shown
in table 3.
Conclusion:
In the investigation it was observed using SEM that the SiC micro-particles shows
non-uniform distribution and the trend is least effected even by varying different welding
parameters like tool speed, tool tilt, tool offset. The variation of which can be further studied by
investigation which of the welding parameter among all contributes more to the non-uniform
behavior of the reinforcement. From the rockwell hardness test it can be concluded that the
best joint is produced at 900rpm, 1º tool tilt, 0.3mm tool offset towards Cu side and feed rate
as 7mm/min
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An Insight into High Temperature
Tribological Coatings: A Review
Arun Kumara
Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur, Kalyanpur, Uttar Pradesh-208016, India
a
abstract
Various mechanical components in the automotive, aerospace and marine industries
undergo failure due to wear experienced at high temperature operating conditions. Tribology
provides us the methods to minimize the friction using natural or synthetic lubrication. In
recent times, wear resistant coatings have shown good results in reduction of failures due to
wear at room as well as elevated temperatures. This paper discusses surface degradation under
high temperature, various coatings that mitigate the devastating effect of elevated temperature.
It has been concluded that at high temperatures, formation of tribolayer helps in control and
stabilization of friction. Solid lubricants like CaF2 can be doped in conventional coatings to
lower the friction. Moreover, there is need of new smart class materials called adaptive coatings
to overcome limitations of coatings at high temperature.
Keywords: Tribology, Friction, Wear, High-temperature.
Introduction: Tribology and its significance

Tribology deals with the study of interacting surfaces and other tribo-elements in relative
motion in both natural and artificial system. One of the examples of natural system is our human
body which consists of may joints e.g., hip, shoulder, knee, where surfaces are in relative
motion either constantly or intermittently. This phenomenon leads to slow wear of these joints
leading to severe pain and loss of functionality as body age. Friction is the principal cause
behind wear and energy dissipation. Effect of friction can be easily understood by the fact that
on a global scale, an average car consumes 340 liters of fuel annually to get over the friction
costing around 510 euros as per European gas price in 2011. By adopting advanced technique
for friction reduction, friction losses in cars can be reduced up to 61% in long term. This will
result in economic savings of 5,76,000 million euros, 3,85,000 million liters of fuel and 960
million tons of CO2 emission [2]. Tribology indirectly has huge potential in reduction of CO2
emissions globally [3][4].
Tribology, its industrial significance, use of progressive techniques, more industry-
academia collaboration, evolvement of tribology e.g. green, nano, bio-tribology, for the benefit
of mankind has been talked by various researchers [5–15]. As discussed, tribology is vast field
comprising of old as well as new techniques to mitigate the effect of friction and wear in various
applications at room as well as elevated temperature. This paper focuses on effect of high
temperature on surface degradation and performance of various high temperature coatings that
have proven to be beneficial to overcome the losses incurred due to above stated phenomenon.
High Temperature Tribology

Introduction
There are several applications like bearings in the propulsion system of aircraft,
automotive engines, power generation, metal working operations etc. where the interaction
between surfaces occur at elevated temperature [16]. This high temperature is often a result
of either frictional heat or ambient operating conditions. Materials and coatings working in
these systems are often prone to high temperatures. Various studies suggest that actual area
of contact of two surfaces in motion is small as compared to apparent area of contact. In
such situations, combination of friction and high pressure generate high flash temperature and
asperity-asperity contacts can have a vital effect on tribological operations [17]. Wear and
frictional behavior of materials are strongly affected by high temperatures. Because of high
temperatures, coatings and substrates become softer, internal stresses are created and metals
oxidize [18]. Primarily, at elevated temperatures, the change occurs in mechanical, thermo-
physical properties and surface reactivity. There is a huge tendency that a tribo layer might be
formed on material in process, which will affect the performance of material. In addition to this,
high surface temperature results in surface melting, thermoelastic instabilities, degradation of
boundary lubrication films, ignitions of one surface in contact and thermo-mechanical failure
e.g., cracking and warping [19]. Lubricants which are often seen as friction and wear mitigators
have limiting capabilities at high temperatures except for some solid lubricants. In many high-
temperature applications, surfaces in contact depend on the self-lubrication property of bearing
surfaces due to reaction with ambient [20][21].
Effect of High Temperature on Surface Degradation
As mentioned above, metallic materials when subjected to high temperature tribological
conditions, undergo a change in bulk properties, surface reaction and tribo layer formation.
fig.1 shows how the material properties change with temperature. It is observed that yield
strength of metal and alloys decreases at high temperatures. Effect of temperature on surface
kinetics is studied by change in Gibbs free energy (G). G measures compound’s phase stability
at constant pressure. Gibbs free energy of various compound can be represented by Ellingham
diagram (fig. 2). It can be seen that alumina is highly stable as compared to other oxidation
reactions.
Fig. 1: Yield strength of alloys vs temperature [20]
Fig. 2: Ellingham diagram for various metal oxidation reactions [20]

Formation of tribo layers helps in control and stabilization of friction. Tribo layer could be
either a severely damaged layer near the metal’s surface or accumulated wear particles trapped
in the interface.
Tribological Coatings
There is high possibility that bare material may undergo melting or thermo-mechanical
failure under high temperature conditions. So, to sustain material in process, coatings prove
to be beneficial provided they offer low tribological properties in addition to high mechanical
properties. One such study of CrCN coatings at high temperature was performed by Polcar
et. al. [18]. These coatings were deposited on steel substrates and were slid against 100Cr6
bearing steel balls, Si3N4 and Al2O3 balls under a load of 5N and in temperature range of 20-
500°C. Coefficient of friction of CrCN coatings when slid against Si3N4 and Al2O3 balls was
considerably greater and stable up to 500°C. In-situ thermal measurement of sliding contacts
offer challenge and problems associated with it. One such study was carried by Rowe et. al. [17]
where natural rubber samples were tested in reciprocating mode against CaF2 samples under
load range of 100-1000mN and sliding speed from 250-1000 mm/s resulting in temperature
rise of 3-26°C. Temperature rise was compared with various analytical models. Development
of temperature for various loads and speeds is illustrated in fig. 3.
Fig. 3: Isotherm representing nominal contact temperature for various loads and speeds
[17].
In a study by Ouyang et. al. [22] microstructure as well as tribological behavior of ZrO2-
CaF2 composite coating was studied. It was found out that this coating exhibits better frictional
and wear resistance characteristics than yttria stabilized zirconia at elevated temperatures.
Low friction and wear were observed at a temperature of 600-700°C as compared to room
temperature. It can be attributed to CaF2, which behaves like solid lubricant at 600°C. Wear
behavior at room temperature, 400, 600 and 800°C is illustrated in fig. 4. At 400°C brittle
cracking can be seen while at 600°C CaF2 layer got deposited on worn surface. At 800°C local
adhesion is clearly evident.
FiFig. 4: BSE-SEM micrograph of (a) NiCoCrAly (b) CoNiCrAlY Coatings [29]
Zirconia based self-lubricated composites (ZrO2(Y2O3)-BaCrO4) prepared by spark
plasma sintering provides a good option for high temperature tribological operations. At
high temperatures BaCrO4 has self-lubricating nature and therefore it prevents the material
surface by forming a fine-grain layer [23]. Another example of self-lubricated ceramic matrix
composites is CMC/Al2O3 pair (addition of CaF2 and Ag), which exhibit reduction in friction
coefficient of alumina between 200-650°C [24].
To overcome the limitation of coatings failure at high temperature, a new class of smart
material is being developed called adaptive coatings. These coatings adjust their surface
composition whenever there is change in working environment. This reduces the friction
coefficient and wear between the contacting surfaces. Nitride based coatings are one of them
[25][26]. In a similar study carried out by Muratore et. al. [27] adaptive nanocomposite coatings
demonstrated minimal friction through wide range of temperature, wear, humidity and other
environmental conditions. One factor that may have contributed to this success is noble metal
diffusion to the surface of coating, resulting in a minimal shear strength interface at contact.
Although coatings save the bare material and provide better surface properties but are
prone to oxidation when exposed to high temperature conditions. Some of the oxides formed
are lubricious in nature and provide good tribological properties. One such study to observe the
oxidation behavior of TiN and VN coatings at high temperature range of 25-700°C was carried
out by Fateh et. al. [28]. TiN coating exhibited minor changes in friction coefficient while VN
coating exhibited a decrease in coefficient of friction above 400°C as shown in fig. 5. This can
be attributed to Magneli phases of vanadium oxide at 500°C.
Fig. 5: Optical micrograph of (a) NiCoCrAly (b) CoNiCrAlY Coatings [29].

Another type of coatings widely used in aviation and power sector components is thermal
barrier coatings of MCrAlY alloys (M= Ni, Co, Fe). Advantage of these coatings is that they
improve the tribological performance of coated components at elevated temperatures. Pereira
et. al. [29] in its study demonstrated NiCoCrAlY and CoNiCrAlY coatings on stainless steel
substrate, slid against Al2O3 balls at 500°C (fig. 6 and fig. 7). Low wear at this temperature
was evident. In case of NiCoCrAlY coating, there is reduction of friction coefficient at high
temperature while the reversal happens with CoNiCrAlY as shown in fig. 8. Analyzing the
wear tracks, it can be concluded that oxidized particles in contact with wear tracks generated
adhesion and abrasion (fig. 9).
Fig. 6: Coefficient of friction vs sliding distance (a) NiCoCrAly (b) CoNiCrAlY Coatings
[29]
Fig. 7: SEM micrograph of (a) NiCoCrAlY at RT (b) NiCoCrAlY at HT (c) CoNiCrAlY

at RT (d) CoNiCrAlY at HT (RT- room temperature HT- high temperature) [29]
Fig. 8: Wear track of CrAlN coating slid against steel balls at 500°C [30].
Fig. 9:Friction coefficient vs temperature when slid against alumina balls [30]
Fig. 10: Variation of wear rate with temperature (inset shows max. depth of wear track
vs temperature [30]
On WC substrate, coatings obtained by varying Cr/Al ratio in CrAlN (CrAlSiN and
AlCrSiN respectively) were deposited. Si content was taken as approx. 3%. Counter surfaces
chosen for tribological test were alumina and 440C steel in temperature range of 25-800°C.
All coatings were thermally stable and oxidation-resistant up to 800°C. Post tribology analysis
revealed the transfer of ball material on coating; however, coating was not at all damaged. Wear
track was similar for all three coatings and was wide as shown in fig. 10. Friction was observed
to be higher in temperature range of 100-400°C, the decreased at 500°C (fig. 11). When slid
against alumina balls CrAlSiN coating showed traces of wear at 400°C. Adhesive failure led to
wear of CrAlN and AlCrSiN coatings just above 600°C (fig. 12) [30].
Lubricants combined with high performing coatings at high temperatures offer superior
tribological properties e.g inorganic polymers such as Borax, silicate and polyphosphate
additives [21].
Conclusions
This paper has tried to review some of the research going into high temperature tribology.
Phenomenon of change of surface properties at high temperature, tribological improvements
by introducing wear resistant coatings at elevated temperature has been discussed. Based on the
review it has been concluded that at high temperatures, formation of tribolayer helps in control
and stabilization of friction. Solid lubricants like CaF2 can be doped in conventional coatings
to lower the friction. Moreover, to overcome the failure of coatings at elevated temperature, a
new class of smart materials called adaptive coatings need to be more explored.
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A reVIew on TenSILe AnD wATer
AbSorPTIon ProPerTIeS of borASSUS
FRUIT FIBRE-REINFORCED POlYMER
COMPOSITES
Saigeeta Priyadarshinia,*, Nadeem Alamb, Lavish Kumar Singhc
Assistant Professor, Sharda University, Greater Noida, India
a
b
Research Scholar, Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi
*Corresponding author: Email id: saigeeta.priyadarshini@sharda.ac.in
abstract
The developing performance of natural fibre composites in various engineering
applications attracts the researchers in emerging composites by using some unique natural
fibres. The Asian palm commonly known as palmyra palm or Borassus flabellifer is having
multiple applications in urban and rural areas. Starting from its fruits to leaves and leaf stalks
are used in many domestic and commercial purposes. Besides, disposed waste and fruit fibres
after removal of pulp has major application in natural fibre industries. This waste fruit fibre is
an effective natural fibre source that can be recycled as a raw material in reinforced polymer
composites. Present study reveals a comprehensive review on Borassus fruit fibres, and its
composites with their mechanical and chemical characterization.
Keywords: polymer composite; Borassus flabellifer; palmyra palm; natural fibre
composite
Introduction
In this scenario, polymer composites are preferred over conventional materials in
several industries including automobile industries (car bodies), aeronautic, and naval (ships
and boats), field of construction (buildings and bridges), and in the biomedical fields [1]. The
light weight, recyclability, higher fracture toughness, high specific strength, good resistance
to various environmental conditions, and ease of fabrication are the properties that distinguish
polymer composite materials and attract researchers [2]. Usually, composites comprise of two
phases, one continuous phase known as matrix with one or more discontinuous phase called as
reinforcement. The former phase keeps the reinforcement in place and support them, whereas,
the later phase withstands maximum load and imparts the desirable properties [3]. The fibres in
polymer composites can be either synthetic or natural type. However, assuming the numerous
technical and ecological benefits such as bio-degradability, renewability, low-cost and low-
toxicity, the researchers have turned their focus on the usage and development of natural fibres
as a reinforcing material in polymer composites. Plant fibres have been used as a renewable
source for centuries that can be obtained from various natural resources having distinct
properties and characterization [4, 5]. Many research has already been carried out on various
natural fibres which includes sugarcane, hemp, bamboo, sisal, wood, wheat, flax, jute, and
barely. Borassus flabellifer, is also familiar as palmyra palm, tala or Tal, ice apple or wine palm,
found especially in tropical regions of South Asia, Africa, and New Guinea. Palmyra palms
are among the most significant trees accompanying with human necessities, with significant
commercial and societal value. Each part starting from the trunk to fruit of this palm trees
is used for numerous applications [6, 7]. Borassus fruit-fibres are inexpensive, eco-friendly
and abundantly available. In this review paper the authors have discussed the mechanical and
chemical properties of Borassus fruit-fibre reinforced polymer composites in order to explore
the possibility of use of the aforementioned fibre in the technological world.
Fabrication of Borassus flabellifer Fibre Reinforced Polymer Composites

2.1. Fibre Extraction
Although fibres can be extracted from fruits, leaf stalk and petiole of the Borassus, or
Palmyra palm, the current paper reviews the fibres extracted from the ripe palmyra palm fruits
and their mechanical and chemical characterization. Fruit pulp contains both the juice and the
pulp, which is the stringy fibre and is often removed from fruit juice as a waste [6, 8]. Borassus
flabellifer fine fibres can be extracted in the three subsequent steps; the fruits are first split
and submerged in water for a time period to unscrew the flaccid percentage of the fruit fibres.
Second, after taking the fruits out of water, the unscrewed flaccid portion are removed from
the fibres and cleaned thoroughly with normal water followed by distilled water so that the
remaining greasy materials are removed from the fibres. Finally, the fine fibres are dried under
sunlight for a period of time, followed by oven heating at 50 ºC to 110 ºC for one to five hours
to eliminate the moisture from the fruit fibres [6, 9]. Figure 1 depicts Borassus flabellifer tree,
fruits, fruit raw fine fibres, and fruit raw coarse fibres respectively in figure 1 (a), (b), (c), (d),
and (e).
Fig. 1. (a) Borassus tree, (b) Borassus fruits, (c) fruit with fibre, seed, and pulp (d) Fruit
Coarse and (e) fine fibres [8].
2.2. Chemical Treatment of Fibres
Alkaline treatment of fibres broadly aids in overcoming hydroxyl bonding, resulting in
improved fibre-matrix bonding and separation of surface contaminants from the fibre. It has
been reported that the extracted fibres from the Borassus fruits are treated at 5 to 15% of
NaOH solution for 0.5 to 12 hours. Following that, the fibres are cleaned with regular water,
neutralised with dilute HCl acid, and then rinsed with distilled water to eliminate excess HCl.
The final process to eradicate the moisture from Borassus fruit fibres is carried out in two steps:
first, by drying the fibres at room temperature for 24 hours and then, by drying at 50 ºC to 105
ºC in an oven [9-11]. Kini et al. [9] concluded that as the period of the alkalization was raised,
the diameter of the tamarind fruit fibres and Borassus fruit fine fibres lowered. The alkalization
process causes an upsurge in the density of the fibres. Further, it was reported that tamarind
fruit fibres and borassus fruit fine fibres had the maximum tensile strength after 2 hours of
treatment.
2.3. Composite Fabrication
Several methods have been proposed by various researchers to fabricate the polymer
composites. However, hand-layup has been the most preferred and widely used fabrication
method. Therefore, in this paper only those are focused on the consolidation work done on
the composites in which the Borassus fruit fibres are considered as reinforcement material and
epoxy resin (LY 556) is considered as matrix material with the hardener (HY 951) [10].
Characterization of Borassus flabellifer Fibre Reinforced Polymer

Composites
3.1. Mechanical Characterization
Natural fibre composites’ performance and mechanical strength are affected by fibre
strength, fibre concentration, fibre length, fibre treatment, fibre-matrix attachment, and fibre
orientation. The mechanical behaviour of epoxy with borassus fruit fibre composites are
reported to increase with increasing fibre content up to 16 wt. % as fibres operate as a stress
transferring agent for the epoxy matrix; although, once the fibre loading exceeds 16 wt. %
until 70 wt. %, the quantity of epoxy becomes inadequate to dissipate well into the borassus
fibre, causing a drop in the composites’ tensile properties. Further, it was determined that the
decreasing tendency in the mechanical properties of the composites occur as Borassus fibre
loading increases, however, at the composition of 16 wt. % Borassus fibre by weight, the
tensile strength differs according to the type of alkali treatment done on the fibres and also
for the duration kept in the alkali treatment medium as in Fig. 2 [12, 13]. The observation
has been seen that the tensile strength was 70.8 MPa for untreated fibre composites and the
strength remarkably increased to 121.3 MPa when alkali treatment was done for 8 hrs at 5%
concentration [14] due to change in fibre structure. After 8hrs, the strength gradually decreased
to 101.8 MPa with increase in the duration of treatment till 12 hrs due to cellulose deterioration.
Fig. 2. [12] Tensile properties (strength and modulus) of treatable and chemically
treated borassus fibre-epoxy composites.
Furthermore, one more factor has been observed which also contributes in augmenting the
mechanical strength of the composites is the percentage of alkali treatment. According to the
findings of Boopathi et al. [15], the diameters of the fibres were decreasing as the percentage
of alkali treatment increased, that attributable to the fact that the alkali treatment removed
impurities from the fibre surface. They found that the 5-percentage alkali treated fibres
possessed higher tensile strength (175.52 MPa) due to extraction of impurities than that of raw
fibres tensile strength (117.94 MPa). Furthermore, when the percentage of alkali treatment
increases till 10%, a continuous damage in fibre observed which results in decrease in tensile
strength as in Fig. 2
Fig.3 [15] Tensile strength at different percentage of Alkali treatment
3.2. Chemical Characterization

Water absorption properties of composites refers to the quantity of water absorbed by the
composites under specific conditions. Water absorption proportion in palm fibre composites
generally increase with fibre loading because of the hydrophilicity nature of fibre [16]. After
immersion the composite samples in water under specific conditions for a certain duration, the
following formula is used to determine the percentage (%) of water absorption (W) of alkali-
treated and untreated composite/fibres [16].
Final weight – Initial Weight

W (%) = × 100
Initial Weight
It has been reported that palm fibres and their composites exhibited noble moisture
resistance after alkali treatment by absorbing fewer moisture than untreated fibres [17, and
18]. Also, it is observed that the lowest water absorption occurs when the composite specimens
are treated with 8% NaOH [12]. According to Kumar et al. [19] increasing fibre weight ratio
steadily rises the water absorption, where the percentage of water absorbed rises with soaking
time until it reaches saturation, at which point the rate of water sorption becomes constant.
Further, they concluded that the composites reinforced with 20 wt.% and 5 wt.% borassus fibre
exhibited the highest and lowest water absorption.
Conclusion
This review has highlighted the tensile strength and characteristics of water absorption of
borassus fruit fibre reinforced composites. In current era, when the application of natural fibre
composites are tremendously increasing, and attracts the researchers attention owing to their
low density, low cost, affluence and good mechanical properties. In spite of all these qualities,
it limits their application in various industries due to their hydrophilicity or low moisture
resistance. To overcome the above-mentioned drawback, researchers have been attempted to
modify the fibre surface using physical and chemical methods. Among the numerous chemical
treatments, alkali treatment appears to be the most cost-effective and efficient approach to
enhance moisture resistance and improving the mechanical properties, especially the tensile
strength of the borassus fruit fibre reinforced composites.
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INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING
A review on types, manufacturing
methods and applications of FGM
Praveen Kumar, Satish Sharma, Ratnesh kumar, Raj Singh
Thapar Institute of Engineering Patiala, Punjab
abstract
Owing to its graded function and agglomeration of contradictory properties over its
structure, functional graded materials (FGMs) are considered as the second generation of
advanced composite materials. FGMs are designed for optimizing the performance capability
and surviving in harsh working environment without failure and without losing their properties.
In this article, a comprehensive review providing the information like classification of FGMs,
all types of manufacturing methods for different types of FGMs citing merits and limitations
of each, and recent status about industry specific application of FGMs on single platform is
presented. Furthermore, key challenges and future scopes of FGM area to provide insight into
future research directions are also discussed.
Keywords: FGM, gradation, advanced manufacturing, functional materials, metal-metal,
metal-ceramic, polymer-ceramic
Introduction
Today’s manufacturing scenario is competitive and customers orientated. Therefore, a
manufacturing industry requires flexibility and cost savings by staying innovative to attain
the business growth. The continuous breakthroughs in science and technology, proposes
new applications for which current materials are not suitable, hence the need for new and
advanced material arises. Also, rise in prices of present materials and demand for sustainable
manufacturing methods puts a pressure on the metallurgists to develop new materials and
methods which are economic and environmentally friendly.
Over the past few decades, various materials have been developed for fulfilling the
demand of every segment of society as well as technically advanced industries. In this sequence,
metallurgists first tried with strengthening mechanisms for metals and alloys to further
improve their properties. After this, composite materials were the new generation of promising
materials. For example rubber was initially used for making decorative items and sandals [1].
While, reinforcing of rubber has tailored its properties such that composite rubber has been
successfully used for a number of strength showing products such as V-belts, hoses, tire treads,
seals, and complex shaped mechanical goods [2-5]. Applications requiring agglomeration of
contradictory properties are increasing day by day, especially in areas associated with extreme
working conditions such as aerospace, bio implants, nuclear plants etc[6-12]. This gap is filled
with the development of FGMs were (initially proposed as functionally gradient materials).
Composite materials with gradient interface are known as FGMs. Figure 1 depicts the idea
about different types of gradation while producing the FGM structures.
Figure 1. Different types of FGM structures [4]

Therefore, while reviewing the literature related to FGMs and manufacturing methods,
authors feel the need of a comprehensive review which can provide the information like
classification of history timelines, FGMs, all types of manufacturing methods for different
types of FGMs citing merits and limitations of each, Furthermore, this paper also presents the
key challenges and future scopes of FGM area to provide insight into future research directions.
History and development timeline of FGM

In 1984, Japanese physicists encountered a problem that required a composite material
that could to withstand very high temperatures for a spacecraft project [13]. To solve this
problem, a new gradient material was invented [14]. Initially, FGMs were developed for thermal
barrier coatings [13], but effort were continuously made for developing high thermal resistant
materials with graded properties. In late 1980s, as FGM was a newly evolved area, therefore,
development of information about its synthesis, fabrication, characterization, properties and
behavior under different conditions of working environment in form of a database was the
first priority. Therefore, countries like Japan and Germany invested a lot in research and
development of architecture for design, processing and evaluation of FGMs. In 1987, a five-
year research program entitled “fundamental study of thermal stress on high temperature
materials by tailoring of graded structures” had started. The objectives of this program was to
develop high shielding materials for future space projects [14]. Country like Germany which
have started the formulated research on FGM area have carried out their research projects work
into four categories as melt processing techniques for FGM, sintering technologies, coating and
thermo-mechanical modeling, and different categories of functional materials [15].
In order to boost research on various aspects of FGM, an international symposium to
share the development progress and its new trends on these materials was planned for every
two years. The first international symposium on FGM held in Sendai, Japan in year 1990 as its
name was conceived as functionally gradient materials. However, in 1994 at third international
symposium held at Lausanne (Switzerland) the name of FGM was changed from functionally
gradient materials to FGMs because later one had seemed more accurate, both descriptively and
grammatically [22]. Researchers are carrying out investigations on developing the new types of
FGMs for different areas of application. After its first application in aerospace, development on
FGM has gone through a number of stages in last few decades [15] .
Development methods for FGM

There are many types of manufacturing methods available for the fabrication of FGMs
depending upon the requirement of design, function and properties in the structure. In broad,
FGM manufacturing methods can be categorised into mainly two categories, first category is
conventional manufacturing methods and second category is advanced manufacturing methods.
Figure 2summarize the classification of manufacturing methods for FGM.
Future scope and challenges
4.1 New additions for FGM
In order to satisfy the industry needs, new FGM materials have to be continuously
developed. In past some studies have been done for the development of new materials. However,
these studies are limited; therefore, more research is required for developing new combinations
for FGM materials in near future. It can only be possible by testing different types of material
combinations, varying different gradient properties or by controlling deposition strategies.
4.2 CAD Modellings of FGM

FGM gradation is one of the challenging steps in the production of FGM. This process
needs to be improved by using computer assisted modeling. The main benefit of computer
assisted modeling will be forecasting the gradation properties in advance and with this
development the required calculations for desired combination of materials and properties
would be done in advance.
4.3 Optimization of process planning

Process planning and deposition strategy is another important aspect need to be focused
in AM techniques for FGM. An effective process plan helps in reducing the production time,
lesser wastage of material and saves lots of money. Process planning goes through mainly three
stages i.e., spatial decomposition, slicing of the part, and tool path generation for every slicing
layer.
Conclusion
With recent developments in materials and manufacturing techniques, FGM is the current
need in high-end applications. The various aspects of FGM, starting from introduction to FGM
and its types, through its manufacturing techniques, material combinations, and applications
in different industries to development phases from its inception needs to be addressed in near
future.
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[15] ; Available from: https://gradedmaterials2020.engr.uconn.edu/history/#
g
Shailendra Shisode1,*,Vaibhav V. Kulkarni1, Nilesh Dhokane1,

1
School of Mechanical Engineering and Technology, Dr. Vishwanath Karad MIT World Peace
University, Pune-411038.
abstract
Lean manufacturing was developed to maximize profit to reduce waste generation and
effective resource utilization. Toyota Production System was the pioneer in complying with
this ideology of production. Due to rapid changes, increasing complexities and competition
industries must develop an ability to respond to these changes and increase the value of the
product. There remains a gab among industries like Toyota and SME’s, especially in a diverse
land like India. Lean elements work best when customized to the local needs and better
understanding and awareness particularly among the workers. It can be difficult as the soul of
the lean elements gets lost in translation and what remains is merely just a procedure to punch
in. The level of value-added to a product can be identified by value stream mapping for better
understanding and management. This and other concepts of lean manufacturing are crucial in
today’s scenario for industries to succeed, especially SMEs in India. Where still majority if
SMEs are yet to transform to lean manufacturing standards or hesitate to change. The major
work focuses on three factors of lean element, less elements focus on more than one aspect of
lean elements, but for the implementation of lean the firm had to emphasis on all the aspects
such as Value Stream Mapping (VSM), Line Balancing, Andon, Layout Optimization, Gemba,
Kanban, Kaizen, Inventory control, Single Minute Exchange of Dies (SMED), 5S, Pull System,
Poka-Yoke etc., This work has been done to Validate and justify the transformation from mass
production to lean production for SME from a case study of a SME in India. Analyses and
results of the industry survey prior and post to implementation are collected to illustrate the
importance of lean elements in an unstable and competitive business environment and to reduce
the defects.
Keywords: Value Stream Mapping, 5S + Safety, Kaizen, Layout Optimization, SMEs,
Takt Time, Line balance
Introduction
There are numerous Interpretations of Lean Manufacturing. Continuous elimination of
all waste resulting in a system of value-added activity is one of them. Lean manufacturing
influences economical performance through enhancing organizational processes, cost
efficiencies [1]. To eliminate this waste various ideas were tested and trends followed which are
now widely known as lean tools. which now is a common interpretation of lean manufacturing.
In the translation from Toyota to Lean thinking and its application in the actual place, often the
tools are bluntly picked, and the transformation is started. Which defy the fundamentals of the
idea of eliminating waste as the tools are not tailored according to the needs but just a punch in
procedure to follow it loses its effectiveness.
Three types of waste: non-value-adding work (Muda), unevenness (MURA), overburden
(muri) to expose the problem systematically and reach its roots. Whereas the tools are merely a
workaround adapted in different situations and need to be altered every now and then.
This work is explaining the effective implementation of lean manufacturing tools and
techniques in the sheet metal operation plant. To develop a sound proposition customized to
SMEs in India which till date are operational on mass production methods a detailed study is a
must. Mass production methods at the plant create a lot of waste and it becomes difficult to put
a finger on what caused them.
Lean manufacturing represents a multifaceted concept that may be grouped together as
distinct bundles of organizational practices [2]. Autonomation gives rise to practices pertaining
to visual control, mistake proofing and housekeeping (‘‘5S’’-sort, straighten, sweep, standardize,
and self-discipline), while JIT drives changeover reduction [3]Muda, Value Stream Mapping
(VSM) which defines value stream as “Each and every activity including Value-Added activity
(VA) and Non-Value-Added activity (NVA) required to convert the raw material into finished
product through the mapping of process and information flows essential to every product”
[4]. Cellular Manufacturing defines the facility grouping in order to produce the product with
minimum process time, waiting time, and transportation by smoothening the process flow.
Further fluctuating line flow is improved by line balancing concept,Kanban is Material Flow
Control mechanism (MFC) that delivers the right quantity of parts at right time [5]. One-piece
flowensure just-in-time production system in order to adopt a straightforward schedule without
interruption, backflow or scrap, relaxing the Takt time and decreasing the risk of machine
failures and operator mistakes [6]. It provides standardized operations to eliminate waste using
simple housekeeping practices. The process in divided into 6 sections as the name 6S suggests.
These are Seiri (sort) Seiton (Straighten) Seiso (Shine) Seiketsu (Standardize) Shitsuke
(Sustain) [7-10] Safety [11]. Kaizen. The word kaizen is a compound word that involves two
concepts, Kai (change) and Zen (good) for better
Most of the study shows a few lean elements but not others. It should be known that to
achieve successful implementation of lean tools and be able to eliminate waste, multiple lean
elements need to be applied. Few other lean elements like Poka-Yoke, Push and Pull System,
Single Minute Exchange of Dies (SMED)/One-Touch Exchange of Die (OTED). Every Part
Every Interval (EPEI,) Production Levelling, Employee perceptions, Andon, Total Productive
Maintenance (TPM), Gemba (The Real Place), Visual Factory, Root cause analysis, etc. are not
a part of the discussion but are essential and utilized from time to time.
Materials and Methodology

The research content mentioned was taken into consideration while attempting to convert
a mass production manufacturing plant to a lean principle-based one. In process of developing
a future state Value stream map and the plant layout from current state tools like 5S, just in
time, etc. from the lean production system were used. The actual work that takes place in the
transformation is documented in form of kaizen templates to provide a better understanding.
Usage of anyone among the five tools such as 5S, Overall Equipment Effectiveness, 8 Step
Problem Solving Methodology, Pareto analysis, elimination of waste has a positive effect on
the productivity of the automobile industries [12]. On this basis, we choose to develop the new
system using 6S work methods and principles.
Experimentation
3.1 Current
Data about organisational chart, define current procedures (end-to-end), Map processes
against organisational chart, is collected to navigate easily. Data regarding Layout, Product
manufactured, Processes carried out, Process flow chart, History of defects and issues faced
by the firm is also documented in the process of identifying critical parts to the process. From
the data collected multiple processes are creating chaos in the plant and which is causing a lot
of waste in terms of time, resources, parts being missing, processes left out or not completed,
non-standard results, variations, and low quality. Issues faced by the firm are overlooked and
quick fixes are applied at places but the root cause of these issues in not explored leading
to a tremendous loss in quality of the product as well causing losses and costing the firm its
reputation and connections that it has built up for a long time. We employ multiple Lean tools
to carry out the study. To keep things simple and short, multiple tools are used in the experiment
but only the ones prominent and critical to the transformation process are discussed. The tools
used for the study are Data Points: Value stream mapping, Muda, Time Study, Takt time, Line
Balance Efficiency.
Earlier the production of sheet metal parts was done at various locations and it was
difficult to keep the track of products at different stages. The welding process happened at
three different stations and involved inventories in between each one of them. This increased
the inventory time and also the lead time. Loading and unloading locations were the same
causing hindrances in the process by making the location crowded. There was an inventor at
end of each stage and the product at different stages just waiting for the next process. As the
plant manufactures multiple parts for different assemblies the inventory was much higher. The
work content of operators was not balanced as the line wasn’t balanced. The delays due to
mismanagement of inventory raised a lot of issues. The worker had to do more work other than
the processing because the transport of products was manual and required manpower.
Identification of waste is the first step towards eliminating it. No process can be 100%
waste-free, there always is a scope for improvement. The Issues addressed in the case study
during the transformation were Defects, Transportation, Motion, Waiting, Non-Utilized Talent.
The plant working on mass production principles had lack of properly designed process
involving a lot of transport of product within the plant to get to the next process. Due to a
lack of standard procedure, workers had to make a motion to get the product to the next stage.
Multiple processes without standardized and integrated product flow happening on multiple
products made it develop a continuous product flow causing delays in the operation of the
product, excessive transport and keeping other stations waiting. So, we based the time study on
operation time as well as transport time, delay in operation on the product already arrived and
waiting time for the product to arrive at the station.
Fig.1. The layout of the plant in the current state
Workers not trained and skilled to identify the defects occurring repetitively in the early
stage of production cost the plant as the defects would be identified at the end of production
or sometimes when the product is rejected by the customer. All this costs industry its material,
time, money, energy, inventory, trust, and reputation. Also making it difficult to reach the target
production with good quality
Time Study Analysis
The operation times for various operations in the plant are noted individually to get better
data and find the cycle time of the product. It is also needed for line balancing. The time details
of operators from Blinker, Headlamp, Upper Bracket, Lower Bracket, left half sub-assembly,
right half sub-assembly and fairing main assembly line was collected and are shown in the
tables.
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
(e) (f)
Fig. 2. (a) Elemental time for individual stations in (a) Blinker LH and RH subassembly
section, (b) Main assembly welding section, (c) Wash round subassembly section, (d)
Washer notched self-assembly section, (e) Upper bracket LH and RH subassembly, and
(f) Lower bracket LH and RH subassembly.
Takt Time is the ratio of available production time to the customer demand. The importance
of measuring Takt time due to the costs and inefficiency factors in producing ahead of demand
includes Storage and retrieval of finished goods, Premature purchasing of raw materials,
Premature spending on wages, the cost of missed opportunities to produce other goods, Capital
costs for excess capacity. [13]
Available production time = 2 shifts = 27000 secs
Customer demand = 800 fearing assemblies
Takt time =27000/800
= 34 secs
Details from time study data are collected and analysed:
Total work content for the assembly is = 249 sec
Cycle time for entire assembly is = 40 secs
Number of stations = 14
Line balance efficiency = Total work content / (No of station* Cycle time of stations) *
100
= 249 / (14*40) *100
= 44.4% efficient
Thus, the current system has a 55.5% delay in processes. It can be reduced by making the
processes more efficient.
3.2 Implementation
Improving a system involves 2 aspects. One is to improve the processes occurring on
the product and another is the improve the flow of product throughout these processes i.e.,
value stream improvement. Both are essential to developing an effective transformation
towards productive and efficient manufacturing. The processes have actual working time as
well as delays caused due to various wastes which is difficult to pinpoint. Using 6S a method to
organize the workplace for better visual as well as the working environment we have achieved
a reduction in delays in processes. It makes identifying and eliminating wastes a much faster
process. The lead time is much more while the actual processing tie for the product is very
less. It also helps to identify the inventory status and measures are taken to reduce inventory
time. The material flow issues are addressed by developing a better unidirectional material flow
layout and line balancing the stations to reduce inventory and waiting time.
3.3 6S
Once the wastes are identified, it is time to eliminate them. During the implementation
there are multiple opportunities to improve, to do it in a systematic manner we use Kaizen
(continuous development). It provides systematic data regarding the problem faced, the root
cause of problem, Ideas to solve the problem or lean tool used to solve the problem, benefits of
implementing the solution and finally the improvement observed after the implementation of
solution. We share the implementation done in form of kaizen.
3.31 6S for Scrap material
Fig. 3. 6S for scrap materials

3.32 6S for Die Management
Fig. 4. 6S for Die Management
3.33 6S for Material Handling
Fig. 5. 6S for Material Handling
3.3.3.1 Industry Safety and Ergonomics
Fig. 6. Industry Safety and Ergonomics

3.3.4 Layout Optimization
The modifications in the current layout of the plant were done to improve the product flow
and make it more continuous and avoid unnecessary transport. The stations and sub stations,
machineries were moved to new locations to facilitate a one directional flow of the product.
This also prevents material mix-up. It has become easier to identify material at different stages
of processing. Integrating line balancing and moving sub stations to more effective locations
has made great impact on delays as massive amount of transport is eliminated.
Fig. 9. Final Layout of the plant
3.3.5 Line Balancing
The operation, inventories and the delays were noted in the time study and now it was
time to reduce them by modifying the process. The non-value adding time spent by product
in the inventory was pointed out in the value stream map of current state and measures were
taken to reduce it. Using the concept of Just in Time we optimized the workflow to adapt better
substation cycle time and reduced inventory. Avoiding inventory racks, we brought trolleys in
the picture. It provides better material handling Instead of storing the product after every stag
into the inventory and waiting for the shift to change. The product was circulated to the next
stage at an interval that filled the trolly. This not only reduced the inventory space required but
also minimized the non-value-added time. It also helps to develop an ordered flow for product
and keeps the workplace clean and safe.
Fig. 10. Final value stream map

Welding stations 1, 2, 3 were clubbed together to work alongside using just in time method
to eliminate the inventory. This was made easy using the trolleys for transport of material from
one substation to other. Due to improvement in processes, the process time has also reduced.
Lead time is reduced tremendously. The results of these can be seen in the final value stream
map of the plant
Results and discussion

Achievements like less delay, less customer complaints, better work environment, easy
to keep track of material, no material mix-up, standard protocols and checklists, moral boost,
less cost, more profit made it possible to reduce the defects and establish a standard protocol
to ensure better functioning. Single piece flow for production of sheet metal parts has been
established. The non-value added inventory between the machines were eliminated prompt
response to the customer’s demand to supply frequently in small lots as lead time was reduces.
Change in layout reduced material mix-up and improved transport with trolly. Better line
balance was achieved. Defects were reduced productivity increases and safety was improved.
Table. 1. Reduction In defects for upcoming month was 70% reduction in defects.
DESCRIPTION NO. OF ACTIVITIES RESULT

PRODUCTIVITY 17 71% reduction in cycle time
QUALITY 11 70% decrease in defects
COST 1 Less defects, Less rework
DELIVERY 4 Just in time delivery
SAFETY 7 Zero Accidents
MORALE 16 Increase in Suggestions
The Cycle time before was 40 seconds whereas now it has reduced to 28 secs and the line
balance efficiency was 44.4% which is improved to 77 % by reduction in delays.
Conclusion
There are many tools in lean production system. The best suited for SMEs in India are 6S,
Kaizen, Just in time. Once a firm is established under these principles further improvement can
be done to eliminate time loss in the processes and reduction of inventory. These improvements
are facilitated by doing value stream mapping of current scenario and projecting a future state
value stream map. The limitation of this paper is that the case study is related to sheet metal
operations assembly. When the production type changes from sheet metal to other form of
manufacturing the entire process of optimizing the work and bringing it in line with lean
principles must be done again. It is very difficult for a firm to sustain in the competitive market
of today. It is possible to reduce cost and in turn gain profit and can be done by eliminating
wastes using lean tools from time to time. Improving repetitively and continuously is the key.
As lean production system is not a state but a process
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1727 – 1734
Lean guidelines for effectiveness of
Indian Automobile Industries
Pooja Rania, Ashwani Kumar Dhingrab, Abhishek Bhattacharyac, Bhim Singhd
, Department of Mechanical Engineering, UIET MDU Rohtak,India
a b
, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Sharda University, Greater Noida, India

c d
abstract
The automobile sector is becoming the backbone of Indian economy. It plays an
essential role in enhancing the development of the Indian economy world-wide. The growth
in automobile sectors leads a positive impact on overall development of economic growth.
Lean manufacturing is a philosophy which when applied in a systematic way can definitely
increase the profit of the organisation. Lean manufacturing focuses on minimizing the waste
and simplifying the process without affecting the productivity. Waste doesn’t mean rejection.
Waste in production means the activities which do not add any value to the customer. In simple
words reducing the non-value added activities and increasing the profit by simplifying the
process and creating a smooth flow process is Lean manufacturing (LM). The value of product
is considered effective if margin of profit is more on that. As we know the price of the product
is market driven so profit can be maximized only by minimizing the manufacturing cost. So it
is important to minimize the waste activities. LM focused on identifying the waste and finding
the solutions to eliminate them. So it is important for an organization to deeply understand the
LM system and focus on improving the working environment. This study explains the roadmap
that should be exercised by the organization before implementation of LM. After through study
of identified reasons of minimal usage of lean tools in MSMEs, suitable measures have been
proposed to solve these problems. This paper will be a useful tool for the practitioners working
in all type of industries to estimate the level of leanness in their organizations and give an
insight to reduce non value added activities in order to improve its overall effectiveness.
Keywords: Indian Economy, lean manufacturing (LM), lean tools, MSMEs, Leanness.
Introduction
Automotive sector is the one of the biggest industrial sector in India where all domestic
and global players are struggling to create new customers by improving their products in terms
of its aesthetics, quality, effectiveness, variety and cost. The high grade quality, effectiveness,
variety with low cost are the important parameters for the customers, which they consider
to evaluate value of their money. This leads to a great challenge for a specific industry to
accomplish their demands with minimum input of resources and requires a strategic planning
to reduce cost effectively without compromising the quality. In current scenario, automobile
industries are facing unique challenges such as over-capacity, globalization, sustainability,
urbanization and attractive talent. Based on the formulation and implementation of new strategy,
the industries can lead the challenges to achieve the grand success. Automobile industries are
growing around 14 -17 % per year (Sharma and Kodali, 2008). In order to compare the growth
rate of Indian automotive manufacturing organization with neighbouring countries is about 5%
which is very low from China (7.31%), Singapore (9.45%) and Pakistan (8.65%) (Upadhye et
al 2010). So an extensive pressure is being faced by the Indian industries to provide low cost
vehicles with improved quality. This paper focus the technique to gain the customer’s demand
by implementing the lean strategy in automobile industry. This strategy provides advantages
to raise the productivity by reducing the inventory levels and the lead time with high quality
product sustainability. Products with low cost and improved quality are being manufactured by
using the concept of lean tools.
Review of Literature
Globalization has thrown the Indian industries into a competition against MNCs which is
a big threat for Indian economy now. To stand in this competitive market it is desired to have
a big revolution in manufacturing field where the ongoing processes should be analyzed again
and again and creating a continuous improvement environment. In the current study, automobile
industry is taken as one of the prime manufacturing industries across globe. Different research
paper has been scrutinized to get the idea of the presented study. A lot of research has been done
on Lean management, lean tools and its benefits to industries. Different barriers in the lean
implementation is also Some of the researches in lean field is explained in table 1:
Table 2.1 Research in Lean
Author Findings Tool used

S. Krishna Priya et.al Drastic reduction of non-value • D M A I C ( D e f i n e - M e a s u r e -
(2020) added process and defects has Analyse-Improve-Control) and
been found • RCA (Root Cause analysis)
J. Azevedo et.al Different possibilities of • Lean Philosophy
(2019) minimizing the waste on a
production process was studied
and 10.9% saving was gained.
G. F. L. Pinto et.al 11% setup time was reduced by • The Single Minute Exchange of
(2019) SMED. Moreover, more than Die (SMED),
90% OEE has been achieved. • 5S
• Overall Equipment effectiveness
(OEE) were applied
Bhim Singh et.al The scope of lean system •
Factor analysis of numbers of
(2016) in Indian Industry has been lean implementation issues
discussed and 26 lean issues were
reduced into five categories.
Zélio Geraldo dos Correlation between Lean • Lean Philosophy
Santos et. al (2015) implementation and Ergonomics
has been analyzed for the safety
for its employee.
B.Suresh Kumar Minimized the time of tool •
The Single Minute Exchange
& S. Syath change over from 40 - 12 mins in of Die (SMED) technique was
Abuthakeer(2012) Fagor Press and even amplified introduced
the production rate from 92200
pieces to 98080 pieces
M. Eswaramoorthi A prominent alignment of lean • 36 lean tools were applied
et. al(2011) tools in Indian Machine Tool
Industries has been discussed
and it was found that 31.6% of
the companies are using lean
practices
Bhim Singh et.al The leanness indices were • Fuzzy set theory was established
(2010) determined on 100 point scale
for all parameters of leanness in
a manufacturing firm.
Bhim Singh et.al Lean tools helps the production • VSM Technique
(2010) industry to increase the
productivity per operator by
42.86% by reducing lead time
by 83.14%, processing time
by 12.62%,work-in-process
inventory by 89.47%, and
manpower requirement by 30 %.
Bhim Singh et.al The survival strategy was • Lean Guidelines
(2009) discussed for industry in
recessionary time by using the
concept of Lean philosophy.
Pius Achanga et.al Exhibited the critical factors • Delphi Technique
(2005) of lean and Provided the
guidelines of Lean principles for
Manufacturing SMEs.
Lean tools and its benefits
Lean system helps an organization by providing different tools to improve the ongoing
process by reducing the non-value added activities and improving the system continuously.
Some lean tools may fit for one business and other for different business. Here some of the tools
are explained in table 3.1
Table 3.1 Benefits of Lean tools
Lean Tool Invented by Benefits to the industry

Just-in-time (JIT) British Motor Corporation • Reduction in excess inventory levels
(Australia) in 1950 •R educe cost associated with inventory
management.
Kanban Toyota production system • Create a visual model of work-flow
in 1940 • Remove causes of delay, interruption and
defects
Cellular Ralph Edward Flanders in • Reduces flow time, flow distance and floor
Manufacturing 1925 space by grouping the scattered process in
a short and focused path
Value stream Charles E. Knoeppel in • Improve the process by identifying the
mapping(VSM) 1918 value added and non-value added process
• Helps in material and information-flow
mapping
5S Sakichi Toyoda in 1970 • Organize a better work space for achieving
the target
• Reduced defects and improves safety of the
workers.
Kaizen Masaaki Imai in 1986 •Improved teamwork and employee
satisfaction
• Builds leadership skills
Hijunka Toyota production system • Organize your workflow to meet customer
in 1898 demand.
•Reduce inventory costs by avoiding
overproduction.
Guidelines for the organization for successful execution of Lean tools

It is observed that successful implementation of lean requires a roadmap for achieving its
maximum benefits. If any organization focuses only on single tool or multi tools of lean but
not in systematic manner then the effects is not seen as desired. So it is mandatory for every
industry to use Lean tools in a systematic way to get maximum profits. Figure 4.1 shows the
roadmap for Lean implementation.

Figure 4.1 Roadmap for Lean Implementation
Here 20 steps are proposed for successful implementation of Lean system. Using these
steps any organization can maximize their profits and can reduce the manufacturing cost. These
steps are explained below
• Creating a functional team and associate them a targets: An organization should plan
properly about the target required and set up a functional team to work upon it.
• Communication and feedback channel development: After team formation, it is
required to develop a channel for proper communication with in the team and outside
the team so that the people involved in team can easily communicate with each other.
• Program launching: Every person related to team should be informed about the launch
of program at every point of production process to eliminate the time gap.
• Training of team about the Lean tools: After informing about the program launching,
the next step is to provide them the training about the tools of the Lean system.
• AS-IS analysis: After training the next step is to formulate the current scenario of the
production process and find out waste associated with that.
• 5S implementation: 5S should be applied to create lean environment.
• TPM implementation: TPM help in reducing mistakes and accidents in existing
processes and equipment.
• VSM: VSM as a fundamental tool to identify waste, reduce process cycle times, and
implement process improvement
• 3M: Muda (waste), Muri (overburden) and Mura (unevenness) are identified which are
included in the production process.
• Process mapping: In this step, the current state of processes are outlined and if any gap
or defect is present then it is removed easily.
• Takt time: Takt time must be calculated and conveyed to concerned team members.

• Overall Equipment Efficiency (OEE) and 6 Big Losses: Six Big Losses are Equipment
Failure, Setup and Adjustments, Idling and Minor Stops, Reduced Speed, Process
Defects, and Reduced Yield.
• Line balancing: Line balancing is a production strategy that involves balancing operator
and machine time to match the production rate to the takt time. Takt time is the rate at
which parts or products must be produced in order to meet customer demand.
SMED: It is desired that the change of die should be done in single digit minute.
• Inventory management: JIT helps in improving the inventory levels and reducing the
excess inventory of the materials.
• Quality at source: It aims at producing on time delivered product by measuring quality
standard at every step of the production process.
• Poka-yoke: It means production with mistake proof or error proof actions with in the
desired time.
• Cellular manufacturing: Cellular manufacturing is a process in which similar actions
are grouped together to reduce down time.
• Standardized operation: Standardization means using the standard actions to achieve
best result with minimum cost of operations. It is the process by which quality, quantity,
value, performance etc., may be compared and measured.
• Kaizen: It is a strategy where employees at all levels of a company work together
proactively to achieve regular, incremental improvements to the manufacturing
process.
Conclusion
It is observed from the deep insight of the literature survey that Lean plays a key role
in enhancing the productivity of the system but if implemented in correct manner. Different
industries are using different tools of Lean and also achieving good results but if they focus on
the systematic way of using Lean steps then they can improve their results with a great extent.
So, some guidelines are proposed on the basis of data collected from different research done on
the Lean system in Indian Industries. So Lean is not a destination but a never ending journey
which always focus on improvement in all operational activities. Company must develop
standard model to execute the lean operations.
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261.

Significant Impact of Industry 4.0
Technologies on Lean Production
System: A Review
Hirendra Singha,, Bhim Singh
a
,Department of Mechanical Engineering (ME), Sharda University Greater Noida U.P.201306
abstract
Lean production is very renowned and effectively tested approach among variety
of enterprises for more than fifty years, its motive is to remove non-value-added activities
(waste) from the value stream from organization and make the system highly optimized and
efficient. Industry 4.0 is combination of digitalized technology driven application that merge
the traditional physical industry to cyber word with the use of digital technology, IoT and
sensors etc. As today’s highly competitive and volatile market scenario it is very hard to fulfill
the consumer demands and to produce highly customized quality product, lean alone may
not fulfill the current market demands, so its amalgamation with industry 4.0 technologies
might metamorphosis industrial segment. The motive of the paper is to call attention to
the connection among industry 4.0 and lean tools and also have the discussion on by what
means some industry 4.0 technologies enhancing the effectiveness of lean production tools,
and enhance the productivity of the organizations. The result also discloses that preventive
maintenance, JIT and Jidoka, poka-yoke etc. like lean production tools have strong support to
digital technologies or industry 4.0.
Keywords: - Lean production (LP); Industry 4.0; Smart Factory;
Introduction
In 1950 the term lean production has been coined under the Toyota production system,
in Japan [1]. It has some set of principles that enhance the production industry to increase
the production with customer satisfaction while eliminating waste [2]. Industry 4.0 is
the amalgamation of different advance technologies or it can be the blend of information
technologies, cyber technologies, automation and physical industrial systems [3]. In this fast-
moving world, every customer needs a specific high-quality product with customized basis
in low cost and great service experience, for meeting market or customer demand industries

are working and upgrading itself, so they can facilitate the customer and lead the market,
as the rising competition in the market regarding demand, market instability & complexity,
customization of product and product life cycle is a big challenge for the enterprises [4]. For the
sustainability, stability, and efficiency is no longer efficiently handled by the lean production.
So, industry 4.0 will have complete supervision and impact over the complete manufacturing
process from the beginning of processes like the design phase to the delivery of the finished
product and related services. Slow responsiveness with higher and faster customer expectation
can be overcome by industry 4.0 [5]. Lean integration with industry 4.0 technology may bring
some drastic shift to the production system and enterprises. Industry 4.0 and lean production
both have different concept but few objectives are common in both philosophies.
This paper reflects the review on the merger of both industry 4.0 and lean production
system, it provides knowledge to the researchers related to which industry 4.0 technology is
favourable in terms of enhance the effectiveness of lean production tools and also which lean
tools is poorly or have not at all affected by industry 4.0 technologies.
Section 2 present the literature review of lean production and industry 4.0, in section 3 the
methodology of the study is discussed and in the section 4 the conjunction of lean and industry
4.0 is explained, in the end section 5 summarized as Results & conclusion of the study.
Literature Review
The existing literature summarized the detailed information about lean production system
and industry 4.0 technologies. We set out with the aid of using in brief reviewing the hooked
up lean ideas and practices withinside the context of system development inside the production
firms. We then continue to figuring out the technology clusters which are maximum applicable
on this context. Finally, we synthesize the dating among those streams of the literature.
2.1 Lean production: -
After World War 2 in the phase of rebuilding the industry JIT was deployed in Japan [6],
for the rest of the world the JIT/ TPS was introduced in Australia that later shifted to Toyota
[7]. Lean production is eliminating waste from the value stream and improving the productivity
from the production system or organizations [8]. The five principles of lean production that
enhance the production efficiency are “Value”, “Value stream mapping”, “Flow”, “Pull”,
“perfection” [9] shown in the figure 1. There is more than 60% avoidable waste present in the
value stream in an organization at operational level, lean production is helping the organization
the eliminate eight kinds of wastes form the value stream, among these eight wastes 7 were
identified by Toyota production system and are belong to production process [12] and the
eighth waste directly related to personals ability and management, that was later considered by
the western world, [11]. Figure 2 is representing all eight lean production wastes.

Figure1. Principles of lean production.
Figure 2. Eight lean production waste.

Lean production is a method that have attentions on the increasing the productivity while
reducing waste with effective cost of the product. Rachna et. al claim that [13], any movement
that makes use of assets however presents no cost for customers is estimated fruitless and
must be obsolete. The objective of Lean manufacturing is to streamline the production process,
procedure for creating items based on client needs [13] Dhruv and Pritesh [14] also contributed
a variety of Lean manufacturing tools that can aid in the reduction of waste, such tools are
(JIT), Production smoothing, and Total predictive maintenance (TPM). Naveen & Kaliyan
[15] claimed that despite the fact that Lean is a speedy and convincing tool, companies can
also additionally find it hard to keep long-time period performance the use of this to decrease
waste. Lean production could be very stressful and calls for constant efforts and economic
support to overcome numerous difficulties. Jadhav et. al [16] has showed this by declaring that

despite the fact that Lean production has helped organizations to lessen waste, organizations
have wriggled to enforce the Lean thinking. Member of staff crew improvement and Lean
subculture discussions are examples of the way an enterprise can reap Lean sustainability [15].
Nevertheless, of all of the blessings and makes use of Lean, several researchers have faith in
Lean, it is old and could fail to hold tempo with customer’s needs and developments of the
present-day world. The utilization of Lean production tools, as well as the collective activity
and motivation of all corporate personnel are required for Lean production adoption in the
organizational environment. In this article, the lean tools JIT, predictive maintenance, Poka-
Yoke, VSM, etc. will be described in table 1.
Table 1. Lean production tools
S. No. Lean tool Description

1 5S & 6S Removes waste that occurs from a disorganized work
environment, 5S represent for “Sort”, “Set in Order”, “Shine”
“Standardize” “Sustain” and the 6S just upgradation of 5S
lean with the Safety awareness [17].
2 Andon visual response and alert system for the operators on the shop
floor that indicate the real time problem and accordingly a
corrective measure can be possible, A real time monitoring
and control system [18].
3 Bottleneck Analysis Determine which portion of the production process is limiting
overall throughput and increase that part’s performance [19].
4 Continuous Flow Production process in which work-in-progress flows
smoothly through the manufacturing process with minimum
gaps between processes [20].
5 Heijunka A type of production scheduling that sequences product
variants within the same process in order to manufacture in
considerably smaller batches [21].
6 Hoshin Kanri Certifies that growth toward strategic goals is constant and
thorough, reducing waste caused by poor communication
and ambiguous direction [22].
7 Jidoka Design machinery to moderately automate the production
process and to stop automatically when errors are discovered
[23].
8 JIT Instead of pushing components through production based
on predicted demand, Inventory reduction is really effective
Improves cash flow and decreases the amount of space
needed [21].

9 Kaizen Kaizen frequently related continuous improvement with
waste identification and elimination strategies while
considering lead time, work/load balancing. [24].
10 Kanban Exchange/control the merchandises both within the
manufacturing and market or outside the plant. Automatic
renewal is based on signal cards that indicate when additional
products are required [25].
11 PDCA Plan for the expected result, execute the plan, check feasibility
from evaluated result, review result and refine process that
try another way [26].
12 Poka-Yoke Error detecting and prevention from the manufacturing
process while keeping zero defect strategy in mind [27].
13 Root Cause Analysis Approach that focuses on fixing the underlying problem
rather than adopting band-aid solutions that just cure the
problem’s immediate symptoms. A frequent strategy is to ask
why five times, each time getting closer to identifying the
genuine underlying issue [28].
14 Standardized Work Eliminates waste by following best practices on a regular
basis, establishes a benchmark for future improvement
efforts [29].
15 Takt Time The rate at which production is aligned with customer
demand, calculated by multiplying the planned production
time by the customer demand. Provides a way of pacing
production that is easy, consistent, and straightforward. Is
simply expanded to give a plant-floor efficiency objective
[30].
16 TPM A comprehensive strategy to maintenance that emphasizes
predictive and preventative maintenance in order to extend
the life of equipment [31].
17 VSM A tool for visually mapping the manufacturing flow. Identifies
waste in present processes and gives a roadmap for future
state improvement [32].
2.2 Industry 4.0: -
To minimize the manual and human intervention in industries the fourth revolution of
industry was introduced in Germany 2011, It is the future of Industry in which complete
digitization of the manufacturing process will take place and the industry will become the
smart industry [3]. It can be possible by integrating the information system, the cyber world
and the physical Industrial world [33]. Technologies establishing the coordination between the

information system and the machine are like Cyber-physical systems, Machine learning, cloud
computing, embedded systems, IoT, etc. [3]. Industry 4.0 combines the customer, supplier,
manufacturing processes with consideration of economic and environmental impact [34].
In this fast-moving world, every customer needs a specific high-quality product with
customized basis in low cost and great service experience, for meeting market or customer
demand industries are working and upgrading itself, so they can facilitate the customer and
lead the market, as the rising competition in the market regarding demand, market instability &
complexity, customization of product and product life cycle is a big challenge for the enterprises
[34]. For the sustainability, stability, and efficiency is no longer efficiently handled by the existing
techniques [35]. So, industry 4.0 will have complete supervision and impact over the complete
manufacturing process from the beginning of processes like the design phase to the delivery of
the finished product and related services, where the cyber-physical system (CPS) will increase
the decision making ability of industry up to a higher level, and interconnection establish the
connection between the factory and the communicators or enablers of 4.0 so they can smoothly
exchange data and interact with each other to decide for production planning, Technical
assistance will help the organization to visualize the processes and collect the information for
assisting the systems and issues on an immediate basis and the information transparency assisting
the system by shortening the huge amount of data and provide the operator the appropriate
information which help operator
for decision making[3]. Sensors
are the first layer of the smart
industry; they work on the ground
level and collect the data from
the environment and perform
various functions to support
the technology [37]. And the
control system monitors different
events in the manufacturing
process, all the subsystems are
monitored by the control system
in a manufacturing industry
[11]. Connectivity is handled by
the internet and various other
technologies like Wi-Fi, Ethernet,
etc. Connectivity aims to
establish communication between
devices through networking and
communication is very essential
part of the smart industry [3].
Industry 4.0 technologies are Figure 3. Technologies of industry 4.0.
shown in figure 3.

Methodology
Because our early survey revealed a lack of digital maturity, we shifted our emphasis
to researching prospective mechanisms that characterize how digital technologies may assist
lean, or ‘digital waste reduction mechanisms’ in short. We contemplated doing a case study,
but decided against it because most digital technology deployments were still in the pilot stage,
making comparison or even continuous analysis problematic. As a result, we chose to conduct
our analysis using qualitative research, using a focus group methodology. First, we’ll look at six
key technologies that might help you optimize your processes. Despite the fact that numerous
new technologies are now accessible to help lean. The methodology has been illustrated in
figure 3.
The scope of this study is to characterize the study effort assuming the implications of
Industry 4.0 on Lean philosophy. The study is conducted in three stages, initial stage was to
conduct a bibliographic search to standardize information on Industry 4.0 and Lean technology,
concepts, and qualities. The classification shaped the review structure, which examined
separately of the Lean production tools, along with industry 4.0 technologies, in order to
create technological and industrial mappings. The collaboration consists of a relationship
matrix between Industry 4.0 and Lean tools. Literature research was conducted in the first
phase to determine the principles, qualities, and guiding ideas of Lean production and Industry
4.0. The databases WoS, ScienceDirect, Scopus, and Emerald were utilized, with a focus on
Lean Practice, Toyota Production, Lean Concepts and Tools, Industry 4.0, CPS, Innovative
Technologies, and Smart Factories. The review included processes such as article specific
criteria, data description to be picked from publications, analysis, findings and presentation.
In the classification stage, an industrial mapping was created, and Lean production was
assessed in terms of its modelling technique, characteristics, tools, and practices used in the
production setting. The history of the Lean production idea was investigated initially, with a
concentration on its development and qualities that make up the Toyota production system.
The following Lean tools were investigated and discussed after the relevance of the Lean
approach in production environments was highlighted. JIT, predictive maintenance, Kanban,
Poka-Yoke, Value stream mapping, Kaizen etc. were used to represent each Lean tool in terms
of Lean production philosophy. This study produced an investigation of Industry 4.0 from
the perspective of organisations, methods, and expertise, in order to provide a miniature of
this innovative methodology and to see how these aspects are organized in the production
chain. As a result, the major technologies for Industry 4.0 mapping were identified: Big Data,
Cybersecurity, Cloud computing, etc. Eventually, the relationship matrix was produced in the
association stage to analyse the possibility of combination among Lean and Industry 4.0, which
included an examination of how the impacts of technologies 4.0 can affect Lean production
tools.

Figure 3. Methodology for this study
Conjunction of industry 4.0 and lean production system

The essential query that all businesses want addressed is whether Lean production system
and Industry 4.0 are interconnected and can collaborate & support; some firms are also concerned
that Industry 4.0 may overtake Lean ideals. Lean and Industry 4.0 are theories that are not so
unlike from one another, but rather complement and aid one another when applied in tandem
[38]. Autonomy is another essential element of Lean production that can have a big influence on
Industry 4.0 technologies. Autonomy, as defined by Adam et al [39], is a phenomenon in which
an automated approach comes to a complete halt when a fault is found, preventing the problem
from progressing further down the assembly line. As a result, even if a mistake is detected, only
an individual’s intervention will be regulated; the remainder of the procedure will be totally
done by machines. As per Sanjib [41], the Andon approach is a Lean principle that is used in
conjunction with Industry 4.0 technologies, such as the usage of a robot. According to Adam et
al [39], current technology can assist industrial businesses in overcoming the barriers to using
Lean methods. The impact of Lean production and intelligent technologies together has the
ability to increase production & reduce waste. Industry 4.0 technologies, as per Nai et al [42],
can help decrease axes production, lessen and remove wait period, among other things. Lean
practices and digital technologies, as per [40], have a many common objectives since they both
strive to encourage simple and centralized organizations rather than massive and complicated

structures. Because personalization and customization have become a key trend, Industry
4.0 can assist Lean manufacturing in keeping up with client needs. [43] utilized the Google
Trends tool to examine public attention in Industry 4.0. They discovered that public interest in
digitalization has never been higher in the recent several years. Industry 4.0 technologies do
not cover the integration of Lean concepts, but they can help to improve their efficiency. By
employing industry 4.0 technologies to deliver embattled and precise info to workers to assist
them recognize and eliminate waste, [43] claim that digital Lean increases waste detection
batter than traditional Lean approaches. Furthermore, according to Sule et al [44], Industry 4.0
will not fix the issues of poorly accomplished and structured industrial organisations. However,
before automating, Lean concepts must be properly implemented.
Results & Conclusion

Industry 4.0 technologies can help lean tools by installing diverse abilities based on the
requirements of the manufacturing operation. Four different fectors Visualization, control,
administrative, and optimization, come together that create the system truly independent,
which equivalent to the Autonomy standard. Systems may then make real-time judgments
while keeping in mind their surroundings. The system may also ‘learn’ from the outcomes of
previous decisions or respond effectively to a change in demand. To boost performance, this
may also include cooperation and communication with other products and systems. Table 1
represent the combination of lean tools with industry 4.0 technologies for the enhancement of
organizational performance.
Table.1 Conceptual combination of lean tools with industry 4.0 technologies for
organizational effectiveness [1,5,23,24,26,42,45,46,47]
INDUSTRY 4. TECHNOLOGIES
CPS IoT Cyber ML AI Cloud Co- Big Aug- 3D
Security Comput- bots Data mented Print-
ing Reality ing
LEAN
TOOL
TPM * * * * * *
JIT * * * * * * * * *
Kaizen * * * * * * * *
VSM * * * * *
Po- * * * * * *
ka-Yoke
Kanban * * * * * *
Jidoka * * * * * * * *

From the literature few lean tools and industry 4.0 technologies were shortlisted and
possible relation have been identified as per their objective, from combination viewpoint
which means industry 4.0 and lean production can work together. Despite the fact that they
are two fundamentally distinct methodologies, both philosophies share the goal of continually
adding value to production processes. Lean production speeds up production flow, facilitates
digitalization of manufacturing procedures, and emphasizes visible and transparent management,
making it simpler to discover faults, all with the goal of eliminating waste in manufacturing
processes. These Lean concepts play an important role in the development of Industry 4.0,
since Lean practices will underlie Industry 4.0 technology in order to maximize productivity
and quality. Smart factories, encourage value chain digitization and real-time inventory etc. As
a result, Industry 4.0 technologies improve the maturity of Lean production, as the information
generated for JIT success must be correct, up-to-date, and shared at all times. Kanban devices
are potentiated by developing tools, including the full horizontal and vertical supply chain, not
only internal production and logistical activities, with an emphasis on customer pull production.
Smart Poka-Yoke devices, on the other hand, function with real-time data from the production
flow, saving waste and avoiding problems from spreading to other workstations. VSM tool can
monitor value flows in real time for speedy resolution of potential wastes, such as lead time and
machine configuration costs, thanks to technologies 4.0’s connectivity of machines, processes,
and personnel. The advantages of Industry 4.0 in terms of module integration, data exchange
and analysis, human-machine interaction, and staff training promote Kaizen’s idea of ongoing
improvement, as well as maintenance planning and operations.
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Review: Implementation and
Challenges of Lean 4.0 in Indian
MSME’s
Neeraj kumara, Ashwani Kumar Dhingrab, Dr. Bhim Singhc
, Department of Mechanical Engineering, MDU Rohtak,India
a b
Head, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Sharda University, Greater Noida,India

c
abstract
Lean 4.0 was admired significantly in both academic sector and industry sector. Since the
market changes from local to global, conventional processes don’t work efficient any longer
and companies are forced to change their culture to digitalize. Some organizations are already
implemented and digitalized lean strategy and got benefited. This paper presents the brief
review on implementation status, challenges faces by the MSMEs (micro, small and medium-
sized enterprises) and overall impact of digitalization of lean4.0. It shows that the organization
had inadequate practices related to operational planning and production management.
Evidences from the literature, it confirms that MSMEs need lots improvement to survive in this
competitive world and need a proper training plan for the establishment lean strategy.
Keywords: - Lean 4.0, Industry 4.0, Production & Management
Nomenclature
MSMEs micro, small and medium-sized enterprises
AI artificial intelligent
VSM value stream mapping
SMED single minute exchange of die
CM cellular manufacturing
I4.0 Industry 4.0
Introduction
India is gradually shifting from cultivation oriented nation to services and industry oriented
nation. Lean tool and techniques are extensively concern to increase productivity, profit and
reduces all non value added steps and activities from the process. Lean 4.0 influencing the
manufacturing environment with implementation of new technology like smart artificial

intelligent (AI), value stream mapping (VSM), single minute exchange of die (SMED),
cellular manufacturing (CM), and makes companies smart by implementation of advance
future oriented, information and communication technology. I4.0 facilitates real time planning
of production and controlling plan with dynamic self optimization [1,2] Manufacturing micro,
small and medium-sized enterprises (MSMEs) are very important for a nation’s economy, they
contributes more than large enterprise[4,7]. In last decade, number of studies have been done
regarding the implementation of lean and industry 4.0 in Indian business environment and
it’s found that the status of adoption of lean 4.0 and industry 4.0 was not enough satisfactory.
The major barrier of implementation of this technology is lack of knowledge and not a proper
training facility provided to them. [8]. After analyzing the research related to critical success
factors and their influences on operation and performance it’s found that lean tools are the
back bone of the manufacturing organization. For avoiding the risk and chance of defects in
production system, the lean and I4.0 should be implemented at initial level [1, 3, and 6].
Need of Lean 4.0

Lean manufacturing and industry 4.0 are two burning topics that briefly discussed during
the last decade. Combine these two names as terms like “lean 4.0”. Up to mid 1991, industrial
sector in India had been operated under protected economic system specified by limited
competition and highly regulated business environment. This business atmosphere had resulted
into limited focus on efficiency of process, performance, structure and professional business
practices [5, 7, and 15]. Margins are reducing due to globalization of world; they have little
choice but have to find the way of raising their productivity and of improving the quality of the
product. Due to continuously changing market environment the industries are force to change
their culture to digitalize. Lean manufacturing 4.0 techniques and its principle aim to recognize
and get rid of the root causes of waste. Industry 4.0 is considered as another rising trend in
the industry. Industry 4.0 and lean give results in high quality and great performance in the
manufacturing sector. It is shown, that a process orientated organization and Lean Production
Systems might be promoter for a successful and sustainable implementation of Industry 4.0 in
the production environment [13]. .Now with the fusion of physical and digital systems as part
of the Industry 4.0 transition, businesses can use both ideas and concepts to take operational
excellence to a new level.
Challenges for MSME’s

The globalization of the economy has posed some challenges to the small scale industries.
Among many others the greatest challenge is the “Challenge of survival” in the market. Since
the MNCs are the powerful players having all the resources & expertise it is difficult to face the
competition for these MSME’s units [6, 7]. Hence, in such situations they are required to act
intelligently. The main barrier to the growth of MSME’s is the optimum utilization of available
resources.

3.1 Challenges in Implementation of Lean in Indian MSME’s
The facts which commonly observed and also reported in literature are given below:-
• Lack of knowledge:-
Unwillingness to learn and lack of knowledge is the biggest obstacle and most common
reason for unsuccessful implementation of Lean practices in MSMEs [8]. Misunderstanding
and rumors about the lean methodology also negatively affects the investing decision in lean.
For successful lean implementation the process requires improvement, check carefully where
the wastes are being generated and always look for new ideas of reducing the wastes in the
process [13,14].
• Objectives and Attention:-
Common objectives and enough attention is generally missing in the organizations where
a lot of waste are being generated [14].
• Cost of setup:-
Initially, the lean 4.0 setup cost is high that’s why; MSMEs are avoiding to implement
these technique. Different design of lean tools may lead to put extra cost resulting slower
acceptance of lean implementation [17, 19].
• No support from top management:-
One of the most common reason of failure of Lean 4.0 in MSMEs is lack of support from
the top management. Lean is slowly but continuously improving strategy. For the successful
implementation, every strategy and innovation needs time and management supports. In case
of implementation of lean 4.0 top management is not giving sufficient finances, proper training
and enough time for the innovation [10, 12, 13, 16, 19]
• Communication:-
Communication and information sharing is the key for all successful organizations. For
managing the Unpredictability and changes happening during the process are only possible
with proper communication and by sharing information to figure out the problem [24].
• Lack of organizational structure:-
Manufacturing organizations should embrace an organizational structure which helps
and supports lean methodology. Organizational structure should be divided into different
departments and power should be distributed so that proper information sharing channel can
be formed, which will help in knowledge transfer and enhanced reuse of the information for
better results [17, 19].
• Lack of government support:-
Most of the government employees have not understood the power of lean methodology
which affects the documentation process adversely. And it may limit the findings and may also
restrict the research area which will which negatively affect the lean practices [11, 14]

Approach to lean 4.0:-
Due to continuously changing market environment the industries are force to change their
culture to digitalize. Many organizations want to implement lean 4.0 focuses only on the lean
but abandon the required changes in organization culture. It has the specific set of principles,
no. of tools and methods that make it an integrated approach for increasing business process
efficiency. If combination of lean tools not used in right culture, optimal result could not be
obtained. Cultural change is also the major barrier in the way of lean implementation [18, 22,
24].
Possible challenges while implementing lean practices are given below:-
(a) Use of methods/models without proper definition as per the characteristics of
different industries.
(b) Improper strategy of implementation.
(c) Shortage of essential resources needed for practice.
(d) Lack of skills and trained employees for proper implementation of lean and industry
4.0 practices.
Culture, is an additional challenge faced by the MSMEs in India.
Impact of digitalization:-
However, smaller organizations are trying to stay away from implementing lean
manufacturing, but large organizations got benefited with the lean techniques. Many
organization implemented lean methodology effectively. In the age of automation and internet,
large organizations also have to digitalize their processes. Now the organizations have started
transforming and developing their processes according to their special needs which results in
better communication, standardize process, reduction in lead time and enhancement of the
quality efficiently.
During the establishment of this phase, first examine the current status of existing processes
and explain the requirement of new processes [19, 21, 24].
Following steps are needed to be taken to transform conventional process into digitalized
processes:-
• Non value added activities and wastes are needed to be get rid of the system. All the
activities are needed to be arranged according to the value stream.
• All the units at managerial level and worker level should focus on the system
transformation from conventional to digitalize.
• Standardization of the process.
Lean philosophy came out in administrational area but it is not an absolute new approach.
Many software’s in the market claim that it has been made for scheduling and managing the
resources.
Some of them are discussed below:-
Microsoft project helps in making critical path analysis and Gantt-Charts. If it is connected
to other database, it shares the information for smooth communication within the organization.

Jira, Asana and some other software help to manage the operations during the process with
kanban. Projektron software permits to run external recourses and also helps to check the
availability of resources. It also helps in managing the current status of documents. With the
internet, the entire documents can used anywhere, anytime and also it can give the permission
to record the working time for each activity [21, 22, 24].
Conclusion:-
Lean and Industry 4.0 philosophies are complementary and supporting each other on a
conceptual level. It helps the manufacturing sector for achieving a higher level of production
efficiency. Form the literature survey, Lean principles and tools are the back bone of the
manufacturing companies and enhance the formal or informal way of communication. And
also confirms that there are lots of improvements required to survive in this competitive world
and need a proper training plan for the establishment lean strategy. Section 5 gave a short
run through the available software and impact of digitalization. Although the software is very
powerful tool but it still needs improvement and used in proper sequence for best out of this.
Despite the literature, still lots of researches are required to enrich the body of knowledge.
Acknowledgement:-
I would like to thank my supervisor “Ashwani Kumar Dhingra and Co-Supervisor Dr.
Bhim Singh for the kind guidance and support. I have benefitted greatly from your wealth of
knowledge. I am thankful for choosing me as your mentee and for giving me a chance to grow
my professional career. Without your contribution I would not have been able to complete thi
this work, it has been a great pleasure working under your guidance.
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Literature Review of New
Management Technology on JIT
Neeraj kumara, Dr.Ashwani Kumar Dhingrab, Dr. Bhim Singhc
, Department of Mechanical Engineering, MDU Rohtak,India
a b
c
Head, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Sharda University, Greater Noida,India
abstract
The working process of manufacturing world has been changed by the “New JIT”
philosophy and its application. New JIT focus on the process of the system not the product.
This includes Toyota Marketing System [TMS], Toyota Production System [TPS] and Toyota
Development System [TDS]. This concept follows the push and pulls system. New JIT keep in
check hardware as well as software systems. These are the next-generation technical technique
and principles which are transforming management technology system into the management
strategy system. The main objectives of manufacturing organizations are to make quality
product with in optimal time and to make more profit within optimized price. In this paper the
author studied the literature and presented future work based on literature. 55 research papers
have been served related to literature of JIT from which 25 paper were selected for the review.
Keywords: - New JIT, Advance TDS, Advance TMS, Advance TPS, , Toyota, SQC, JIT
element
Introduction:-
Taiichi Ohno developed of Just -In-Time [JIT] which is called Japanese “Toyota production
system”[4]. TPS helps to strengthen the quality of the product in 20th century which belongs to
Japan, it contributes in approximately 50 percent in the worlds manufacturing technology [4].
In last decade, the working process of the manufacturing world was drastically
changing from manual to automatic. Manufacturing organizations were highly competitive in
continuously changing market and rapidly changing customer taste. Lots of pressure was there
on the manufacturing and service sector to produce the product which were best in quality,
low in price and delivered timely. For achieving this goal, the industry had to maintain and
manage their resources and activity more efficiently and effectively so that they could survive
in the suddenly changing customer taste and increase their profits. Simultaneously, they had to

require minimizing the adverse effects on the environment [3, 25, and 30]. To overcome these
challenges, organizations were continuously searching for establishment of a new principle and
a new process or idea to optimize their process so that they can survive [3].So the manufacturing
organizations have to be enough flexible to fulfill the expectation of the customer in timely
manner. And therefore, new concept was introduced - “NEW JIT”.
These are the next-generation technical technique and principles which are transforming
management technology system into the management strategy system [1, 6, and 20].Toyota
production system is very popular strategy around the globe these day. JIT is one of structural
part. Toyota has been already developed TPS which is known as lean technology worldwide.
Toyota ideology improvement started through the inspection; firstly, understand the customer
desire than develop a product that’s satisfies the customer desire [30, 31]. The main aim of
JIT is to increase the quality of the product and reduced the waste at optimal time. To fulfill
this requirement effectively and efficiently applying TQM and TQC in the production stream
line. This includes Toyota Marketing System [TMS], Toyota Development System [TDS] and
Toyota Production System [TPS]. New JIT keep in check hardware as well as software systems.
TDS TPS TMS are the three hardware component which helps in producing new strategy and
TQM utilizing science SQC called Science-TQM [1, 4, and 30]
Key for the new JIT principle- Advance TPS, Advance TMS, and Advance
TDS:-
For surviving in this bottle neck competitive environment, venders have to do filed work
and develop such an advanced management system that continuously attracts new customer
and providing customer oriented products at optimal time. Some key points explained below:
2.1 Advanced TPS -

At present time, the Toyota Production System carries a wide range of the lean management
system that’s why this is called TPS- house. Some techniques used by TPS- house is - JIT-
kaizen , JIT –kanban, jidoka for automation, production leveling standardization-heijunka. In
TPS house, JIT- kaizen method ensures that the process should be continuously improving
and reducing the waste developed during the production[6,8]. With the practice of production
leveling (heijunka) upgrades the visualization of process and increases the smoothness of the
production system [7, 8]
• Eight type of deadly waste identified in the literature which are :-
Over Production, Transportation, Talent, underutilization, waiting time, Motion, Inventory,
Over Processing [11, 13, and 15].Over processing and Over production is the unfortunate waste
that’s produced in manufacturing industries. Over production is the process of the production
system in which a large amount of product is manufactured without knowing the actual demand
of the product at present time. Overproduction hides the other causes that are present in the
system. Also increase the inventory and holding cost. [8, 26]

2.2 Advanced Total Development Design Model[TDS]:-
Advanced TPS model enable the transformation of traditional engineering work to digital
one. For Improving the product design and making the product according to customer need
which changes on regular basis, it is important to develop such “new development design
model’ that completes the customer desire. For achieving this, a reforming the process is
necessary [14, 15].
2.3 Advance TDS principle includes the following:

• Collection of the information from the customers and market creation :-
At the present time, the customer’s preferences are continuously changing and they want
every product at low price with high quality and durability. To fulfill this requirement, the
organization has to collect data related to customer’s requirement time to time and has to
change their processes continuously as per requirement.
• Improve the product design according to the customer’s requirement;-
For making this happen, companies have to change their market strategy from closed
marketing activities to open marketing activities so that they can help in enhancing the quality
and design of the product.
• Develop a software and hardware system:-
In the era of the internet, it is very easy to damage image of a company by spreading
rumors about anything. This can damage the goodwill of the companies or products which
altimately damages the reputation of companies . Therefore, it is nasseary to conduct surveys
time to time so that necessary action can be taken on the basis of survey result of the company/
product. for giving better services. so that the bond with customer becomes stronger
2.4 Advanced Toyota Marketing System [TMS], Strategic Development

Marketing Model:-
In continuously changing the global market environment, the aim of the advanced TDS
is to successfully produce “Same Quality” throughout all over the world by implementation of
the “global Marketing Strategy.
Key aspects of JIT:-

Following are the key aspects of JIT-
1. Eliminating waste:-
JIT comes in play in the absence of resources and huge amount of scrap produced
during the production process. It may be in the form of Setup Time, transportation,
Talent underutilization, waiting time, motion, inventory, over processing etc. JIT help to
overcome these shortfalls and make the flow of production process at steady rate under
the JIT technique and principle, so that the product can be delivered to customer with in
bounded time.

2. Continuous improvement:-
For survival in the bottleneck competition, manufacturing industries need to improve their
process time to time, so that they can understand and fulfill the customer’s desire in an
efficient and effective manner.
3. Set-up time reduction:-
Because of the rapidly changing work environment, reduction in the setup time has grave
importance. reduction of the setup time ultimately saves the time for whole process
which results reduction in the manufacturing cost. It also increases the flexibility of the
organization to meet the customer demands.
4. Leveled / mixed production:-
Production leveling or mixed production system helps to reduces expenses in many ways.
It’s also helps large cooperation as well as small business emprises to reduced cost during
the manufacturing process, enhance the quality of the product and customer satisfaction.
Conclusion-
In this literature review, I described the key elements and critical factors of the new JIT.
New JIT completely modernized the manufacturing process and increased the efficiency of
industries. After reading the literature, it is confirm that the new JIT is not going to confine
itself up to the TQM, TPS, TDS and TMS, rather it will help in making the process more
efficient and effective.
My research not free from limitations, first there were only few paper available related to
this topic and second, this research has been done with some restricted condition and limited
keywords. Future point of view, the researcher who research on this area has to be done with
more variable and linked with the lean manufacturing 4.0 so that valuable feedback can obtain
and through innovation potential improvement can be done.
Acknowledgement:-
I would like to thank my supervisor “Dr.Ashwani Dhingra and Co-Supervisor Dr.
Bhim Singh for the kind guidance and support. I have benefitted greatly from your wealth of
knowledge. I am thankful for choosing me as your mentee and for giving me a chance to grow
my professional career. Without your contribution I would not have been able to complete thi
this work, it has been a great pleasure working under your able guidance.
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An overview of the Contribution
of the Emerging Technological
Innovations in Combating the Novel
Coronavirus (COVID-19)
Haruna Muhd Inuwa, Abdullahi Usman, Vineet Kumar, Lavish Kumar Singh*
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Sharda University, Greater Noida, India
*Corresponding author: Email id: lavish.singh@sharda.ac.in, Phone: +91-8116385352
abstract
The eruption of novel human coronavirus disease, COVID-19, has gotten the whole
world to a cessation. Sudden appearance and rapid spread of the pandemic has triggered an
unprecedented demand for innovative technological solutions to address the issues pertaining to
healthcare. The current work discusses as to how technology is being used to combat COVID-19.
It was observed that artificial intelligence enabled the researchers to predict the spread of the
disease in advance. Robots are being extensively used to deliver-detect-disinfect. Also, the
genome sequencing of SARS-CoV-2, the virus responsible for COVID-19, was successfully
completed in less than a month as opposed to the severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS)
coronavirus where the researchers took several months to complete the sequencing. This
accelerated the development and fabrication of rapid detection kits. Open Source Modeling
Technology and additive manufacturing are being readily used across the world to manufacture
low cost products related to COVID-19 on a large scale. Therefore, it can be inferred that new
technologies have emerged that are helping in faster and accurate detection, prevention and
containment of COVID-19, which has immensely contributed in dwindling number of cases in
some countries and set a trend for finding a vaccine in near future.
Keywords: Coronavirus; COVID-19; Artificial Intelligence; Robot; Detection Kit; 3D
Printing
Introduction
Frequent emergence of viral diseases poses a serious threat to community health. Since
past two decades, different viral epidemics such as the severe acute respiratory syndrome

coronavirus (SARS-CoV) and the Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV)
has tested the efficiency of the public healthcare system [1]. SARS-CoV-2, the virus responsible
for causing the novel human coronavirus disease, COVID-19, belongs to the subfamily
Coronavirinae, family Coronavirdiae, and order Nidovirales. It is an enveloped and spherical
particle approximately 120 nm in diameter comprising of a positive-sense single-stranded
RNA genome [2]. On 8 December, 2019, in Wuhan, Hubei Province, China, the first case was
reported of a new coronavirus that causes pneumonia. At the time of authoring (May 18, 2020),
over 4,825,902 cases have been reported worldwide across 213 countries, with over 317,101
deaths attributed to the virus. Nishiura et al. [3] in his study estimated that ~33% of the cases
were asymptomatic which further escalates the severity of the disease. However, the mortality
rate of COVID-19 is very less as compared to SARS and MERS but it transmits rapidly with
ease and poses an affinity towards
elderly individuals especially men
[3, 4]. Fig. 1 shows the history
and comparison of different
coronavirus infections in humans
[4]. Despite the rapid efforts where
more than forty teams across the
world are working relentlessly
to come up with the vaccine
against SARS-CoV-2 infection
[5], no substantial success has
been achieved so far. On 11
March 2020, the World Health
Organization (WHO) concluded
the final assessment and declared
the COVID-19 as a pandemic,
which is defined as an epidemic
that occurs across the world, or
over a very wide area, and crosses
international boundaries, thereby,
exerting an impact on a large
chunk of population [6]. Before
COVID-19, there has been four
pandemics: Spanish flu (1918),
Asian flu (1957), Hong Kong
flu (1968), and the most recent
Pandemic flu (2009), resulting in
an estimated human death of 50
million, 1.5 million, 1 million,
and 3 lakhs, respectively [2]. Fig. 1. History of coronavirus infections in humans [4].

Interestingly, technology has chipped into this fight against novel coronavirus and so
far, the rapid response and contributions are fundamentally remarkable. For instance, it took
researchers close to two years to classify the genome of the SARS virus which is a sister disease
to COVID-19. Furthermore, artificial intelligence is playing an important role in tracking and
making relevant information available for public consumption globally. Many health apps were
promptly developed to intensify the response and the readiness in this fight against coronavirus.
In the same vein, chat bots using AI is being utilized to detect people with high fever and
frequent cough; and guide them properly on what they should in line with for the betterment
of their health.
Many similarities exist between COVID-19 and SARS, from their geo-location of initial
outbreak to the nature of the fast spread of viruses themselves. However, changes might
have evolved between the two outbreaks within almost two decfades gap. Nowadays, there
is an exponential boom of technology in almost all the sectors of healthcare. Apart from
maintaining social distancing, covering the face via mask, following self-isolation etc., less
developed technologies and newly discovered technologies may be helpful in managing and
mitigating such cases. Therefore, the fundamental objective of this work is to identify some
of the technological contributions inspired by novel corona virus thus far and how immediate
response by the engineering world has been helpful in curtailing the damage caused by the
novel coronavirus.
2.1. Latest Technological Innovations Inspired by COVID-19

Sudden appearance of coronavirus disease has provided a podium to unlock technological
potentialities and inspired breathtaking innovations globally. Numerous technology companies
and research organizations are lending pro-bono support to the WHO in order to fight against the
COVID-19 pandemic. Consequently, thirty prominent experts from digital technology domain
met at a virtual roundtable conference on 2 April, 2020 to assist the WHO’s collaborative
response to subsidise the impact of the pandemic. The sudden emergence and rapid spread of
COVID-19 has prompted an unparalleled demand for innovative technological solutions to
address the issues pertaining to healthcare. Technologies like Location Technology, Autonomous
Machines, Geographic Information System and Mapping, Big Data, Artificial Intelligence etc.
are providing pivotal support to the healthcare workers. Some of the new emerging technological
innovations inspired by COVID-19 has been discussed in the subsequent section.
2.1.1. Artificial Intelligence Prediction Technology

Artificial intelligence in healthcare domain imitates human cognition and analyses,
interprets, and subsequently comprehends the healthcare and medical data by employing
complex algorithms and software [7]. The technology is playing a pivotal role in minimizing
the detrimental impact of the novel coronavirus. BlueDot, a Canadian company, is using
the artificial intelligence to scan one lakh online articles in sixty five different languages
everyday for public health information [8]. The company receives the information analyzed by
epidemiologists through animal disease outbreak, airline data, news reports etc., and determines

the trend of the disease using algorithms and disseminates the information to various units.
This methodology proved to be so efficient that the company informed its clients about the
coronavirus disease in advance; even before the WHO and Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention notified the public. For instance, this idea was used in the prediction of COVID-19
spread from Wuhan to Tokyo which helped in mitigating the spread of the disease in Tokyo to
a certain level. Another healthcare technology company, Metabiota, working in line with the
BlueDot, provided an accurate prediction of COVID-19 spread one week prior to the reporting
of initial cases in Taiwan, South Korea and Japan [8]. Robotics manufacturer Youibot has
manufactured 5G-powered temperature screening robots that can be deployed in crowded
places such as big corporate offices, shopping malls etc. These robots use sensors and thermal
imaging cameras to assess the body temperature of several individuals, preferably upto ten, at
a time. They are equipped with system that carries out facial recognition, which in turn, helps
the local authorities to easily identify the person suffering from high body temperature [9].
SenseTime’s Smart Artificial Intelligence Epidemic Prevention Solution system extracts data
from the temperature sensors and camera systems to recognize people that may be carrying the
coronavirus [9].
2.1.2. Delivery, Detection and Disinfection Robots

Robots are being modified specifically to fight against the COVID-19. For instance, the
Smart Transportation Robot and a humanoid named Cloud Ginger are being utilized by the
health care workers to transport medicine and food to the patients, thereby, avoiding person-
to-person contact [10]. An autonomous service delivery robot developed by Pudu Technology
is shown in Fig. 2. UVD Robots is a Debmark based robotics company that manufactures
disinfection robots. These robots are being extensively used for disinfectant purpose because
of their competence in decontaminating the exteriors by tearing apart strands of virus
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) by virtue of strong ultraviolet (UV) light emissions [10]. An
inspection of the surroundings, such as patients’ rooms and hospital corridors, is carried out by
the robots as they can move autonomously with the help of lidar, and then post analysis UV-C
rays are emitted from a mast attached to the robots. Once charged, the UV units can function for
approximately 2.5 hours and has the capacity to disinfect around ten rooms. They can not only
kill the viruses but are also effective against bacteria. It is reported that they can kill 99.99% of
bacteria in less than 15 minutes. As discussed in the previous section, robots are also being used
to recognize the COVID-19 suspects, especially in the crowded places.
2.1.3. Bio-Barrier
Bio-barrier is a personal protection equipment (PPE) which has the ability to sterilize its
surrounding environment using heat and ultraviolet radiations [9]. Bio-barrier, as shown in Fig.
3, is a kind of biological suit that has been developed by an architectural firm called Penda.
This shield was designed to neutralize and repel any virus in its vicinity. The suit is made up of

carbon-fiber backpack which makes it lighter in weight. It is coated with a PVC film which acts
as a shield, thereby, providing a barrier against the virus intrusion. Ultraviolet lights are also
embedded into the suit which neutralizes the contaminants that come in contact on its surface.
Fig. 2. An autonomous service delivery robot developed by Pudu Technology [9].
Fig. 3. A bio-barrier that can be used as PPE against the coronavirus [12].

2.1.4. Interactive Map
In order to monitor and track the COVID-19 reported cases on daily basis, an online
dashboard has been developed, as shown in Fig. 4, by Johns Hopkins University’s Center for
Systems Science and Engineering [11]. A provision in also embedded where the users can
download the data as a Google Sheet. The interactive map displays the number of confirmed
deaths along with the number of recoveries and newly reported cases. The data is collected
via different resources such as WHO, Center for Disease Control and prevention (CDC)
etc. Information on the cases in the United States of America (USA) is taken from the USA
CDC, whereas, the data of other countries are collected from their respective regional health
departments. The dashboard uses transparent data sources and aims at providing the general
public with an understanding of the epidemic condition as it unfolds.
Fig. 4. COVID-19 dashboard developed by the Center for Systems Science and
Engineering [11].
2.1.5. Low Cost-Rapid Detection Kit

The existing confirmatory method of Real-Time Reverse Transcription Polymerase Chain
Reaction (RT-PCR) though a gold standard is not only expensive and takes longer time but also
requires trained manpower. Therefore, researchers across the globe are working to develop a
low cost-rapid detection kit. A new technology, known as Combinatorial Arrayed Reactions for
Multiplexed Evaluation of Nucleic acids (CARMEN) has been developed by the researchers
that flexibly scales up clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR)-

based molecular diagnostics, with the help of microfluidics chips, as shown in Fig. 5, that can
conduct thousands of tests concurrently [12, 13].
Fig. 5. Photographs of the microwell CARMEN chip which can be fabricated like a
stamp; rubber poured over a mold [13].
In CARMEN methodology, first of all viral ribonucleic acid (RNA) from the samples
are extracted and then copies are made of this genetic material, in line with the procedure
that is followed for RT-qPCR diagnostics that is presently utilized for suspected COVID-19
patients. A distinctive fluorescent color dye is then added to each sample and then the mixture
is divided into minute droplets. The detection mixture primarily comprises of the CRISPR
protein Cas13, a guide RNA that looks for an explicit viral sequence, and molecules to report
the results. The aforementioned detection mixture is then coded with different colors followed
by separation into tiny droplets. Droplets (thousands in numbers) from the detection mixture
and the samples are then pooled together and loaded onto a chip in a single pipetting step. Each
microwell present in the chip clasps two droplets. When a detection droplet comes across its
target, a particular viral genetic sequence in a sample droplet in the same microwell, a signal
is produced which can be sensed by a fluorescence microscope. It takes almost eight hours
to complete the entire process. CARMEN supports more than 4,500 tests on a single chip,
which can be applied to a patient’s sample in a number of ways by means of the existing
fluorescent codes. For instance, a single microfluidics chip can test 1,048 samples for a single
virus simultaneously, or five samples for 169 viruses. The capacity can be certainly increased
further by addition of more number of chips.
Recently the USA has approved a rapid test kit to detect coronavirus disease propelled
by former National University of Singapore (NUS) startup company, medtech firm Biolidics
Limited. The test kit can be distributed and sold to the hospitals and laboratories for conducting
point-of-care testing [14]. The rapid test kit ascertains the antibodies to SARS-CoV-2 at an
accuracy greater than 95% in 10 minutes. The rapid test uses plasma, blood and human serum

and combines both IgG and IgM antibody tests to detect COVID-19. Both IgG and IgM are
antibodies that are produced by humans in response to COVID-19 infection. Nevertheless, the
rapid test assists in detecting COVID-19, indicating prior or latest infection.
2.1.6. Genome Sequencing

A genome sequence is the list of the nucleotides (A, C, G, and T for DNA genomes)
that constitutes all the chromosomes of a species or an individual. Decoding the genome
sequence of the virus is extremely critical for finding the vaccine. It took several months for
the researchers to completely decode the genome sequence of the SARS virus. The SARS virus
outbreak took place in 2002 and the complete genome sequence of the virus was successfully
decoded and made available in April 2003. However, the genome of the novel coronavirus,
SARS-CoV-2, was successfully sequenced by the researchers in less than a month since the
detection of the first case. More than two dozen sequencing has been done since the time first
sequencing was reported. Sequencing the pathogens’ genome in less time will result in faster
rate of finding suitable therapies which will eventually lead to saving of more number of lives.
A cloud-based genome analysis computing platform might assist in speeding up the efforts
across the globe to develop an effective COVID-19 vaccine. ATGENOMIX SeqsLab, the Bio-
IT platform operates on Microsoft Azure and can process genomic workloads several times
quicker than conventional workflow method analysis [15]. This can provide critical information
on how the virus mutates, conserves, and causes disease at the genetic level; which will help in
quicker development of vaccine and treatment delivery to assuage the outbreak and to avert any
future pandemic. Its developers have claimed that SeqsLab can process the data in 2-3 hours as
opposed to almost a week taken by conventional research analysis methods.
2.1.7. Drones
Drones are playing a significant part in preventing the spread of coronavirus by helping
authorities and people in several ways. Municipal authorities and local police are readily
utilizing the service of drones to monitor and assess the movement people and therefore, it
helps in keeping a check on social gatherings that poses a risk of COVID-19 spread in the
society. Drones are also being used by the local authorities to create awareness about the
COVID-19 spread and pass on information and messages related to the lockdown measures,
particularly in rural and backward areas where establishing communication is a major hurdle
[16]. Drones armed with loudspeakers, as shown in Fig. 6, are being used spread messages in
public such as asking them to remain indoor, wear a mask if stepping outside from home, take
needed precautionary measures, maintain social-distancing etc. Agriculture spray drones are
being efficiently used by the health authorities to provide disinfection service at public places
and other potentially vulnerable areas. Disinfectants are loaded in these drones and they are
specifically designed to cover large area in less time making this technique almost 50 times
faster than the traditional methods [16]. The world’s largest drone maker company, DJI, has
claimed that a spraying unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) can cover 100,000 square metre area
in one and has the capacity to carry about 16 liters of disinfectant.

Fig. 6. Photographs of drones being used for (a) broadcasting messages and information,
and (b) delivering products [16].
These drones not only reduce the risk of sanitation and health care workers getting
exposed to both the disinfectant and the virus but they are also easy to maneuver, economical
and can be rapidly mobilized [17]. Apart from delivering food, household goods, drones are
also being used to transport samples and deliver medical supplies to the doctors, hospitals
and laboratories. Drones furnished with infrared cameras are being used to measure the body
temperature of individuals who are lockdown in their houses [16]
2.1.8. Chatbot
At a time like this when there is global fear and nerve-wrecking panic, there will be
a circulation of fake news and street rumors that can aggravate the situation. Consequently,
the WHO launched the ‘WHO chatbot’ which provides a detailed information about the
COVID-19 disease. The chatbot is also equipped with the feature where it provides answers
to the frequently asked questions (FAQs) related to the coronavirus disease [18]. Instead of
using any natural language, the users are required to send emojis or numbers corresponding
to different topics; this makes the chatbot easy to understand and operate. The WHO chatbot
works on the WhatsApp platform, which was recently acquired by the Facebook. The company
is also trying to ensure that the pages spreading fake news and unauthentic information are
consistently removed and in order to provide official and authentic information it has formed a
social media Coronavirus Information Center (CIC) that appears at the top of its users’ feeds.
2.1.9. Open Source Modeling Technology

Due to a substantial surge in the number of COVID-19 patients, shortages of PPEs,
face masks, ventilators, diagnostic tools etc. are being experienced. This necessitated the
governments of different countries around the world to call upon various organizations including
industries and universities to develop possible production techniques that is not only rapid but
also cost effective. Despite the initiatives taken by the different organizations, these resources
may hardly be sufficient due to the magnitude of the pandemic. Moreover, even if the PPE
and other resources are made available by the industries and other organizations by using their

respective production techniques, there is a high possibility of selling the products at higher
price. The only solution that will definitely meet the demand of the aforementioned resources
is through Open Source Modeling Technology [19]. In this technology, designs are developed
and then shared on the Internet free of cost with open source licenses, thereby, enabling the
manufacturers across the world to replicate the design and fabricate their own equipment, even
at a very small scale [20]. This technology makes it possible to develop a platform which
enables the creation of a general model that can be easily replicated, so that modifications,
customization and commercialization can also be easy for every interested producer of the
model. It is characterized with a lower production cost and utilization of local resources in the
design which directly contribute to the lower cost of the products.
2.1.10. Additive Manufacturing / 3D printing

The process of developing a three-dimensional component by using a digital 3D model or
a computer-aided design (CAD) model is known as additive manufacturing or 3D printing. The
term “3D printing” refers to a variety of processes in which computer control is used to join
or solidify a material or a combination of different materials to fabricate a three-dimensional
entity where the materials (such as powder grains or liquid molecules being fused together),
are usually added together layer by layer [21]. The time taken to produce a component depends
upon two factors: complexity of the item being printed and the quality of the printer being
used for fabrication. The significance of 3D printing has increased ever than before by virtue
of its ability to fabricate essential medical equipment at a faster rate, thereby, bridging the gap
between supply and demand which has intensified due to the disruption in the supply chain as
a result of COVID-19. Millions of products have been manufactured via 3D printing during the
coronavirus pandemic. Some of the products relevant to COVID-19 that has been fabricated via
3D printing are: face shield, respiratory valves (Fig. 7a), hands-free door handle attachment,
face masks, hand sanitizer clasps (Fig. 7b), quarantine booths etc. [22, 23].
Fig. 7. Photographs of the 3D printed products: (a) respiratory valves, and (b) hand
sanitizer clasp [23].

Summary
Different technological innovations that are being readily used across the world to combat
the COVID-19 was discussed. It was observed that not only new technologies have emerged
but also the updated and modified version of old technologies are being used. With the help of
artificial intelligence, rapid spread of COVID-19 was predicted in advance and this technology is
also being used to identify individuals from the crowd who might be suffering from the disease.
Robots and drones are being extensively used to deliver medicines, samples, household goods
etc. and spraying disinfectant in potentially affected areas. Several apps and maps have been
developed that give real time data relevant to COVID-19. In a short span of time not only the
genome sequencing of the novel corona virus was completed but also cost effective and highly
efficient detection kits were developed. Researchers are working on Open Source Modeling
Technology which will enable production of lower cost products related to COVID-19 on a
large scale. Additive manufacturing has been readily used to produce millions of products
including face shield, respiratory valves, hands-free door handle attachment, face masks, hand
sanitizer clasps, quarantine booths etc. In a nutshell, new technologies have emerged that are
helping in faster and accurate detection, prevention and containment of COVID-19, which
has immensely contributed in dwindling number of cases in some countries and set a trend for
finding a vaccine in near future.
Declaration of Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
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Review: Application of Machine
Learning in Mechanical Engineering
Pooja Kapoor
Research Scholar, SJJTU, Jaipur
abstract
In Future, man-serious assignments will be cultivated by machines. Along these lines, it
becomes fundamental for mechanical architects to up-expertise themselves and get to know
the innovation. Makers are sharp all the time to take on innovation that further develops item
quality, diminishes time-to-advertise, and is versatile across their units. Man-made brainpower,
Machine Learning, and Robotic Process Automation are helping makers calibrate item quality
and enhance activity. In this paper we will discuss about how Machine Learning used in
Mechanical engineering.
Keywords: Machine Learning, Deep Learning, Data science, Mechanical Engineering,
artificial Intelligence
Introduction
The modern world is in a steady condition of progress. AI will change mechanical designing
and consequently numerous client ventures. Execution has effectively started - presently the
attention is on substantial application situations and their execution.[1]
AI brings numerous very interesting methodologies, particularly for mechanical designing.
The effectiveness, adaptability and nature of the frameworks can be altogether improved with
the assistance of the accessible information.[2] New plans of action for clients are created. AI
guarantees that product and data innovation are progressively turning into the critical drivers
of development in mechanical designing.
In numerous enterprises, the expanding compatibility of individual machines will imply
that in future the actual machine will be sold, yet over every advantageous assistance. It
additionally clarifies why AI is on the plan in administration and in numerous expert areas of
mechanical designing organizations.
Where does the innovation come from? AI is a significant piece of software engineering
and man-made consciousness. PC programs in view of Machine Learning (ML) can utilize
calculations to freely track down answers for new and obscure issues.[3] The counterfeit

framework “perceives” examples and laws in the learning information it gets. Devices
previously settled available assistance to track down the calculations. “New structures and
stages support the wide use of these subjects in regular undertaking work”, clarifies Guido
Reimann from VDMA Software und Digitalisierung.
Fig 1: Artificial Intelligence and its subsets

Computerized reasoning is a more extensive term which in collaborates Machine Learning.
AI utilizes measurable techniques to permit machines to improve with experience.
Profound Learning, once more, is the subset of Machine Learning which utilizes multi-
facet neural organizations that mirror the human mind and can advance amazingly troublesome
assignments with enough information.[4]
We will discuss Deep learning techniques and its conceivable job in the field of Mechanical
Engineering. A few normal models could be Anomaly Detection(Machine Learning) and Image
based Part Classification(Deep Learning). The attention will be on Image based part classifiers
and why we really want them.
The innovation offers undreamt-of opportunities for machine and plant development:
Existing business and creation cycles can be advanced. The machines become canny and
practically independent interaction specialist co-ops. Dr. Alexander Wunderle, information
expert of the transmission expert Wittenstein, affirmed: “We can utilize AI to foster new items.”
For the execution of Machine Learning, the accompanying inquiries emerge over and
over: How would I begin such an AI project? Which application situation is appropriate
for my organization, which specialists do I want and which essentials ought to be made to
effectively carry out an undertaking.[5] Benedikt Buer of HOMAG Plattenaufteiltechnik is one

of the designers of intelliGuide, the insightful help framework from the producer of carpentry
machines. The product designer can report from his own insight and gives a significant hint
to organizations who need to manage AI: “Start with a little venture, the craving comes while
you’re eating”.
1.1 Anticipating mechanical disappointment

By consistently checking information (power plant, producing unit tasks) and giving
them to brilliant choice emotionally supportive networks, makers can anticipate the likelihood
of disappointment. Prescient support is an arising field in modern applications that aides in
deciding the state of in-administration hardware to gauge the ideal season of upkeep.[6]
ML-based prescient upkeep saves cost and time on daily schedule or preventive support.
Aside from modern applications, anticipating mechanical disappointment is additionally
helpful for enterprises like the carrier business. Carriers should be amazingly proficient in tasks
and postponements of even a couple of moments can bring about weighty punishments.[7]
Circumstances like postponement in burdening will bring about extreme fines for aircrafts,
the essential justification for burdening defers results from planes encountering mechanical
disappointments or natural circumstances that outcome in falling deferrals.
This is straightforwardly connected with successive information. For figuring out
successive information, we can utilize AI models to anticipate such occasions.
1.2 The expanding request of AI engineers

Makers have been utilizing disseminated and administrative control frameworks to further
develop process efficiencies in their plants. Notwithstanding, it requires thorough observing
and depends on the experience, instinct, and judgment of the administrator.[8]
Man-made intelligence is fit for improving and normalizing the information and experience
of specialists to settle on choice emotionally supportive networks compelling. Enterprises are
enthused about creating in-house AI capacities and that is the reason the interest for mechanical
architects with information on AI is quickly expanding. Presently, associations are paying
special attention to process and robotization engineers, information researchers, IT and Data
designers and AI creation specialists from mechanical and hardware foundation.
1.3 ML can be partitioned in Supervised Learning separately Unsupervised

Learning.
In the extent of this review regulated learning procedures were applied. A result of a
ML-strategy is a device which can be applied for simply deciding or expectations. Now we
are near framework demonstrating. The two strategies are involving a calculation for making
expectations and both utilize experimental information to characterize model boundaries. As
opposed to this displaying approach, Artificial Neural Networks (ANN) don’t recommend a
specific design, they are more like a “discovery”- model sort.[9]

1.4 Techniques, methodology and models
This part begins with a depiction of the applied techniques and computation methods
utilized in the current review. Then, at that point, demonstrating methods from traditional
designing and ML bundles are depicted momentarily and analyzed in regards to their abilities.
At last, three example issues are presented, which are utilized to show and talk about impacts
on model precision.
1.5 Data Science and Machine Learning

As society’s difficulties develop more perplexing, engineers are utilizing information
science and AI - a course of building models to oversee and portray enormous informational
collections and robotize their investigation - as an undeniably significant examination apparatus.
However to viably apply AI to genuine issues, specialists need to see how to function with
nonlinear frameworks, in complex conditions and with steadily evolving factors.
These are regions in which mechanical architects have many years of involvement.
Due to their assorted foundation and profound information on frameworks, sensors, controls
and liquids, mechanical architects are assuming a key part in molding the eventual fate of
information science. From clinical gadget improvement to elective energy examination to
improving and propelling assembling processes, scientists across UW Mechanical Engineering
are extending future uses of AI.
1.6 Mechanical Engineers Use Machine Learning

ML Technologies are growing to all designing callings. The extension expects architects
to adjust to the necessities it’s bringing. Subsequently, the solution to the primary inquiry is -
yes - mechanical architects can do AI in many fields of anticipating, planning and development.
Assuming you’re thinking about ML as a procedure for your items and administrations, you
should further develop your programming information. The main advance you should take is
to get information in proper programming dialects. You can observe an examination of the best
answers for ML designing on applicable discussions.Your base ought to get a decent grasp on
Python, R, C++, and Java.[10]
Conclusion
AI empowers specialized frameworks to gain as a matter of fact. Calculations are utilized
for the framework to perceive examples and constructions with model information given by
people. At that moment, AI applies its new knowledge to new, difficult scenarios. The VDMA
Software and Digitization assists organizations with effectively forming the way of AI with
VDMA individuals. In its organization, the expert affiliation has an enormous number of
organizations that as of now have mechanical information about AI. This information ought
to be utilized beneficially for machine and plant development. The Machine Learning Expert
Group has been chipping away at distributions and help for VDMA individuals for three years
at this point. New use cases are created in normal gatherings. The current distribution is the
Quick Guide Machine Learning

Machine Learning in Mechanical Engineering: Intelligent Management
Fields generally encouraging for development with ML innovations are figuring out and
planning. Assuming you plan mechanical parts, you realize that PCs comprehend complex plans
better. Gifted designers use streamlining instruments and techniques for new viable results.ML
brings new strategies for plan by consolidating framework examinations of mechanics and
material science.
Assuming that picking apart is your field of interest, AI may be one of your high need
contemplations. ML further develops your methods of deciding techniques and examine
fabricating objects. This could abbreviate your time among rebuilding and planning, and you
could arrive at your objectives, and sell your items quicker. At long last, it can assist you with
expressing mechanical framework conduct. This element can assist you with anticipating the
exhibition of parts convoluted to show. By having this data, you can augment the solidness of
your parts and foresee the eventual fate of your frameworks.
REFERENCES
[1] Marwala T. Finite-element-model updating using computational intelligence
techniques. Johannseburg: Springer; 2010. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-84996-323-
7.
[2] Keesman KJ. System identification—an introduction. 1st ed. New York: Springer;
2011. Hu, J.; Niu, H.; Carrasco, J.; Lennox, B.; Arvin, F., “Voronoi-Based Multi-
Robot Autonomous Exploration in Unknown Environments via Deep Reinforcement
Learning” IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology, 2020.
[3] Jump up to:a b c d Bishop, C. M. (2006), Pattern Recognition and Machine Learning,
Springer, ISBN 978-0-387-31073-2
[4] Machine learning and pattern recognition “can be viewed as two facets of the same
field.”[4]: vii
[5] Friedman, Jerome H. (1998). “Data Mining and Statistics: What’s the connection?”.
Computing Science and Statistics. 29 (1): 3–9.
[6] “What is Machine Learning?”. www.ibm.com. Retrieved 2021-08-15.
[7] Zhou, Victor (2019-12-20). “Machine Learning for Beginners: An Introduction to
Neural Networks”. Medium. Retrieved 2021-08-15.
[8] Jump up to:a b Domingos 2015, Chapter 6, Chapter 7.
[9] Jump up to:a b c Ethem Alpaydin (2020). Introduction to Machine Learning (Fourth
ed.). MIT. pp. xix, 1–3, 13–18. ISBN 978-0262043793.
[10] Samuel, Arthur (1959). “Some Studies in Machine Learning Using the Game of
Checkers”. IBM Journal of Research and Development. 3 (3): 210229. CiteSeerX
10.1.1.368.2254. doi:10.1147/rd.33.0210.

A Review on the Fourth Industrial
Revolution’s Barriers and Drivers
Hirendra Singha,, Bhim Singh
a
Department of Mechanical Engineering (ME), Sharda University Greater Noida U.P.201306
abstract
The modern production or manufacturing sector is approaching to complete digitalization,
as the market, product, and customer demands sustainability, flexibility, customization,
efficiency & effectiveness, quality, safety & security. In this fast-moving world, every customer
needs a specific high-quality product with a customized basis in low cost and great service
experience, for meeting market or customer demand industries are working and upgrading
itself, so they can facilitate the customer and lead the market, as the rising competition in
the market regarding demand, market instability & complexity, customization of product
and product life cycle is a big challenge for the enterprises. For sustainability, stability, and
efficiency is no longer efficiently handled by the existing techniques, this can be achieved
by integrating traditional production system or industry with information and communication
technology (ICT) in the fourth industrial revolution or industry 4.0, Industry 4.0 will have
complete supervision and over the complete product life cycle including after sale and services.
This paper is presenting the key drivers and hurdles the of the fourth industrial revolution.
Keywords: Cyber-physical system; Industry 4.0; Digitalization; Industrial revolution;
Introduction
A new term, Industry 4.0 has been launched with the creation of these innovations in
Germany symbolizing the advent of the Fourth Revolution of industry [2]. In order to minimize
the manual and human intervention in industries the fourth revolution of industrialization was
introduced, it is the future of Industry in which complete digitization of manufacturing process
will take place and the industry will become smart industry [1]. Several research organizations,
including businesses, have created a study that consist of interoperable, autonomous and
intelligent sharing of knowledge and regulated machinery and development units. Researchers,
however, hold different opinions on and accomplishment of the basic criteria of Industry 4.0
that concern their varied industrial technology implementations [3,4,5,6,10]. It seems that
recent technology is a widespread subject which is established in many fields. Consequently,

Business 4.0’s new interpretation cannot assert the values. Moreover, the industrial sector is
desperate for a hierarchical technology implementation process, which drives people to satisfy
Industry 4.0. Industry 4.0 may be defined as the combination of the physical and cybernetic
world by the digital transformation of the company, in which the automation and robotics
work as a self-regulatory sensor-based production system [7,8,12]. For the design of industry
4.0 model four main components decentralized decision making, interconnection, technical
assistance, and information transparency are the main components [1].
1.1 Background
Before eighteenth century there was no industry like a word found, people are using
machines and hand tools for making clothe and a majority of people were doing agriculture work,
Latter in the eighteenth century (1765) Great Britain introduced the first industrial revolution in
which the handmade production transform into machine work, those machines were water and
steam-powered and mechanically operated equipment came in existence. The steam engine was
also developed during this reform [1]. Later in the nineteenth century, 2nd reform of industry
came into existence which was the technological revolution of industry, during this phase the
use of electrical energy introduced. In that phase, the manufacturing industry’s advancement
was very high and the production of goods was rapidly increasing, many inventions were found
during the second revolution like telephone, telegram, automobiles, and planes. Other energy
sources like oil, gas were also used during this period. Transportation was the major chance
during the second revolution. And on the other during the second revolution the exploitation of
workers and employees, unemployment was at its peak. Middle of the twentieth-century third
industrial revolution was introduced the main aim of this revolution is production automation,
during third revolution computer, electronics and telecommunication were introduced, the use
of nuclear energy was also introduced during this Later on in the reform of industrial robotics
and internet were also comes in existence in that era [1,9]. Presently we are facing the fourth
industrial revolution that is the digital reform of industry in which industries are converting into
smart industry by adopting the enablers of industry 4.0 that combine the information system,
cyber world, and industrial physical world.
1.2 Industry 4.0
Industry 4.0, was launched with the creation of these innovations in Germany (Hannover
Fair., 2011) symbolizing the 4th revolution of industry culture [11]. However, the use of
personnel and supplementary services for monitoring, testing or effective servicing is indeed
costly. Recently, IOT and CPS have been used to link industry-related items such as content
[34], sensors, equipment, goods, supply chain and consumers, which means that these required
objects share information and control measures independently and autonomously with each
other. German understands that development has been a modern standard change, the so-called
‘Industry 4.0,’ in which consumers manage all the processing [8].
Industry 4.0 is very latest issues in the field of manufacturing and has also been the fourth
industrial revolution with severe potential effects on manufacturing 13]. Many other developed
countries are almost simultaneously conscious of this modern technological age. In China,
the industrial growth strategy ‘Made in China 2025’ was issued in 2015. A business growth

framework for the same reasons as Industry 4.0 was also developed [14]. According to several
analysts’ studies and views, the future view of production, the latest business models and the
framework architecture are discussed here in order to suggest the core ideas of Industry 4.0.
Many scholars believe that industrial developments entail a lengthy gestation cycle and address
the following four elements, known as potential output visions:
• Factory. As one of Industry 4.0’s key components, the future factory will include
a new integrative facility, which can not only link and share information on all the
manufacturing tools (sensors, actuators, motors, robotics, conveyors, etc.) but also
make the factories responsive and intelligent enough to anticipate and manage their
devices. [15].
• Business. Industry 4.0, the presence of full communication among different businesses,
manufacturers, vendors, logistics, tools, customers and so on. Every section improves
the setup in real-time based on the criteria and status of related network segments,
allowing the optimum benefit for all cooperatives with minimal capital for sharing.
Cost and waste, raw materials, CO2 emissions and so on can also be decreased. In
other words, each co-operating segment affects the future business network which can
attain a self-organizing status and relay real-time replies. [13].
• Products. The gains of Industry 4.0 would be a different form of industrial tool, that
of smart devices. These goods are integrated into sensors, recognizable modules and
processors, which hold information and expertise to provide consumers with practical
guidance and transmits feedback on the application to the production system. Many
features may be applied to goods with these components, for example calculating
product status or customers, distributing this information, monitoring items and
evaluating the results based on it. Besides, total development details log with a
product support developer can be implemented to advance the process, forecast and
maintenance R.S. Michael Abramovici [16].
• Customers. In Business 4.0, consumers would still have certain benefits. A new form
of payment would be introduced for consumers. It enables customers to order any
product feature with any number, even though there is only one. Besides, also at the
last minute, customers could customize their product any time during production. On
the other hand, the advantage of smart goods helps consumers not only to know the
product’s development details but also to get guidance on the use according to their
conduct [17].
Literature review
2.1 Drivers of industry 4.0
The aim of industry 4.0 is to make the industry and manufacturing smart by complete
integration of cyber technologies, information system and the physical industrial system with
the help of technological up-gradation of the industry, technologies up-gradation will make
the complete system smart like factory, processes, supply chain, assembly lines, product and

that is possible with the implementation of advanced sensors, control and connecting devices
[19]. Sensors are the first layer of the smart industry; they work on the ground level and collect
huge enormous amounts of data from the environment and perform various functions to
support the technology. And the control system monitors different events in the manufacturing
process, all the subsystems are monitored by the control system in a manufacturing industry.
Connectivity is handled by the internet and various other technologies like Wi-Fi, Ethernet, etc.
[18]. Connectivity aims to establish communication between devices through networking and
communication is very essential part of the smart industry. For approaching industry 4.0 these
technologies will play an important role:
• Cyber-Physical System (CPS)
• Cloud Computing
• Industrial Internet of Things (IIOT)
• Cyber Security
• Machine learning
• Artificial intelligence (AI)
• Advanced Robots
• Big Data
• Horizontal Integration
• Vertical Integration
• Augmented Reality
• 3D Printing
Cyber-physical system is the fusion of physical production world with the cyber world,
IOT assist the CPS to communicate with the real physical world [34]. It facilitates to the factories
and production system to work smart and intelligently. In this the cyber means computational
and networking system has control and monitoring over entire physical processes [20]. Cloud
computing is like a data center for the users available on the internet or it is a virtual storage for
a huge amount of data. It makes the use of the internet for the users in an economic manner; a
user can use the cloud as a dynamic memory allocation and resource sharing [6]. IIOT helps
to reduce the complexity between machine-to-machine communications in the industry and
it also helps to collect and analyses of data in the industry with the help of different sensors
placed in the industry. It creates a virtual environment to understand the real physical system,
it includes GPS, sensors, camera, RFID, etc. [8]. Cyber security is a protocol that must be
considered for the safety of important information, data, software, and hardware of the
organization or individual from the theft and damage; it protects your system during the human-
machine interface and also improves the efficiency of the system [21]. Machine learning is a
machine-to-machine communication based on artificial intelligence, in it, human intervention
reduces to a minimum level so that machines can make decisions by learning from the data
and make working pattern itself [22]. Artificial intelligence (AI) is approaching to make the
machine more and more intelligent as that can work and think like a human [34], It can also
be defined as to program a machine so that it can copy human action, think, learn and make

decisions for solving the problems [21]. Robots are becoming essential for industry they can
be used for predictive maintenance and monitor the situation and predict the machine failure.
Collaborative robotics (cobots) is new generation robots; they are very cooperative with the
humans and programmed to work with high flexibility and accessibility [1]. Big data analysis
is gaining relevant information and data from the heterogeneous enormous amount of data
available on the web data, it is done by data analytics and data mining techniques, it helps
the manufacturing companies to optimize the processes, reducing the cost of production and
operational performance improvement, that improves the performance of the company and
enhance the profit [23]. Augmented reality shear the real-time information that is useful for the
workers for effective and efficient work and decision making, augmented reality technology
easily shear the virtual models between the departments so they can work on it, a verity of
services can be performed by this like part selection, instructing repair etc. [24]. Horizontal
and Vertical Integration will provide the interconnection between man-machine and material at
the customer and market point of view for the overall growth of the business, the main aim is
to take the business at the highest level [1]. 3D printing or Additive Manufacturing is a modern
approach work on rapid prototyping technology that constructs complex 3D geometries which
was designed in CAD system. The main aim of this technology is to make the production
economical and optimize all the dimensions of quality [25].
2.2 Barriers in the way of industry 4.0
In the way of digitalization or industry 4.0 there are few huddles in the successful
implementation, as the system needs to upgrade to the emerging technologies in the service
and manufacturing sectors, due to which uncertainty and high capital investment and skilled
employee requirement occurs. And because of automatic digitalized technology implementation
unemployment will exceed and there is the standard for the implementation of industry 4.0
as not clear. Based on the literature review eleven hurdles were defined. For the successful
implementation of industry 4.0 in manufacturing industry there is a need to overcome the
barriers that hinder the manufacturing industry to achieve the industry 4.0.
The main barriers in the way of industry 4.0 is uncertainty of profit with respect to the higher
initial investment and lack of awareness and skills compatible with new digital technology [26].
In the literature few adoption barriers has been found like Employment disruption in the digital
era and huge number of job losses due to higher level of automation[27], Digital technology
implementation needs a higher initial investment which is not suitable for the small and medium
enterprises[28], Due to the higher level of automation and digitalization the organizational
process will change that could bring several challenges for the organization[26], Human
resource need to update their knowledge as the new technology needs updated knowledge and
skills of the employee in the industry[29], IoT implementation is very crucial for the industries
as it comes along with lots of devices and networks so the financial benefits are at risk as the
IoT is in the developing phase[30], Lack of standard or reference for industry 4.0 architecture
is missing, Lack of information technology infrastructure and communication system is a big
blockage for industry 4.0 technology implementation [31].
There is always a risk of information theft as most of the date and information flowing

online, a strong cyber security system is needed with industry 4.0[32], there is always a
compatibility issue when old system is updated with the new digital technology most of the
system will not respond properly with IoT and CPS technologies [33], Regulatory Compliance
issues is always there as there is no strict rule for security, working hours and machinery, and
there is legal and contractual uncertainty about industry 4.0 application.
Methodology
The current study is an exploratory and descriptive study based on a three-step technique
that includes the phases of observation, classification, and association as in fig.1.
Fig.1 phases of research technique were used.

The initial stage was to conduct a bibliographic search to standardise information on
Industry 4.0 drivers and barriers, and its characteristics. The classification shaped the review
structure, which examined each of the industry 4.0 barrier, as well as 4.0 technologies, in
order to produce technological and industrial mappings. Industry 4.0 is a critical field for study
and application because it adds value to industrial outcomes and processes by integrating new
technologies in production and services. Organizations, on the other hand, still have a hurdle to
overcome in order to adopt digital concepts successfully and on schedule. The high investment
requirements and unknown cost advantages for industry 4.0 application sectors are the key
sources of uncertainty. Furthermore, the workforce lacks the necessary skills to deal with the
impending automation for implementing Industry 4.0, causing ambiguity in several firms.
Before being completely welcomed by all enterprises, this digital transformation will have
to overcome several obstacles. The drivers and the barriers for Industry 4.0 are identified and
studied based on an existing literature analysis and the perspectives of industry and academic
professionals. Web of Science, Scopus, etc. research publications on Industry 4.0 were

evaluated for the review. For further information on Industry 4.0 drivers and the challenges to
its adoption, a few industry papers, news stories, and trade periodicals were also recommended.
Several expert opinions were considered from the extent literature to prioritization of different
industry 4.0 barriers and drivers as in Fig. 2. More than 100 articles have been reviewed and 36
articles were found relevant for this work.
Results & Conclusion

Industry 4.0 is the fourth industrial revolution and it is like a blind man describing
the elephant as every other person explaining it in their own way, they have their separate
parameters to analyse industry 4.0 applications and implementations. This paper is presenting
the key enablers and the adoption barrier of industry 4.0 that has been found in the study. In the
literature it has been found, industries looking for implementation of industry 4.0 technologies
are using IoT, CPS, Cyber security, etc. [35] commonly and the application of enablers like
horizontal and vertical integration, 3D printing, augmented reality, etc. [24] are rarely found
or very less study has been found in the currently available literature. Researchers have used
words like cyber-physical system, industrial internet of things, cloud computing, artificial
intelligence, additive manufacturing, augmented reality machine learning, etc., considered as
enablers of industry 4.0. The framework of industry 4.0 is not adequately standardized, as
the dimensions of industry 4.0 are not restricted in boundaries. There are several features of
industry 4.0 still unexplored or very little study has observed on its applications in the reviewed
literature. The prioritization of the drivers and barriers in the results are based on the experts,
industry personals, and academician’s opinions that has been available in the literature fig.2.
Fig.2 Prioritization of drivers and the barriers of industry 4.0 [ 21, 26, 35, 36,37]

Industry 4.0 is the future of industries and it may have very lucrative benefits in the future
yet it also left a lot of questions for the researchers like adoption barriers, implementation
strategy, reference architecture etc. in this paper some adoption barriers are also discussed and
prioritization of enablers and barriers is suggested as per the available literature, eleven industry
4.0 drivers and hurdles has been discussed. This study reveals the key drivers and hurdles
for industry 4.0 implementation and also discuss the priority level of each driver and hurdle
identified in literature, it may be possible that few drivers or hurdles may not be considered
here or it may not have significant impact in other countries.
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Identification of Lean
Manufacturing Wastes: A Literature
Study
Virender Chahala , Dr. M.S. Narwalb
(vchahal68@gmail.com and narwalmohi@rediffmail.com)
a
Associate professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Ganga Institute of Technology
and Management, Jhajjar , India
b
Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Deenbandhu Chhotu Ram University of
Science and Technology, Sonipat, Haryana, India
abstract
In this competitive environment, every industry is trying to convert their manufacturing
system into lean system. Because lean is the most efficient system to provide high profit in less
amount. In this journey, many lean strategies identified to improve lean system but on other
hand many lean wastes also introduced to be minimized. Most of the studied are literature
based to identification lean wastes but practical environment is different from literature. The
function of this paper is to make out lean wastes with practical study to know the actual status
of lean wastes due to that an appropriate strategy can be developed or indentified to minimize
them. The study is literature and survey based which will help to identified previous discussed
as well as practical considered lean wastes. We have studies 121 research papers to find lean
wastes and then prepare a questionnaire for manufacturing industries. It may be possible that
all literature based wastes are considered by industry that can be less or more. So this study
will solve the problem about lean waste identification. As result, most considered lean wastes
will find out which helps to adopt suitable lean strategies for these wastes to get better effective
implementation of lean manufacturing system.
Key Words: Lean wastes, lean manufacturing strategies, lean manufacturing
Introduction: Lean manufacturing is not a new word for present industrial scenario form
the past years after World-War 2. It roared importance and effectiveness to entire world to
improve manufacturing system. But in today competitive industrial environment, every
manufactures is going to adopt lean manufacturing due to high profitability with good customer
satisfaction. In Japan, it was a great revolution and starting has been start for modern and

precise manufacturing system to minimize lean wastes in industry (Thompson and Mintz
1999). It is also called “Toyota Production System (TPS)” and discovered by Taiichi Ohno
and Shigeo Shingo. The purpose of lean manufacturing is a systematic system to minimize
the lean wastes to fulfill industry satisfaction as well as customer expectations with high
quality products in high proficient and economical manner (Sing et al., 2010). Lean waste in
industry is uninvited events which results bad performance with extra attention, money and
time (Naylor et al. 1999). Lean execution can’t be finished until all waste is removed. Hines
and Rich, 1997 described seven deadly lean wastes and they must be minimized because they
reduce overall performance with less output which are: waiting, transportation, inappropriate/
over processing, excessive inventory, unnecessary motion, defects and overproduction. But
in present manufacturing some other wastes also considered like worker fatigue, work force,
worker talent not used etc. Lean manufacturing is introduced to minimization of lean wastes
without any other supplementary necessities of resources (Bhamu and Sangwan, 2012) but
question is that which strategy will minimize which waste? And also there should be a link
between literatures discussed and practically adopted lean wastes so this study is carried out to
answer this situation.
Literature review:
Lean Seven Wastes: Waste introduction is very simple and complex too but also an
important question arise here that why need to identify them? In practical way,” waste is a
preventable and unnecessary activity with investment of time and money is waste” (Hines and
Rich, 1997).
Taiichi Ohno discussed seven lean manufacturing wastes which are described below:
Overproduction – It is extra manufacturing of goods before the order; in other words
just as assumption for order which results wastage of man power, time, resources and money
(Naylor et al., 1999).
Waiting – Waiting happens due to poor orientation, uncontrolled process, ineffective
inventory etc. which results delay in process, money and time waste etc. According to practical
estimates, maximum time in manufacture is exhausted in waiting, order, machine parts, waiting
for job etc, these all are the waiting waste (Singh et al. 2010).
Transportation – It is the movement of material/tool from process floor, product between
workstations which are non value added activity. It is a time consuming and can be a reason of
industrial mishappening (Gautam & Singh, 2008).
Inappropriate/Over processing – It occurs added processing to remove defect ot any
misalignment which results time and money waste (Vinodh &Balaji, 2011).
Excessive inventory – It creates excessive manufacturing happens without any demand
and results excessive inventory (Vinodh &Balaji, 2011).
Unnecessary motion – Its unnecessary motion of workers on workstation which disturb
worker comfort and concentration. They are like: extra motion for any machine tools or
equipments, motion to get work instructions etc
Defects – Non-required and non-accurate activity by worker or machine which results

defect/flaws. To avoid this, it will need extra time and money for extra machining (Meier &
Forrester (2001).
These wastes are typical TPS system based but in today scenario, they are varying as per
new innovation in lean strategies. TPS also highlights some lean strategies which minimize
these identified wastes. According to Chahal & Narwal (2017) and Sundar et al. (2014), they
are:
5’S: A supervisory approach to manage inventory, space and minimize worker movement.
5S has different areas: sort, set in order, shine, standardize and sustain.
JIT: JIT, a pull system which works as per order or demand by workers. It reduces
inventory to make system more effective.
Kan-Ban: Kan-ban can be used as a main system of Lean manufacturing which is more
efficient than other systems.
Kaizen: Kaizen is a regular perfection tool to enhance profit, failures reduction and also
reduces worker fatigue.
Total Quality Management (TQM): A managerial tool to support industry and worker for
superior quality with good worker and customer happiness.
Single Minute Exchange to Die (SMED): SMED is an well-organized control to restore
possible industrial amendment to reduce overall process time.
Total Productive Maintenance (TPM): TPM is an effective tool for waste reduction and
quality Improvements.
Value Stream Mapping (VSM): VSM is a technique to map flow of the money, material
and information to harmonize the events performed by worker (Rohani & Zahraee 2015).
Cellular Manufacturing (CM): CM is tool to make efficient and high acute time saving
layout for industry which reduces time in waiting, motion and transportation waste. It also
reduces worker fatigue.
Lean Training: Tool to train workers for multitasking and make more efficient.
Six Sigma/ Zero Defect Concept: It reduces different causes for defect or any breakdown.
Lean Thinking: It is a new innovative tool with lean thoughts to make industry more
precious and efficient every time.
Methodology
The research is the study of literature to identify the lean manufacturing wastes. The
required data is comes from collected different research papers from the International
conferences, proceedings etc. In present, there are many modern sources are available like web
and books which deliver required information for research. After study the literature review,
lean manufacturing waste find out.
This paper also tries to be aware about concept of lean manufacturing and waste reduction
techniques for industry. There is thousands of research papers available related to lean
manufacturing but the study is based on selected papers which are more connected to research
work. After summarization, results is: 28 papers are related to lean manufacturing study
and introduction, 19 papers are related to implementation of lean manufacturing, 55 papers

discussed about lean techniques, industrial wastes and leanness measurement. The intention of
the paper is to identify lean manufacturing waste and way to minimize them to make industry
for profitable and high customer satisfaction.
Lean Manufacturing Wastes by Literature Study

Different authors discussed different types of lean manufacturing waste with different lean
strategies. Chahal & Narwal, 2017, highlights the different lean manufacturing strategies with
empirical literature review but every lean strategy has its own industrial waste to eliminate.
TPS wastes are specified and fix but in practical and present working scenario, waste can be
vary. Literature also focuses same theory for lean strategies. This paper highlights the result of
collection of number of research papers.
Results are showing in figure: 1
Table: 1
Lean Manufacturing
S. Wastes W W W W W W W W W W W W
Author & year 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
No.
1 Hines and Rich *

(1997)
2 Stewart & Adams * *
(1998)
3 Naylor et al. * * *
(1999)
4 Hines et al. (1999) * * * *
5 Vrijhoef and * *
Koskela (2000)
6 Bob Carroll (2001) * *
7 Meier & Forrester * * *
(2001)
8 Aitken et al. * * * *
(2002)
9 Fullerton et al. *
(2003)
10 Shah and Ward *
(2003)
11 Paez et al. (2004) * *

12 Paez et al. (2005) * * * *
13 Goldberg et al. * *
(2006)
14 Abdulmaleka and * *
Rajgopalb (2007)
15 Wan & Chen * * *
(2008)
16 Sahoo et al. (2008) * * * *
17 Gautam & Singh * *
(2008)
18 Pettersen (2009) * *
19 Kodali (2009) * * *
20 Pattanaik & * * * * *
Sharma (2009)
21 Nordin et al. * *
(2010)
22 Ramnath et al. * * * *
(2010)
23 Singh et al. (2010) * * *
24 Singh et al. (2010) * * * *
25 Zanjirchi et * * * *
al.(2010)
26 Chauhan et * * * * *
al.(2010)
27 Detty & Yingling * *
(2010)
28 Nordin et al.(2010) * * * * *
29 Behrouzi and * * * *
wong (2010)
30 Seyedhosseini et * * * *
al. (2011)
31 Vinodh &Balaji *
(2011)
32 Yang et al.(2011) * * * * *

33 Schwarz et. Al. * * *
(2011)
34 Vinodh & Chintha * * * *
(2011)
35 Cuaa et al. (2011) * * * * *
36 Vinodh & Joy * * * * *
(2011)
37 Kumar et al. (2011) * * * * *
38 Eswaramoorthi et * * * *
al. (2011)
39 Rajenthirakumar * * * *
&Thyla (2011)
40 Goriwondo et al. * *
(2012)
41 Gopinath & * * * *
Freiheit (2012)
42 Alaskari et al. * * * *
(2012)
43 Satao et al. (2012) * * * *
44 Mohanraj & * * *
Sakthivel (2012)
45 Ghosh (2012) * * * *
46 Vinodh & Vimal * * * * *
(2012)
47 Jainury et al.2012) * * * * *
48 Gupta & Jain * * * * *
(2013)
49 Karim and Zaman * * * * *
(2013)
50 Krishnan, & * * * *
Parveen (2013)
51 Shabeena et al. * * *
(2013)
52 Kumar et al. (2013) * * *
53 Chakraborty et al. * * * * * *
(2013)

54 Kumar & Pandey * * *
(2013)
55 Thirunavukkarasu * * *
et al. (2013)
56 Khadse, Sarode * * * *
and Wasu (2013)
57 Bhamu and * * * * *
Sangwan (2013)
58 Gunasekharan et * * * * *
al. (2014)
59 Jasti & Kodali * * *
(2014)
60 Gupta & Jain * * * * *
(2014)
61 Sundara et al. * * * * *
(2014)
62 Aikhuele & Azizi * * * * * *
(2014)
63 Basu & Dan (2014) * * * *
Jadhav et al.e * * *
(2014)
64 Zargun & Ashaab * *
(2014)
Modi & Thakkar * * *
(2014)
65 Thanki & Thakkar * * * *
(2014)
66 Obeidata et al. * * * *
(2014)
67 Achanga et al. * * *
(2015)
68 Jadhav et al. (2014) * * *
69 Wan &Chen * * *
(2015)
70 Khanchanapong et * * * * *
al. (2014)

71 Amin & Karim * * * * *
(2015)
72 Mohammad et al. * * * *
(2015)
73 Mostafa et al. * * * * *
(2015)
74 Cottyn et al. (2015) * * *
75 Vinodh & Chinth * * * *
(2015)
76 Hodge et al. (2015) * * *
77 Patel et al. (2015) * * * *
78 Jiménez et al. * * * * * *
(2015)
79 Susilawati et al. * * * * * *
(2015)
80 Parry & Turner * * * * * * *
(2015)
81 Virdi & Pandya * * *
(2015)
82 Pakdil &Leonard * * *
(2015)
83 Ozelkan & * * *
Galambosi (2015)
84 Jain et al. (2015) * * * * *
85 Eswaramoorthi * * * *
(2015)
86 Panwar et al. * * *
(2015)
87 Bamber & Dale * * * *
(2015)
88 Isaksson & Seifert * * *
(2015)
89 Panizzolo et al. * * * *
(2015)
90 Storch (2015) * * *
91 Gollan et al. (2015) * * *

92 Yang et al. (2015) * * * *
93 Green et al. (2015) * * * *
94 Yang et al. (2015) * * * *
95 Brintrup et al. * * * *
(2015)
96 Belekoukias et al. * * * *
(2015)
97 Nithia et al. (2015) * * *
98 Niall Piercy and * * *
Nick Rich (2015)
99 Bortolotti et al. * * * *
(2015)
100 Cherrafi et al. * * * * *
(2016)
101 Hartinia & * * * *
Ciptomulyonob
(2015)
102 Sanders, *
Elangeswaran, &
Wulfsberg (2016).
103 Nallusamy (2016) * * *
Verrier, Rose & *
Caillaud, E. (2016)
105 Jasti & Kodali * * * *
(2016)
106 Murugesan, * * *
Rajenthirakumar
& Chandrasekar
(2016)
107 Lacerda, Xambre * * *
& Alvelos (2016).
108 Helleno et al. * * * *
(2017)
109
110 Zhou, B. (2016) * * *
111 Fercoq, Lamouri, * * * *
& Carbone (2016)

112 Alaskari, Ahmad * * * *
& Pinedo-Cuenca
(2016).
113 Sedano, Ralph & * * * *
Péraire (2017)
114 Villarreal et al. * * * *
(2017)
115 León & Calvo- * * *
Amodio (2017)
116 Kumar, Dhingra & * * * *
Singh, B. (2018)
117 Chugani et al. * * * *
(2017)
118 Lacerda, Xambre * * *
& Alvelos (2016).
119 Mrugalskan & * * * *
Wyrwicka (2017).
120 De la Vega- * * * *
Rodríguez et al.
(2018)
121 Antosz & * * * *
Stadnicka (2017).
Source: (Chahal & Narwal, 2017)
Where: W1= Overproduction , W2= Inappropriate processing, W3= Excessive inventory,
W4= Unnecessary motion, W5= Defects, W6 =Waiting W7= Transportation, W8= Workforce,
W9= Worker Fatigue, W10= Work In Progress, W11= Process Fail, W12= Not-Utilizing
Talent
Barrier while minimize lean manufacturing wastes
Wastes are basically three types: Values added waste activity, Non-Value added waste
activities and Necessary but Non-Value added activities. They can be minimized but in
practical, there are some barriers. Every industry wants to minimize or eliminate them but some
time barrier will be in form of cost, time or worker behavior etc. Workers also endure during
environment change to waste reduction. Some barriers are:-
Faulty layout
Lack of knowledge for worker
Wrong information flow
Poor managing skill
Extra work fatigue for worker

Poor implementation of lean strategies
Less motivated worker
Lack of proper training etc.
Chahal, Sharma and chauhan (2013) also highlights advantages after lean manufacturing
waste reduction
Table: 2
S. No Process Measurement After waste reduction After waste reduction

(Proper Lean Strategies (Un-Proper Lean Strategies
Implementation) Implementation)
1 Flexibility level High Low
2 Inventories Handling Managed Excess and Unmanaged
3 Production type Pull Push
4 Layout type Quality Functional
5 Scheduling time Less High
6 Lead time Less High
7 Inspection rate Very High Very Low
8 Empowerment role Good Bad
9 Batch size Small – continuous High- batch & queue
10 Customer satisfaction Very High Very Low
Figure: 1 Lean Manufacturing Wastes
Discussion
Lean manufacturing is growing impression for present industrial scenario. Many
developed industry has implemented lean as a primary system but in India it is still struggling.
Lean manufacturing is a mixture of different lean strategies and their related wastes. It is also

an important field to identified manufacturing wastes. In this paper, different lean wastes have
been disused and identifies by literature support for better selection of lean strategies. This
paper highlights the present status of manufacturing waste. The complete study of literature
for manufacturing waste is not possible, so this is the collection of some collected research
papers. Many authors have been work for identification of lean strategies but very less study is
available for this field.
Conclusion
Lean has infinite dimensions to measure the depth with new inventions in practical
and research fields. Japan and other developed countries have been conventional that lean
manufacturing is very effective concept for industries, workers and customers. But question
was regarding identification of lean manufacturing waste. It is very important to selection
most appropriate lean strategy for selection waste to minimize different related waste i.e.
implementation time, motion, transportation and layout change, purchasing cost, worker
training etc. Lean manufacturing waste and their effects can further study out with a case
study/survey of industry/industries with systematic questionnaire. If we have specific waste
then it is easy to select appropriate strategy for better improvements. It is a high vision work
which reduces stress for industry as well as customer. The benefits can be in form of time
and money saving, no overproduction and zero inventory, no delay, organized shop-floor, well
qualified workers, and also best customer happiness etc. but also some barriers which discussed
earlier. Overall, Lean is a well-organized structure to provide a new attainment to industry and
customers.
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THERMAL AND FLUID ENGINEERING
Phase Change Materials in
Solar Water and Heating System
Technologies: A Review
Nishant Singha, Arpit kumara, Dr. Parmanand Kumara
Mechanical Engineering Department, National Institute of Technology, Jamshedpur,
a
Jharkhand, 831013, India,

a
E mail address: kaalkhanday@gmail.com
E mail address: arpitkumar2711@gmail.com
a
abstract
The current study gives a comprehensive overview of various phase change materials
(PCMs) and their thermophysical characteristics for solar water and other heating applications
at low temperatures (30–80 °C). Relatively high energy storage density and practically constant
operating temperature latent heat storage (LHS), are regarded as the most promising approaches
for thermal energy storage. Paraffins, fatty acids, salt hydrates, and alcohols appear to be the
most popular materials to be explored for domestic use, with melting temperatures of between
30 and 80 °C. By adding phase change materials to the system, the period over which heat
is released into stored water at the end of the day is prolonged, and the collector’s efficiency
is increased because it will not be exposed to severe temperature variations. However, there
are challenges to choosing the proper phase change material for solar water and other heating
systems. The lesser thermal conductivity and high specific heat capacity of the phase change
material (PCM) employed in the LHS system, on the other hand, severely improved heat
transferability in the phase change region. There is a lot of promise as a new heat transfer
fluid for air conditioning and solar thermal systems. This article presents a comparative review
of PCMs, their performance enhancement approaches, and their characteristics. As a result,
reliable PCMs can be selected and appropriate performance improvement techniques can be
implemented to provide the greatest thermal performance for PCM-based LHS systems. A few
recommendations are also provided for future research on performance enhancement strategies
for LHS systems.
Keywords: Thermal energy storage; Solar water heating; Solar space heating; Phase

change materials; Heat transfer performance; Thermophysical Properties.
Nomenclature
Tmelt Melting temperature (◦C) SC Solar collector
Hfusion Latent heat of fusion (kJ/kg) ICC Insulated cylindrical container
ρPCM Density of PCM (kg/m3 ) Ins. Insulation
Cp Specific heat (kJ/kg-K) AS Absorber surface
wt.% Weight percentage (%) HWO Hot water outlet
kPCM Thermal conductivity of PCM CWI Cold water inlet
Abbreviations
SWHS Solar water heating system PCM Phase change material
TSU Thermal storage unit HTF Heat transfer fluid
ICS Integrated collector-storage LHSU Latent heat storage unit
SCS Separate collector-storage LHS Latent heat storage
Introduction
Residential and commercial structures, as well as the industrial sectors, use significant
amounts of energy, especially for space heating and domestic hot water (DHW) systems. World
energy consumption is primarily driven by residential and service sectors, accounting for
35.3%. 75% of this is used for space and household water heating [1]. Phase change materials
(PCM) are used as a method to drastically reduce their consumption. In addition to improving
the efficiency of solar thermal energy, this method lowers the energy supply-demand gap. For
PCM energy storage, energy is transferred from solids to liquids, from liquids to gases, or vice
versa, as materials change phases. By using traditional electrical heaters in heating and DHW
systems off-peak, PCM thermal energy is saved to reduce energy consumption costs. This
energy is subsequently dissipated during the peak season. Researchers have been researching
thermal energy storage. Because of their high thermal energy densities, PCMs are used
extensively per unit volume/mass and have applications in many engineering fields with a large
temperature range (Refs. [2]–[8])provided a thorough examination of several types of PCMs
in terms of their properties,[9] defined the features and categories [10] discusses the use of
PCM in air cooling systems. An application of PCM in free cooling technology was examined.
The thermal energy that is available for storage can be latent, sensible, or chemical. The LHS
technique differs from sensible heat storage in several ways, including isothermal heat storage,
high storage capacity, and compact storage space. A phase change material (PCM) is used for
LHS. Many academics are now interested in the integration of thermal storage, particularly
LHS and SWHS[11]. The most practicable designs for merging LHS and SWHS are integrated
collector-storage (ICS) and separate collector storage (SCS) SWHS (Fig. 1). Incoming solar
radiation is absorbed by the absorber surface and transported to the thermal storage medium
in the ICS-SWHS (Fig. 1(c)). During the discharge stage, this absorbed energy is transmitted
to the application via heat transfer fluid (HTF), i.e., water[12]. Combining PCM with a solar

collector can be accomplished by-
• Directly placing the PCM in the cavity where it is in contact with the absorbing surface.
• Installing the encapsulated PCM in the solar collector
• Directly installing the PCM in the collector tank of the integrated collector system.
• Installing the PCM directly in contact with the solar collector.
Fig. 1. (a) Integrated collector storage(ICS); (b) Separate collector storage (SCS); (c)
and (d) Energy flow diagrams for different types of solar thermal systems[12]
The SCS-SWHS has its own thermal storage unit (TSU). The encapsulated PCM can be
immediately placed in a water tank for TSU, or a separate latent heat storage unit (LHSU) can
be added. During the charging phase, the solar collector’s gathered heat is transported to the
LHSU through HTF, and during the discharging period, this stored heat within the LHSU is
used for application. In Figure 2, various designs of ICS-SWHS and SCS-SWHS with LHS
are shown. SCSS and ICS-SWHS-LHS are categorized according to their WHS and LHS
statements. Both ICS-SWHS and SCS-SWHS can integrate LHS and SWHS. A number of
reviews of SWHS and LHS have been published earlier in the literature [11], [13], [13]–[15].
Authors have contributed to this work. In the authors’ study, they found that the optimal PCM
melting temperature for SWHS is 40–70 ℃. Due to the large amount of PCM storage capacity
provided by the water storage tank, they advocated using that configuration.
Fig. 2. Classification of SWHS-LHS designs[12]

This literature review shows that the results of SWHS-LHS are heavily dependent on
the integration approach, or the design of SWHS-LHS. It also shows that there is not a single
SWHS-LHS design that is suitable for a given scenario. Due to this, the article provides a
comparative assessment of several ICS-SWHS-LHS and SCSSWHS-LHS designs, including
their design, operation, and performance characteristics. The results of this work will be useful
to researchers and industry in the construction of SWHS-LHS tailored to specific circumstances.
Phase Change Materials
Phase change materials (PCM) are employed for the storage of latent heat. When PCM
materials are heated, they undergo a phase transition. During phase transition, PCM material
temperatures remain relatively constant, i.e., the melting temperatures. A categorization
of PCMs is depicted in Figure 3. Solid liquid, liquid gas, and solid solid PCM phases may
transition between each other. A liquid gas PCM is unsuitable for solar applications due to its
high volume and pressure requirements[16]. In consequence, these materials are capable of
storing heat at a specified temperature[17]. This makes PCMs a suitable option for thermal
storage with STUS systems. Solid-solid PCMs are also unsuitable for thermal storage because
of their low latent heat storage capacity[18]. The two key properties that make solid-liquid
PCMs most suitable for use with STUS are their substantial thermal storage capacity, their
negligible volume change during phase transitions, and their ability to store heat at constant
temperatures. Three different kinds of solid liquid PCMs exist: organic, inorganic, and eutectic.
Organic PCMs are the best materials for thermal storage in solar thermal applications because
they are reusable, have a high latent heat, are inexpensive, and require little super cooling.
There are two types of organic PCMs: paraffin and fatty acid[19]. The melting temperature
of paraffin is 20 to 70 ℃. A major problem with paraffin is its low heat conductivity. Thermal
performance augmentation methods may be used to improve this conductivity. Figure 4 shows
several strategies for improving thermal performance. PCM’s thermal conductivity and heat
transfer surface area can both be increased by applying these strategies.
Fatty acids arise from animal/vegetable fats and are aliphatic monocarboxylic acids. The
literature has extensively used fatty acids for heat storage due to their excellent kinetic and
thermodynamic properties[20]. The melting points, the thermal conductivities, and the latent
heats of fusion of inorganic chemical compounds are also important properties[21]. Salt hydrates
and metallic PCMs are subgroups of inorganic PCMs. As a result of their adequate melting
temperature range, salt hydrates PCMs serve as more suitable thermal storage materials than
metallics for solar thermal applications. Eutectics are substances that are the lowest boiling.
All three types of eutectics are possible: organic-organic, organic-inorganic, and inorganic-
inorganic. The majority of the characteristics required for thermal storage are possessed by
eutectic PCM. Their applicability, however, is limited due to their scarcity and expensive cost.
Table 1 summarizes the benefits and drawbacks of several types of PCMs.

Fig. 3. Classification of PCMs[2].
Fig. 4. Techniques for improving the thermal performance of latent heat storage systems
[22].

Table 1. Different types of PCMs are compared [19], [21], [23][24].
S. No. PCM’S Merits Demerits

1. Organic PCMs Suitable melting temperature Low thermal conductivity
(30–60 ℃) (0.15–0.28 W/mK)
Chemical stability and non- High phase transitional volume
corrosiveness change
High latent heat of fusion Inflammability
Low super cooling
2. Inorganic PCMs A small change in volume with Super cooling
phase transition Highly corrosive
High latent heat of fusion (125–
280 kJ/ kg℃)
High thermal conductivity
(0.53–1.85 W/mK)
3. Eutectics Sharp melting temperature Less available commercially
High thermal storage density Expensive
Encapsulated PCM
This review study is mainly focused on encapsulated PCM. Adopting encapsulated
PCMs, which was detailed in Table 2, is another generally utilized way to extend the heat
transfer surface of LHS. The PCM capsules are classified into two types based on their size:
microcapsules and macrocapsules. The majority of the microcapsules are spherical in shape,
with diameters ranging from tens of nanometers to hundreds of microns. The macrocapsules
are spherical or cylindrical in shape, with sizes ranging from a few millimeters to a few hundred
millimeters. The encapsulated PCM technology, particularly microcapsules, may considerably
improve the heat transfer surface between HTF and PCM, hence improving LHS performance.
Microcapsules
Microcapsules are typically employed for low temperature organic PCMs (e.g., paraffin,
fatty acids, etc.), with organic materials (e.g., methyl methacrylate [25], [26], polystyrene [26],
[27], [27], and alginate [28] used as packing materials.
Authors [25], [26], [26], [27], [27] created a range of micro/nano encapsulated PCMs using
a poly or polystyrene shell and low temperature organic PCMs such paraffin, n-heptadecane,
n-nonadecane, fatty acids, n-tetracosane, and n-octadecane. The complete production,
characterization, and thermal energy storage characteristics of latent heat were described. The
results reveal that the enclosed PCMs have strong thermal conductivity and phase change
reversibility, making them potential PCMs for low-temperature LHS applications.
Macrocapsules
Metal [29]–[31], rocks [32], polymer [31], [33], [34], and ceramic [35] are commonly
used as packing materials for high temperature PCMs (e.g., nitrate, chloride, and carbonate).

The heat transmission performance of the encapsulated PCMs is greatly influenced by
the operation settings [29], [30], [36]. Author[30] computed the performance of a packed
bed LHS system with spherical capsules filled with paraffin wax as PCM. The impacts of
intake HTF temperature, mass flow rate, and phase change temperature range on the thermal
performance of capsules with different radii were examined. Authors[29], [30] created a high
temperature encapsulated PCM for concentrating solar power systems using stainless steel
capsules and NaNO3 as the PCM. The LHS performance was investigated both experimentally
and numerically. In an organic Rankine cycle-based solar thermal power plant, Authors[37]
statistically evaluated the transient response of a packed bed LHS system with spherical shaped
encapsulated PCMs for reducing changes in HTF temperature during charging and discharging
periods. It is discovered that raising the mass flow rate and inlet charging temperature
considerably improves the ability of the latent heat thermal energy storage system to store and
release energy.
Reduced capsule size improves the thermal performance of an LHS system with
encapsulated PCMs [31], [32], [34], [38], [39]. According to the findings, lowering PCM
capsule size and fluid entry velocity, or increasing storage height, leads to an improvement in
charge efficiency. The impact of spherical capsule size on the solidification properties of water
as the PCM was examined by Chandrasekaran et al. [38]The capsule size had a considerable
influence on subcooling at lower temperature driving potential, but it was completely abolished
at greater temperature driving potential.
Based on the literature research, it can be established that encapsulated PCM can improve
LHS performance, and that as the capsule size decreases, thermal performance can be improved
further. As a result, the PCM microcapsule is a viable solution for improving LHS system
performance. However, because to manufacturing issues, the microcapsule is typically utilized
for low temperature PCM. It is critical to develop high-efficiency encapsulation technologies
for high-temperature PCM.
Table 2. Summary of LHS performance enhancement with capsulated PCM.
Capsule Capsule dimension C a p s u l e Phase change M e l t i n g

shape (D: diameter; H: material material temperature (°C)
height)
Spherical D: 0.01–100 µm M e t h y l Paraffin 20–36
methacrylate
Spherical D: 1–20 µm Polystyrene n-heptadecane 21.48
Spherical D: 0.01–80 µm M e t h y l n-nonadecane 31.23
methacrylate
Spherical D: 7.7–42 µm Polystyrene Fatty acids 22–48
Spherical D: 0.01–115 µm Polystyrene Te t r a c o s a n e / 25.9
octadecane

Spherical D: 4.32–6.08 mm Alginate Paraffin 55–57
Spherical D: 40–120 mm Polyethylene Paraffin 59.9
Cylindrical D: 25.4–50.8 mm; Stainless steel, NaNO3, NaCl/ 308, 444
H: 46.4–127 mm carbon MgCl2
Steel
Spherical D: 2–15 mm Granite rocks, L i 2 C O 3 / N a 2 C O 3 / 550
quartzite K2CO3
Rocks
Spherical D: 50 mm NA Myristic acid 58
Spherical D: 5–45 mm NA NaNO2 290
Spherical D: 74 mm, 86 mm, Stainless steel Deionized water 0
100 mm
Spherical D: 10 mm, 25 mm Polymer and Sodium nitrate 306.8
nickel
Spherical D: 27.5 mm Polymer Sodium nitrate 305–307
Spherical D: 12.5–25 mm Polymers, NaNO3, KNO3, 306, 334, 222,
nickel NaNO3/ KNO3, 122
Spherical D: 50 mm Plexiglas NaNO3/ KNO3/ 28
LiNO3
n-octadecane
Cylindrical D: 22.2 mm; H: Ceramic (Al2O3) Al/Si 577
17.99 mm
Spherical D: 1 cm, 5 cm NA A164 171
Table 3. Thermo-physical properties of the studied PCMs with solar water heating
systems.
PCM Material Tmelt (◦ C) H f u s i o n Cp (kJ/kg) kPCM (W/ ρPCM (kg/m3)

(kJ/kg◦ mK)
C)
Solid Liquid S o l i d Solid
Liquid Liquid
Myristic acid 58 186.6 1.7 2.4 0.15 —— 990 861
RT-44-HC 41–44 255 2 —— 0.2 0.2 800 700
Myristic acid 58 186.6 1.7 2.4 0.15 —— 990 861
RT-44-HC 41–44 255 2 —— 0.2 0.2 800 700
Myristic acid 58 186.6 1.7 2.4 0.15 —— 990 861

RT-44-HC 41–44 255 2 —— 0.2 0.2 800 700
Myristic acid 58 186.6 1.7 2.4 0.15 —— 990 861
RT-44-HC 41–44 255 2 —— 0.2 0.2 800 700
Myristic acid 58 186.6 1.7 2.4 0.15 —— 990 861
RT-44-HC 41–44 255 2 —— 0.2 0.2 800 700
Myristic acid 58 186.6 1.7 2.4 0.15 —— 990 861
RT-44-HC 41–44 255 2 —— 0.2 0.2 800 700
Myristic acid 58 186.6 1.7 2.4 0.15 —— 990 861
RT-44-HC 41–44 255 2 —— 0.2 0.2 800 700
Myristic acid 58 186.6 1.7 2.4 0.15 —— 990 861
RT-44-HC 41–44 255 2 —— 0.2 0.2 800 700
Myristic acid 58 186.6 1.7 2.4 0.15 —— 990 861
RT-44-HC 41–44 255 2 —— 0.2 0.2 800 700
Evacuated tube type ICS-SWHS

ETCs are the most marketed type of solar water collector. The ETC is made up of an
exterior thicker transparent tube and an interior thinner tube with absorber coating. The gap
between the two tubes is maintained completely empty. Because of the lower thermal losses,
the ETC is commonly utilized in low-temperature locations (i.e., high outlet temperature
requirements). The combination of LHS and ETC has also received a lot of attention in the
literature. Abokersh et al. [40] conducted a comparative experimental study to assess the
thermal performance of ETC-SWHS mixed with LHS.
Three distinct solar collectors were investigated: ETC (SC-I), ETC with a U-shaped heat
exchanger (SC-II), and PCM, ETC with a fin, a PCM, and a U-shaped heat exchanger (SC-III).
Figure 6 depicts the researched ETC-SWHS-LHS design (b). The results show that the fin has a
considerable impact on system performance, with the effective energy discharge increasing by
35.8 percent for SC-III when compared to SC-II. Xue [41] investigated the thermal performance
of a residential ETC-SWHS paired with phase change energy storage experimentally. The PCM
was placed within an evacuated glass tube with a built-in heat transfer tube. When compared
to the traditional system, the heat transmission in the SWH combined with PCM was inhibited.
Li et al. [42] investigated the thermal performance of a tankless type SWH with LHS using
a stearic acid/expanded graphite composite PCM. As a solar collector integrated storage unit,
an ETC filled with PCM and equipped with helical water tube coils was employed. Figure 5
depicts the ETC-SWHS-LHS schematic. The expanded graphite was added to the stearic acid
in varying mass fractions of 2 wt %, 6 wt %, and 10 wt %. The findings show that
• The addition of expanded graphite to stearic acid increases its thermal performance by
6 wt%.
• Using the composite PCM reduced charging time by 63.3 %.

Fig. 5(a);(b). Schematics of the ETC based ICS-SWHS-LHS. Studied[12]

Conclusion
The current research provides an in-depth examination of several designs of integrated
and separate collector-storage type solar water heating systems with latent heat storage. The
use of LHS considerably improves the thermal efficiency and effectiveness of SWHS. This
review leads to the following broad conclusions:
• To offer an overview of phase change materials used in the context of reducing power
demand.
• To be able to promote synergistic energy management solutions and processes.
• A complete investigation of PCM inclusion in building materials, PCMs integration
with building architecture for space heating, space cooling, and combined heating and
cooling has been carried out in this work.
• The modification of these parameters is carried out crucial in demonstrating the
PCMS’s chances of success in material for solar applications As a result, data such as
operating range and constraints arose in an assignment with
• PCMs as a heat transmission medium complex analysis calculation aided by a
simulation software will unquestionably be an unique and dependable advice for
making decisions and Creating PCMs for solar applications.
• In the coming years, PCMs will be more included into worldwide energy management
systems as the need for innovative low-impact technologies, the overall negative
impact of energy usage on the climate, and the cost of energy all rise.
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Experimental Analysis of a
Concentric Parabolic Solar Water
Heater with Concentric Tubes
Nishant Singha, Vidhut Prakash Mouryaa, Prof. R. V. Sharmac, Prof. S. Kumara
Mechanical Engineering Department, National Institute of Technology, Jamshedpur,
a
Jharkhand, 831013, India,

a
E mail address: kaalkhanday@gmail.com
abstract
A renewable energy source will be able to meet energy demand as well as contribute to
the achievement of long-term development goals. The use of a Parabolic Trough Collector
(PTC) design to assess heat application with a medium temperature range is important for the
remarkable accessibility of solar energy. In this research work, a parabolic solar water heating
system with concentric tubes is designed. In order to exhibit PTC frameworks with glass-covered
receivers at NIT Jamshedpur (latitude 22.85 N and longitude 86.25 E), the structure consists
of a 500 mm aperture width and 1160 mm collector length. The framework was developed,
created, introduced, and evaluated at the institute. The working fluid is water at an initial
temperature of 26°C, and it is circulated forcefully in a closed loop with the help of a 6V Micro
DC Submersible Solar Pump. A very low current consumption of 220mA allows it to handle
120 liters per hour. The analysis was done to break down the optical and heat exhibitions of the
collector in light. The exhibition boundaries, for example, peak optical efficiency, incidence
angle modifier, heat loss, and thermal efficiency for a glass-covered receiver was estimated.
This article additionally presents strategies for estimating heat loss and the thermal efficiency
of the system. A glass-covered system has a pinnacle optical efficiency of nearly 46.26 % when
the average incident solar radiation is 598W/m2 for normal conditions of heat loss. At a mass
flow rate of 0.07kg/sec and 598W/m2 incident solar radiation for 7 hours, 51°C is reached. The
purpose of this study is to evaluate the thermal efficiency of SWHs operating at an optimum
mass flow rate when the storage capacity is variable.
Keywords: Parabolic trough collector; Solar water heater; Solar radiation; Thermal
efficiency; Heat transfer rate; concentric tubes.

Nomenclature
Aa Surface area of the tube [m2] Qu Usable energy gain [W]
d Diameter[m] T Temperature [K]
cp Specific heat capacity [Jkg-1K-1] ɳ Efficiency of the system
k Thermal conductivity [Wm-1K-1] V Volume Rate of flow [m3s-1]
ρ Density [kgm-3] t Time
μ Dynamic viscosity [Pa s] Subscripts
Gb Global Solar Radiation o outer surface/outlet
C Concentration ratio i inner surface/inlet
L Length of the tube [m] 1 inner tube
ṁ Mass flow rate of the flowing fluid [kgs-1] 2 outer or annulus tube
f Focal length w Water
fᵣ Rim angle f fluid
Qu Available Solar Radiation [W]
Introduction
Almost everyone needs a great deal of energy. The industrialization of the world today
increases the use of energy and natural resources. Globally, the population is growing rapidly,
which leads to increased energy consumption. Conventional energy sources, as a result, are
running out rapidly. Coal, petroleum, and natural gas are examples of energy sources that
can be used to meet our energy needs. There is a great deal of interest in renewable energy
resources due to a significant depletion of natural resources. The fundamental difficulty with
harvesting renewable energy is its low efficiency. There are many sources of sustainable energy,
including tidal, wind, geothermal, solar, hydro, and biofuels. Our project, however, focuses
on solar energy. As well as providing clean, nonpolluting energy in industrial and residential
settings, solar thermal systems play a crucial role. All three technologies are concentrating solar
technologies: parabolic trough collectors, compound parabolic collectors, and parabolic dishes.
Direct light from the sun is captured and focused on a tube to heat water for residential and
industrial use[1], [2]. According to the International Energy Agency, around 76.6 % of all solar
plants are equipped with the parabolic trough collector (PTC)[3], [4]. A major focus of PTC’s
development is energy generation in large facilities due to the cost advantages of large-scale
operations. Dispatchable power generation from solar thermal energy could become a viable
option to replace conventional energy sources and provide innovative answers to critical energy
challenges[5], [6]. In developing countries, especially in rural areas (i.e., where resources are
scarce and specialized personnel are frequently unavailable), the search for simpler and less
costly technologies is essential [2]. Due to their inability to track the sun and its location,

stationary collectors have reduced optical efficiency[7], while the cost of stationery systems
can be significantly lower and operations can be streamlined[8]. Therefore, they may be a
viable alternative to high-temperature or high-efficiency applications. As a result, they may
be a feasible option in applications that do not need high efficiency or high temperatures. A
wide range of agricultural-based applications may be served by collectors operating in the
medium temperature operating range (80–250 ℃) [5], [9], [10]. It is known that PTC research
has traditionally focused on how to increase its efficiency in large-scale operations [11]–[13].
However, few studies have examined their application to simpler and more accessible systems.
The objective of this study was to determine the thermal efficiency and operational parameters
of rectangular glass cover concentric tubes used in solar collectors. With this project, we intend
to use a series of basic tests to calculate the thermal performance of a solar water heater.
Materials and Experimental procedure

PTC Geometrical Design
A metallic tube located in the focal plane of the parabolic collector directs all incident
sunlight onto it. A receiver or absorber must be able to pass through the heat transfer fluid.
This investigation produced a PTC with the following geometric characteristics and technical
specifications, presented in Table 1. A schematic parabolic section and cross-section of the PTC
are shown in Figures 1(a) and 1(b), with their major geometric properties [14], [15].
A commercially available model was used to determine the diameter and length of the
absorber tube. The radius of a parabola at any point is r, often known as the “mirror radius.” The
outer rim radius is also known as the “rim radius” or “maximum mirror radius,” or parabolic
radius. In terms of the cartesian coordinate system (x, y), the parabola’s equation is [15].
y2 = 4fx (1)
Concentration ratio C = Area of aperture/Area of receiver (2)

Aperture of parabola a = 4 f × tan(f,/2) (3)
2f
Rim radius r= (4)
1 + cos f
Parabolic receiver diameter D is obtained by
D=2rr × sin (0.267) (5)

a × sin (0.267)
D= (6)
sin (f)

Fig. 1. (a) Section modulus of Parabolic Receiver[15]; (b) Schematic view of parabolic
reflector.
Table 1. PTC Geometric and Technical Parameter
S.No. Name of the Dimensions / Values (mm) Quantity Material

component
1 Parabolic Length=1000 Breadth=500 1 Aluminum
reflector
2 Reflective film 0.05 1 Aluminum
Thickness
3 Focal length 125 - -
4 Wood structure Length =1000 Breadth=600 1 Wood
Depth=100
5 Inner pipe Length=1000 Inner dia.=17.6 Outer 1 Galvanized
dia.=20.3 Iron
6 Outer pipe Length=1004.4 Inner dia.=28 Outer 1 Galvanized
dia.=33 Iron
7 R-socket Length=45.3 Small dia.= 28.4 Big 1 Galvanized
dia.=40 Iron

8 T-Plug Length=62.4 Outer dia. Of small 1 Galvanized
side=27.4 Outer dia. large side=40 Iron
9 Socket Outer dia.=40 Inner dia.=33 Length=45 1 Galvanized
Iron
10 Connector Length=43 Outer dia.=31 Inner dia. 1 Galvanized
=27 Iron
11 Column stand Length=1400 Dia.=25 1 Iron
12 Water Jar 35 Liter 1 Fiber
13 Rim angle (deg) 90 - -
14 Concentration 15.15 - -
Ratio
15 Receiver Type - - Glass-
covered
16 Absorbance 0.93-0.95 - -
17 Transmittance 0.95 - -
A detailed schematic modal with the data acquisition system is shown in figure 2.
Fig. 2. Detailed schematic modal with the data acquisition system

PTC and TES Construction
The PTC was designed and manufactured in this research to lower the cost of manufacturing
and the level of technical competence needed to construct and operate it. Wood collector plates
with grooves cut into them in the shape of parabolas are used where a parabolic collector plate
may be installed and fitted more easily. It also features a clamp at the base which allows this plate

to be tilted up and down to track the solar radiation. Solar radiation is reflected onto a parabolic
collector plate, which becomes a line focus on the absorber pipe, creating a larger amount of
heat, which is captured by water flowing through the annulus gap on the absorber pipe. During
this experiment, the dimensions of the parabolic collector are 1m by 0.5m, which translates to a
projected area of 0.5m2. The focus of the parabolic collector has also been determined, and it is
125mm from where the absorber pipe is situated. The collector or reflector plate is coated with
a 0.05mm reflective coating for improved surface polish and greater reflectivity. The sun rays
falling on the collector plate assembly made of wood are not parallel to the tracking pin, then
ensure it is parallel to the tracking pin. For the experiment, a plastic water jar with a maximum
capacity of 35 liters is made, and the pipe and hose connections are insulated with nitrile foam.
The water jar can also be insulated with glass wool to prevent heat loss.
Experimental Procedure
An experiment was conducted on the roof of the mechanical engineering department of
NIT Jamshedpur in India, at an elevation of 159 meters and geographical coordinates of 22.85
north, 86.25 east. A manual tracking mechanism can be constructed using a tracking pin and the
parabolic solar collector assembly oriented toward the sun. The intake pipe should be connected
to both the water jar and the concentric absorber tubes; make sure that no leaks occur at any
of these connections. Water may flow from the input pipe through an annular gap between two
concentric pipes to an outlet at the top of the absorber pipe, where a tap controls the flow rate.
The mass flow rate of water is measured by stopping a stopwatch and measuring a measuring
jar after it flows out of the outlet. The flow rate of water can be modified by turning the tap at
the exit. A mercury thermometer measures the surface temperature of the outlet and pipe. A
concentrated parabolic rectangular glass covered solar water heater with forced fluid circulation
experimental setup is shown in figure 3.
1-Storage Tank
2-Parabolic Reflector
3-Concentric Tube
4-Rectangular Glass Cover
5-Solar Panel
6-Wheel Base Assembly
7-Tracking Pin
8-Vertical Stand
Fig. 3. Glass covered Concentric tube Parabolic solar water heating

system with forced circulation

Thermal Performance
According to Equation (7), instantaneous PTC efficiency (ɳ) can be defined as the ratio
of usable energy gain (Qu) to available solar radiation (Qs). To calculate the instantaneous
efficiency of the collector (ɳ) without the concentrator (parabolic trough) (G), the aperture area
(Aa) and the direct solar radiation (Gb) of Eq. (7) were used instead of the receiver area (Ar)
and global solar radiation (Gb)[2].
Qu mCp (Ti – Ti)
η= = (7)
Qs AaGbt
Results and Discussion
Each 15-minute measurement of direct sun radiation was conducted using a manual
tracking system. The mass flow rate of the closed loop forced circulation experiment remains
constant at 0.07 kg/sec during the entire experiment. The circuit is forced-circulated using a
solar pump. As a result of a seven-hour experiment from 10 a.m. to 4 p.m., some important
data was captured and displayed for simplicity of comprehension. Mercury thermometers are
used to measure the temperature at the beginning of the experiment. The direct sun radiation
is monitored with a pyrheliometer at the solar radiation hub, where the rise of the radiation is
recorded every hour.
Experiment using a total amount of 10 liters in the water storage tank. On this date, as
shown in figure 4, the greatest direct solar radiation measured was 642 W/m2, and the solar
radiation was at its highest between 12 and 1 p.m. On the same day, the highest temperature
was 47 °C, and the lowest temperature was 21 °C for the entire day of 7 hours of running. After
10:00 a.m., the temperature begins to rise and reaches its peak, after which there is no more rise
in temperature and it remains constant. Which means that any energy received is lost through
radiation and convection, so the temperature reaches equilibrium.
Fig. 4. Variation of solar radiation and Fig. 5. Variation of solar radiation and
temperature
with respect to time for temperature with respect to time for
10-liter storage tank 15-liter storage tank

The water storage tank should contain 15 litters in total. Figure 5 shows a graph of time
versus water temperature and solar radiation for each hour. The greatest direct sun radiation on
this day was 610 W/m2 at 2 p.m., and the solar radiation was at its peak between 12 p.m. and
2 p.m. It is at 440 W/m2 at 10 a.m., but after 2 p.m., it begins to decline and is near 440 W/
m2. On the same day, 51 °C was the highest temperature and 26 °C was the initial temperature.
Fig. 6. Variation of solar Fig. 7. Variation of solar

radiation and temperature radiation and temperature
with respect to time for 20-liter with respect to time for 25-liter
storage tank storage tank
versus water temperature and solar radiation for each hour. The greatest direct sun radiation on
this day was 455 W/m2 at 12 p.m., it is at 398 W/m2 at 10 a.m., but after 12 p.m., it begins to
decline and is near 189 W/m2. On the same day, 41 °C was the highest temperature and 25 °C
was the initial temperature.
For 25 litters water storage tank, Figure 7 shows a graph of time versus water temperature
and solar radiation for each hour. The greatest direct sun radiation on this day was 545 W/m2
at 2 p.m., it is at 400W/m2 at 10 a.m., but after 2 p.m., it begins to decline and is near 440 W/

Fig. 9. Variation of solar radiation and Fig. 8. Variation of solar radiation and
temperature with respect to time for temperature with respect to time for
35-liter storage tank 30-liter storage tank
versus water temperature and solar radiation for each hour. The greatest direct sun radiation
on this day was 640 W/m2 at 1 p.m., it is at 617 W/m2 at 10 a.m., but after 1 p.m., it begins to
decline and is near 404 W/m2. On the same day, 43 °C was the highest temperature and 25 °C
was the initial temperature.
For 35 litters water storage tank, Figure 7 shows a graph of time versus water temperature
and solar radiation for each hour. The greatest direct sun radiation on this day was 585 W/m2 at
12 p.m., it is at 450W/m2 at 10 a.m., but after 12 p.m., it begins to decline and is near 396 W/
Fig. 10. Variation of Average Direct Solar Radiation and storage capacity with respect to
day

Figure 10 and Figure 11 shows that maximum average direct radiation is achievable with
35liter capacity and a minimum average direct radiation is achievable with 20liter capacity,
indicating that the average direct radiation range is 350 to 600 W/m2.
Fig. 11. Variation of Direct Solar Radiation and Temperature with respect to time
Figure 11 shows the variation of solar direct radiation and temperature with respect to
time. Maximum and minimum temperature stored in the storage tank at the end of the day
obtained during all experiment are 510C and 41°C.
Fig. 12. Variation of Temperature and Overall Efficiency with respect to Storage
capacity

As shown in figure 12, When the water volume of a storage tank increases, the water
temperature in the storage tank decreases, but its efficiency increases. A 15-litre container
achieves the highest temperature, while a 20-litre container achieves the lowest temperature.
Of course, this also depends on the amount of radiation available on that particular day; when
radiation is highest, the temperature rises. According to above graph, as volumes of water
increase, the overall efficiency increases and reaches maximum when the highest volume of
water is utilized, which indicates that the highest volume of water reduces losses from the
absorber pipe and that is stored in the water.
Conclusion
• It has been determined that when the amount of water in a closed-loop forced circulation
system grows, the total efficiency improves.
• The overall efficiency is determined by the volume of water used and the average direct
radiation throughout the course of a 7-hour run.
• An initial temperature of 26°C resulted in an efficiency of 46.26 % for a 35-litre storage
tank, and an average direct radiation of 598 W/m2 when the storage tank is filled with
35 litres.
• On that day, 19% efficiency was achieved with a 10-litre capacity, a maximum outlet
temperature of 47 °C, and a beginning temperature of 21°C, and an average direct
radiation rate of 529 w/m2.
• The maximum temperature reached in the experiment was 51°C with a capacity of 15
liters, a 28 % efficiency and an average direct radiation of 520 W/m2.
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Indirect Applications of
Encapsulated PCM for Buildings and
Structures
Abdullahi Usmana, Akanksha Mishraa
a
Mechanical Engineering Department, School of Engineering & Technology, Sharda
University, Plot No. 32-34 Knowledge Park III Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India.
abstract
The engagement of human race in curtailing the energy crisis and climate change revealed
that a high percentage of energy is being utilized in buildings globally. This has diverted the
attention of the most of the researchers in this scope to focus on the concept of utilizing the
lowest possible energy in buildings, termed as Zero Energy Building (ZEB). Phase Change
Materials when incorporated in buildings are considered among the most critical materials for
ZEB. However, direct incorporations of encapsulated PCM in a mortar or concrete contribute
to the failures which undermine the mechanical properties of buildings. Hence, this review
searched for the indirect applications of encapsulated PCM and their alternatives that could be
favourable for building applications. The findings have direct implications on the safety and
the life span of buildings.
Keywords: Buildings, PCM Incorporation, Mechanical properties, Safety, ZEB.
INTRODUCTION
The effects of energy crisis and climate change have for a long time engaged the human
race to crave for alternative energy sources and the proper energy management strategies. The
current energy management strategies mostly focus on the reduction of energy consumption
in buildings. This is because, 30-40% of the produced energy in the world is being used in
buildings [1] and for Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC), USA consumes
approximately 40% of its produced energy[2]. The perpetual increase of energy consumption
in buildings becomes the reason behind the growing interest of Phase Change Materials (PCM)
applications in buildings. PCM can be considered as one of the critical components to the
concept of Zero Energy Buildings (ZEBs) [3] and the system in which PCM works in buildings
may be active or passive [4]. The activity that can be performed by PCM in building and

structure may be dynamic or latent. An activity of PCM is considered latent if it involves
the storage or control of heat, while in dynamic, the PCM system is charged by a cooling
system after which the coldness is released during the daytime for indoor use. Although the
passive systems are considered inferior, PCM systems are entirely considered as a better option
compared to the ordinary cooling methods [5]. The activity of Phase Change Material (PCM)
depends on the arrangement of the wall components and the location in/of buildings [6,35],
hence it can be incorporated in walls, floors, ceilings, roofs, windows and interior surfaces of
buildings [7-10,34]. However, leakage of PCM, low strength of buildings incorporated with
PCM and some other problems undermine the application of PCM in buildings and structures
[11-12].
This review focused on the ways of incorporating encapsulated PCM in different buildings
and structural components without affecting their desirable mechanical properties. It also
highlighted the use of PCM incorporated systems that can help to eliminate the need of direct
incorporation of encapsulated PCM in buildings. Alternative systems were focused as well.
DIFFERENT TECHNIQUES TO IMPROVISE THE PCM PERFORMANCES IN

BUILDINGS.
Although it was reported that the use of macro-encapsulated PCM lead to a building failures
in some few cases [13], but microencapsulated PCM are solely responsible for the failures in
a cement based materials (cement-mortar and concrete) [12,14]. The integration of PCM in a
cement-based materials without affecting their overall performance remains a challenge in the
scope of PCM research up to now. Therefore, more research works are needed to enable the
evaluation of different PCM encapsulation and incorporation techniques in order to achieve
a better performance of PCM-cement-based materials [15]. For this reason, many techniques
such as use of composite PCM [16-17], use of hybrid PCM for different climates [18], use
of controls in PCM systems [19-20,40], use of smart control using machine learning [21],
investigation of efficacy of PCM on monthly basis [22], investigation of performance of active
system in different seasons [23], integration of PCM in solar walls [24], use of PCM-textile
reinforced concrete [25], use of Form-Stable PCM (PCM with non-leaking characteristics) [26]
and use of bubble injection device [27] are proposed.
Moreover, the failures of PCM integration in buildings can be completely avoided if the
direct integration of PCM in buildings and structures is avoided. This is possible using some
devices or replaceable building components incorporated with PCM. Table 1 illustrates some
devices, replaceable building components incorporated with PCM and alternative systems that
can be used in buildings to avoid the failures of the direct integration of PCM in buildings.
Furthermore, to control or delay the appearance of thermal cracking and rutting failures of a
road, an encapsulated PCM with stabilized shape can be incorporated in asphalt mixture [28].
The encapsulated PCM is either incorporated as an aggregate or mineral filler depending on the
size requirement of the road. Despite the benefits of the application of PCM in this regard, its

mechanical performance and thermal regulation effects on the road need a thorough evaluation.
DISCUSSION
In the quest for a suitable incorporation techniques of encapsulated PCM in buildings,
researchers have proposed many techniques in order to save the mechanical properties of
buildings, guarantee safety and encourage energy economy in the design and construction of
buildings. At early stage, some researchers have tried to limit the amount of PCM that can
provide the required mechanical properties of a buildings. However, the scope was enriched
with better techniques that discourage the direct incorporation of PCM and maintain the
optimum strength of buildings. This has inspired the literature survey of the most favourable
techniques that could fit the requirements of Zero Energy Buildings (ZEB) as tabulated in table
1.
Table 1. SYSTEMS SUPPORTING INDIRECT APPLICATION OF PCM IN
BUILDINGS
S/N Authors Device/Building Component Application

1 [29] Air-PCM machine A portable system used during summer to
bring the indoor temperature to a required
comfort limit.
2 [30] Novel Blister-PCM-Panel A slab that can be used for tiles and
ceilings to regulate indoor temperature.
3 [31] Hollow-Core-Slab Ventilation A system of PCM with an external ducts
system supplying air to regulate the indoor
temperature.
4 [27] Bubble injection device A device used in a bulk of PCM to reduce
the heat loss from the PCM and support
the thermal storage efficiency of PCM
incorporated in buildings.
5 [25] Textile-Reinforced-Concrete A textile reinforced slab containing PCM
(PCM-TRC) that can be used for buildings.
6 [32] Polyvinyl-Acetate Wall Tiles A wall tile suitable for the regulation of
(PVA tiles) external wall temperature.
7 [3] Indoor-decoration-element A decoration element containing PCM to
provide required heating and cooling in a
room.
8 [24] Solar wall A solar wall can be used for room heating
and cooling purposes. PCM is not
necessary in some cases.

9 [33] Phase Change Material A window which provides preheating in
Enhanced Ventilated Window winter and pre-cooling summer.
(PCMEVW)
10 [35,36] PCM in Hollow bricks This involves the use of macro-encapsulated
PCM in form of slabs, pouches, tubes and
spheres etc. that can be inserted directly in
a hollow bricks.
11 [38] Novel Bio-composite-PCM A board prepared from natural clay and
cellulose fibers that can be attached to
various part of building for heating and
cooling applications.
12 [39] Wool-PCM based Insulation An insulation material made from PCM
and textile material that can be used for
thermal insulations in buildings.
13 [43] PCM-concrete wallboard A concrete-PCM based board that can
be incorporated in buildings to enhance
heating or cooling.
Based on the survey, the favourable techniques could be categorised into four distinct
categories. The first category involves the use of replaceable parts of buildings, incorporated
with PCM. These parts may include slabs, tiles, boards, or building decoration materials that
can either be attached to the wall, floor or roof of a buildings etc. [3,25,30,32,35,36,38,39,43].
One fascinating characteristic of these parts is that, they can be damaged and replaced without
affecting the mechanical properties of the whole building. The second category involves the
use of PCM incorporated devices which can provide the required heating and/or cooling in
buildings. These devices may be portable or attached to some part of a buildings. An example
these devices includes Air-PCM machine [29], Hollow-Core-Slab Ventilation system [31],
Bubble injection system [27] and PCM-Enhanced-Ventilated-Window (PCMEVW) [33].
The third category includes those devices or systems which don’t necessarily contain PCM
but encourage the concept of Zero Energy Buildings (ZEB). The systems in this category are
considered as an alternative to the PCM incorporated systems and the perfect example is solar
wall [24]. The fourth category involves the incorporation of encapsulated PCM that will not
affect the mechanical properties of buildings, especially if the strength compensation materials
such as nanomaterials and supplementary cementitious materials could be added [37,41].
Addition of PCM layer in a building plaster [42] can also be considered in this category. This is
very encouraging especially if the PCM with non-leaking characteristic such as Form-Stable-
PCM is in place.
CONCLUSION
As a means of reducing the energy consumption and greenhouse gas emission, the
focus on the indirect applications of PCM and their alternatives in buildings, started after the
incorporation of encapsulated PCM as an integrated part of building found to be impeded

by the leakage of PCM and low mechanical properties of buildings. Based on the literature
survey, the indirect incorporation techniques of PCM and their alternatives, that could save the
mechanical properties of buildings, encourage safety and energy economy in buildings will fall
into one of the following categories:
• The use of replaceable parts of building, incorporated with PCM. These include slabs,
tiles, boards, windows or decoration materials incorporated with PCM.
• The use of PCM incorporated devices that can either provide the required heating
or cooling in buildings. These include Air-PCM device, PCM Enhanced Ventilated
Window, Hollow-Core-Slab Ventilation system and Bubble injection device.
• The use of Zero Energy Building enhanced systems other than those incorporated with
PCM. These include a solar wall.
• Incorporation of a suitable amount of PCM in buildings where necessary. This may
still affect the mechanical properties and life span of building with time, especially if
the strength compensation materials are not added.
Hence, based on the conditions and available resources, it can be concluded that, the
incorporation of encapsulated PCM in a cement-based materials can be avoided by the adaptation
of the PCM incorporated devices, replaceable parts of buildings incorporated with PCM and
alternative systems that support ZEB other than those incorporated with PCM. Suitable amount
of PCM may be incorporated in some cases.
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Efficiency Enhancement of Solar
PV Cells Using Intermittent Water-
Cooling Method
Nilesh Dhokanea, Surendra Barhattea, Shailendra Shisodea, Shivprakash Barvea
a
Vishwanath Karad MIT World Peace University, Pune 411038, India
abstract
The global need for energy is increasing rapidly and the world is now slowly shifting
from non-renewable resources to renewable resources. Solar energy, if harnessed properly,
can be the biggest contributor of clean renewable energy. The efficiency and power output of
a PV solar panel is inversely related to the surface temperature of the panels. As the surface
temperature increase, the efficiency of the PV cells decreases drastically. This is known as the
“photovoltaic paradox”. Therefore, it is necessary to regulate and keep the temperature of the
solar panels below a certain temperature to maximize the power output of the solar cells.
Intermittent water cooling is a method in which water is used to cool the surface of the
panel using as little water as possible. Water is sprayed on the solar panel’s surface using
a pump and a nozzle at specific spaced intervals. The amount sprayed and when it is to be
sprayed is decided by the surface temperature using temperature sensors. In this project, we
aim to make a system that automatically starts and stops spraying water after detecting the rise
and fall in the temperature.
Keywords: photovoltaic, renewable energy, PVT, photovoltaic paradox etc.
Main text
To improve the power producing efficiency of photovoltaic cells by regulating the surface
temperature by using intermittent water cooling method and make an autonomous intermittent
water cooling system that can automatically start and stop depending on the temperature of the
surface of the photovoltaic cells.
1.1 Objectives
Study the effect of temperature on the power producing efficiency of photovoltaic
cells. Tabulate and get a result that can correlate the temperature and the power produced by

photovoltaic cells and find the hey optimum temperature range for maximum efficiency.
Make an autonomous intermittent water cooling system which determines the amount
of water that is to be used and the time interval between using the intermittent water cooling
method using temperature sensors to determine the rise and fall off the surface temperature to
obtain optimum efficiency.
1.2 Methodology
1.2.1 Get the readings of power generated by solar panel at various temperatures to find
a relation between surface temperature and power produced. Determine the temperature after
which the efficiency of the PV cells drops drastically. Use temperature dependent sensors
to start a pump to spray water on the panels after a predetermined temperature is reached.
Determine the amount of time the pump needs to work to attain ideal working temperature find
the number of times spray needs to be used and estimate the amount of water that is to be used.
1.2.2 The entire methodology for the Intermittent water cooling system can be summed
up in the following points-
a. The setup starts with the mounting of the 50 watts 20V monocrystalline solar panel
using the wooden assembly.
b. At first the surface temperature sensor DHT 11 would be connected to the solar panel
which would give the temperature readings of the solar panel c. Temperature readings
are then fed to the control panel calibrated using Arduino Nano d. Arduino Nano is
responsible for receiving the temperature details at various timings throughout the
day and transmitting the equivalent information to the water pump. e. When a certain
temperature is reached the pump starts working and water is sprayed on the surface
of the solaranel. f. By continuing this process in loop of spraying water after the solar
panel reaches a particular temperature, we can get the relation of the temperature and
efficiency of the solar panel.
1.3 Key Insights

The study carried out by researchers has states that, the cooling method can be choose on
its cost-effectiveness, climatic condition and the application of solar photovoltaic. Experiments
have shown that more improvement on the phase change material and refrigerant are needed to
make them suitable technology of improving the efficiency of solar panel beyond 45 %.
Table 1. Cooling technology and their efficiency [7]
Cooling Technology Material Efficiency (%)

Air Mono pass sheet and fin 13.75
Water Cylindrical Aluminum 6 – 14.2

Phase change material Water- PCM- PVT 53
Nano fluid Titanium (iv) oxide 13.62
Refrigerant R22 refrigerant 45
Experimental set up and Arduino Programming

This code uses the readings from DHT 11 Sensor to start and stop the pump used to spray
water on the surface of the Solar panels. This will help us in making an automatic switch that
can start and stop depending on the rise and fall of the temperature.
Fig. 1. Flow chart for Arduino nano code
2.1 Why Monocrystalline over polycrystalline?

Monocrystalline solar cells are one of the three types of photovoltaic materials available.
Polycrystalline solar cells and amorphous or thin film solar panels are the other two options.
Monocrystalline solar panels offer characteristics that are thought to be superior to the other
two types of panels. They are as follows:
1. These cells in the panel have a pyramid pattern which offers a larger surface area to
collect more energy from the sun’s rays.
2. The top surface is diffused with phosphorous which helps to create an orientation
that is electrically negative as compared to the bottom which has a positive electrical
orientation, which in turn helps to create the electric field.
3. To reduce reflection and thereby increase absorption, the cells are coated with silicon
nitride.
2.2 Why Arduino Nano instead of Arduino Uno?

Based on the ATmega328, the Arduino Nano is a compact, comprehensive, and
breadboard-friendly board (Arduino Nano 3.x). It offers a lot of the same features as the
Arduino Duemilanove, but it comes in a different packaging. It just has a DC power jack and
uses a Mini-B USB cable rather than a conventional one.
Programming
The bootloader on the ATmega328 on the Arduino Nano comes preburned, allowing you to

upload new code to it without the use of an external hardware programmer. It uses the original
STK500 protocol to communicate. You can also use Arduino ISP or equivalent to bypass the
bootloader and programme the microcontroller directly through the ICSP (In-Circuit Serial
Programming) connector.
The Arduino Nano, as its name suggests, is a smaller version of the Arduino Uno. When
designing a small system, size and weight are also important variables to consider. The
intermittent water cooling system needs to be as small as possible so that the solar tracker won’t
malfunction due to excess weight.
2.3 Construction
1. The voltage regulator module gives a 5V power supply to DHT 11 Temperature sensor.
2. A 5V power supply is provided by the voltage regulator module to the relay module.
3. The output given by DHT 11 is provided to the Arduino Nano.
4. The output through Arduino Nano is supplied to the relay module.
5. The output from the relay module is given to the water pump for the actuation.
6. The Construction for the Circuit is shown in the diagrams below.
Fig. 2. Circuit Construction

Fig. 3. Circuit Diagram
2.4 Working
1. When the sunlight falls on the Solar panel, it generates a power output in the form of
direct current.
2. The temperature of the solar panel is sensed by DHT 11 which is a temperature sensor.
3. DHT 11 further transfers the temperature related information to the Arduino Nano.
4. Arduino Nano which is a microcontroller processes the temperature related information
and feeds it to the relay module.
5. The relay module helps in providing time delay functions and hence helps in actuating
the water pump whenever required.
6. According to the circuit and the Arduino code, when the temperature of the solar panel
goes above 40 degrees Celsius only then the information is transferred to the water
pump and hence actuation of the pump takes place and water is sprinkled over the solar
panel. This helps in decreasing the temperature of the solar panel.

Fig. 4. Experimental Setup
Results and analysis
Fig. 5. Power vs Temperature (without Fig. 6. Voltage vs Temperature (without

cooling) cooling)
Fig. 7. Power vs Temperature (with Fig. 8. Voltage vs Temperature (with

cooling) cooling)
At average temperature of 60.45°C we get average current output 1.98 A, average voltage
difference 17 V and average power 33.69 W whereas with cooling average temperature becomes
42.91°C and we get average current output as 1.96 A, average voltage 19.61 V and average
power 38.52 W. These effects of cooling are plotted in above graphs.
3.1 Analysis
From the graphs it is evident that the voltage drops linearly as the temperature increases
and in contrast, the current remains almost constant. Therefore, the only factor that has a major
impact on the power produced is the voltage. This is in line with the various results found in
multiple research papers.
3.2 Mathematical equation
According to the observations taken, we can generate a mathematical equation that can
enable us to predict the power developed at any given temperature.
The equation of the line that was obtained from the readings for the trendline of Power vs
temperature is given below. Power = -0.276*Temperature + 50.38

3.3 Potential improvement in real life application
We know that total solar energy output of India is 40GW According to the results of
our experiment, the power output can be 45.6 GW after the application of Intermittent Water
Cooling System. This means there is an increase of 5.6GW
3.4 Conclusion
After completing the experimental setup, readings that were taken during different time
periods of the day were used for the further analysis. The patterns that we come across through
data visualization clearly show the relationship between temperature, voltage and power.
Throughout the experiment the current almost remains constant. We can clearly see that voltage
drops linearly as the temperature increases which basically implies that there exists an inverse
relation between temperature and voltage. Therefore, we can conclude that between current
and voltage, voltage is the only parameter that plays a significant role in changing the power
output of the solar panel.
By plotting a graph of the readings obtained, we can calculate a mathematical equation
that represents the trend line of all the observations. This equation can be further used for
predicting power output at any specific temperature. We can predict power generated at any
temperature above 40 degrees Celsius and below 70 degrees Celsius.
According to the calculations of all the observations, we can conclude that we see a rise in
power producing efficiency of 14.33% by using intermittent water cooling.
The experiment clearly shows that intermittent water cooling can be implemented
successfully with guaranteed increase in power producing efficiency.
Apart from this, we can also see a predictable correlation between voltage and temperature.
This correlation can be further used to make voltage dependent temperature measuring
instruments.
This mathematical correlation is limited for the solar panel that we used for the experiment.
According to the specifications of the solar panel, a mathematical correlation can be obtained
individually.
By completing this project, we have not only developed and tested our hypothesis of the
intermittent water cooling system but we have also found an important mathematical relation
between power and temperature which can be further used for various other purposes.
REFERENCES
[1] Thermal characteristics of air-water spray impingement cooling of hot metallic surface
under controlled parametric conditions. (Santosh Kumar Nayak and Purna Chandra
Mishra) 2016
[2] Enhancing PV modules efficiency and power output using multi-concept cooling
technique. (Linus Idoko, Olimpo Anaya-Lara, Alasdair McDonald) 2018
[3] Experimental and Numerical Investigation of Photo-Voltaic Module Performance Via
Continuous and Intermittent Water Cooling. (Ali M. Rasham, Hussein K. Jobair and

Akram A.Abood Alkhazzar) 2015
[4] A review of photovoltaic cells cooling techniques (Swar A. Zubeer1,H.A. Mohammed,
and Mustafa Ilkan) 2017
[5] Enhancing the Efficiency of Solar Panel Using Cooling Systems (Nair Milind*, Midhun
Antony*, Febin Francis*, Jithu Francis*, Joson Varghese*, Sajith) 2017
[6] Improving the Solar Panel Efficiency by Using Cooling and Cleaning Techniques
(Anmar Khalil Ibrahim) 2018
[7] Innovative methods of cooling solar panel: A concise review ( O C Olawole1 , E S
Joel1 , O F Olawole2 , U I Ikono1 , C Moses1 , S O Oyedepo4 , D K De1,3 , H M
Nguyen5a,b, M Omeje1 , A Akinpelu1 , L Adegboye6 , E T Arijaje1 , L N Obafemi,1
and O W Ayanbisi) 2017
[8] Photovoltaic Panels: A Review Of The Cooling Techniques ( Filip Grubišić-Čabo
Sandro Nižetić Tina Giuseppe Marco) 2019
[9] Enhancing the performance of photovoltaic panels by water cooling ( K.A. Moharram
a,1 , M.S. Abd-Elhady b, *, H.A. Kandil a,2 , H. El-Sherif a,3) 2013

Design and selection of material
and process for a folding chair to
be used by local sewing workers
using house of quality
Naisarg H. Sagathiya
Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur,208016, India
abstract
The chair has been in use since the beginning of civilization. Different special purpose
chairs are available depending on the need of the user or customer. One of the special purpose
chairs is folding chair, it is a type of a chair which can be folded and unfolded whenever required.
In this study, a relationship between customer requirements and engineering characteristics of
a folding chair used by seamstresses working from their home have been analysed using house
of quality. To develop a house of quality, a survey has been carried out to find out the important
customer requirements. A relationship between requirements and different engineering qualities
of a foldable chair is developed. Using house of quality, the most important engineering
qualities of a folding chair have been found. It is found that a chair should have easy folding
and unfolding mechanism. It should also have lower weight. These two engineering qualities
make a folding chair convenient to use. Based on the inputs taken from the HoQ, a design for a
folding chair has been prepared which has three major components. From the Ashby’s method
of material and manufacturing process selection, it was found that aluminium alloy is the most
suitable material and die casting is the most suitable manufacturing process.
Keywords: House of Quality, Material selection, Customer Requirements
Introduction
Chair is the one of the most common part of our daily life. We use chair for doing different
work while sitting on it. Depending on the work we are doing, we have different types of chair
which are permanent chair, folding or adjustable chair, wheelchair and multi-purpose chair.
Permanent chairs are used when we have larger space available in the room and when we don’t
need to go here and there frequently in the room. Folding chairs are used when we have less

area available in our room. So, that we can fold and unfold the chair whenever required. Wheel
chairs have wheels at the end of its legs. It is mainly used in the hospital for differently-abled
people. However, it is also used by common people when there is a requirement for going here
and there frequently in the room. Multi-purpose chair are designed based on the customer’s
requirements.
Folding Chairs or adjustable chairs are used were permanent sitting is not practical or when
the larger free space is not available in the room. They can be easily moved or transported and
stored. They are used in places like schools, hospitals, funerals, religious services, and private
parties at home. Folding chairs have been in use for centuries. Different examples have been
found in different civilizations like Romans, Greeks and Egypt. They were using simple ‘X’
shaped folding chair. A folding chair of around 1400s BC has been found from Guldhoj (Gold
hills) in Jutland, Denmark [1]. This is the only preserved wooden folding chair from Bronze
era in Europe. The use of folding chairs became wide spread in the middle ages when churches
started using them for their prayer meetings. We have earliest patented folding chair by John
Cram in 1855 [2]. After that countless other patents have been filed across the world. After the
World War II, in 1947, Fredric Arnold designed a foldable aluminium framed chair for mass
production [3]. After a decade, Fredric Arnold Company based in Brooklyn was selling 14000
chairs per day. The chair had arm rest, and the seat and back were made up of fabric material.
Literature Review
Chen (2013) has studied the applied quality function deployment to find out the demand
of customers for plastic folding chair [4]. He studied the five major demands of customers
which are comfort, aesthetics, safety, convenience and environmental protection using house
of quality function. He concluded that among the customer demands: taking consideration of
ergonomics (6.5%), non-pinching during use (6.7%) and parts unlikely to fall off (6.8%) are
the most rated requirements. He said that the obtained results can be used for the preparation of
conceptual design of plastic foldable chairs. Mohamad et al. (2017) have designed and produced
a chair for postpartum mothers [5]. They studied the problem faced by them and prepared the
house of quality based on their requirements. They found that most of the mothers wanted
comfortable seat cushions (72 %), and comfort on countering (63.3 %). Other requirements
most sought were easy to clean seat (61.1 %) and adjustable seat in height (31.7 %).
Rahman et al. (2018) have designed a weight measuring chair to be used by differently-
abled persons, old men and small children who can’t stand up o weight measuring device using
house of quality [6]. They have designed chair based on important customer requirements
from house of quality. Mukhtar (2019) have made the elongated chair using QFD technique
[7]. He developed House of Quality using requirements of 15 different customers. They found
that ergonomics was the most basic requirement of the customers with the highest score of
135.27. Wang et al. (2020) have developed the interactive design of an office chair using
quality function deployment (QFD) and emotional design theory [8]. Using QFD approach and
emotional concept, they found out the need of office chair users and integrated these finding
in their new design. Zin et al. (2020) have analysed the feasibility of foldable chair which is

strapped onto the customer and can be used any where he wants [9]. They analysed customer
requirements using house of quality method to design the chair.
In this paper, a relationship between customer requirements and engineering characteristics
of a folding chair to be used by seamstresses working from their home have been analysed
using house of quality. For that, a survey has been carried out to find out the important customer
requirements. A relationship between requirements and different engineering qualities of a
foldable chair is developed. Using house of quality, the most important engineering qualities
of a folding chair have been found. At last, folding char has been designed according to the
requirement.
Methodology
Quality Function Deployment (QFD) is a team problem solving and a planning technique
used by large number of industries to identify the customer requirements in the whole product
development cycle. It was developed in Japan in the early 1970s and first used by Mitsubishi
Heavy Industries. It was then adopted by many Japanese companies. After mid 1980s, many US
companies used this method in defence, auto and electronics applications. It has been reported
that 83% companies found increased customer satisfaction after QFD implementation.
In QFD, the term deployment refers to the fact that this method determines the important
set of requirements for each phase of product development planning and uses them to identify
the set of technical characteristics of each phase that most contribute to satisfying the customer
requirements. QFD aides the design department in identifying the qualities of the elements in
the product development phase and establishes a relationship between customers and the end
product in each process. QFD is a group activity in which information is gathered by design
team to solve the problems and to learn what about the solution. Because it is a process of
making decision in a group, it creates a high level of brainstorming and understanding of the
problem.
House of Quality (HoQ)

The QFD process has four phases which are product planning, part deployment, process
planning and production planning. These phases of QFD are carried out in sequence and the
output of each phase becomes input to the next phase. The first phase of the QFD is also called
as House of Quality. It feeds results to the designing of individual parts of the product. From,
the house of quality we can found out the important engineering characteristics required in the
product. House of quality also provides the relationship between customer requirements and
the features of the product. The HoQ converts requirements of customers in the quantifiable
variable that is engineering characteristics. The HoQ can also be used for the identification of
engineering characteristics which should be treated as constraints in designing the product and
what should be the decision criteria in selecting the best conceptual design.
HoQ configuration has a total of eight rooms which are given bellow.

(1) Room 1- Customer Requirements (Whats): In this room, customer requirements
(CR) are listed by rows. CRs and its important rating can be found by surveys and
team work (brainstorming). The importance rating may range from 1 to 5. CRs can
be identify by asking questions in “whats” to the customers.
(2) Room 2- Engineering Characteristics (Hows): ECs are the performance measures and
features which are used for satisfying the ECs of the product. ECs can be measured.
So, it has some units which are normally placed at the top of the room 2. ECs are
found by asking questions in “Hows”.
(3) Room 3- Correlation Matrix: This room shows the relationship between two
engineering characteristics.
(4) Room 4- Relationship Matrix (Whats related to hows): This room placed at the centre
of the HoQ. It basically gives the relationship between customer requirements and
engineering characteristics. If there is any relationship between a CRs and ECs then
the cell connecting both the CRs and ECs will be filled with certain number from 1
to 9 in exponential way depending on the connection between the two.
(5) Room 5- Importance Ranking: There are three rows in this room. Fist row is for
absolute importance. It is calculated by fist multiplying the number given the cell
of relationship matrix and customer importance rating. Then, the sum of the each
column is placed in this row. Second row is for relative importance.
(6) Room 6- Customer Assessment of Competing Products: In this room, competitors
products are assessed though the customer rating given to them. This room provides
information on the customer requirement which is most satisfied by others and which
is not.
(7) Room 7- Technical Assessment: In this room, assessment of completive product is
carried out.
(8) Room 8- Target Value: It is the end result of the HoQ.
User survey and problem analysis

The research work has been carried out using house of quality to find out the engineering
characteristics a folding chair should possess which will be used by seamstresses. A survey has
been carried out among the seamstresses, who sew in their home. The aim of the survey is to
find out the important requirements of a folding chair. A total of 15 users mostly women were
questioned and importance values of different customer requirements were averaged out.
The importance of requirements was analysed from the survey. The highly important
user requirement was given 5 value and not much important demand was given 1 value. So,
the all requirements were given values between 1 and 5 depending on its importance. The
customer requirements were divided in to 4 groups which are convenience, safety and comfort,
appearance and efficient. The broad classification is given in the Table. 1.
House of quality (HoQ) diagram for folding chair is prepared which is shown in the Fig.

1. The engineering characteristics of a folding chair, which are studied using house of quality,
are structural design (mechanism for folding and unfolding), aesthetic appeals in seat and back,
plasticity and elasticity of chair body, appropriate arc and angle of chair back, appropriate
seat dimensions and contour, appropriate seat height, appropriate height back, parts can be
disassembled and recycled, parts reduction, biodegradable material, weight, wear resistant,
hardness, corrosion resistant and strength.
Table 1 Customer requirements and its importance
Group Customer Requirement Customer Importance

Easy to fold and unfold 5
Easy to transport 5
Convenience
Easy to store 5
Easy to clean 2
Safe to use 2
Comfortable seat 4
Safety and comfort
Comfortable back 1
Hand rest 1
Surface finish 3
Appearance
Compact 4
Aesthetic 1
Reliability 4
Efficient
Serviceability 2
Recycling and reuse 1
The relationship matrix between customer requirement and engineering characteristic has
been established by filling the cell connecting the two. If the correlation between a requirement
and a characteristic is higher, then the value 9 is placed in the cell. If the correlation is moderate
and weak then 3 and 1 value are placed respectively. The correlation matrix at most upper part
of the diagram indicates the relationship between two engineering characteristics. The absolute
importance for an engineering characteristic has been calculated by multiplying the relationship
number with customer importance value of the respective engineering characteristic and then
summing them. Then, relative importance for an engineering characteristic is calculated by
dividing absolute importance with total absolute importance and multiplying it with 100. After
that engineering characteristics were ranked depending on its absolute importance.

Fig. 1. House of quality for a folding chair

Results and Analysis
There are number of engineering characteristics have been found for the foldable chair
which can compensate the customer requirements. Among the engineering characteristics, the
structural design (13 %) that is mechanism to fold the chair has highest absolute importance.
The second most important engineering characteristic is weight (11.8 %) of the chair. So, the
materials, which have lower density, should be selected. The manufacturer can use plastic
or composite materials which have lower density. The importance of other engineering
characteristic is: aesthetic appeals in seat and back (6 %), plasticity and elasticity of chair
body (2.7 %), appropriate arc and angle of chair back (6.4 %), appropriate seat dimensions and
contour (6.3 %), appropriate seat height (9.2 %), appropriate height back (9.2 %), parts can be
disassembled and recycled (2.6 %), parts reduction (7.5 %), biodegradable material (5.3 %),
wear resistant (7.5 %), hardness (2.2 %), corrosion resistant (3.9) and strength (5.5).
Convenience in using a chair is high priority for the user. The engineering characteristics
which satisfy this demand most are structural design (mechanism of fold), parts minimization
and weight. The engineering characteristics which fulfil the customer demand of comfort are
design, contour, its dimensions and aesthetic appeals in the seat. The padding can be done on
the seat or/and back of the chair. The seat and back height has higher absolute importance of 9.2
%. So, they should be optimized according to customer’s demands. To improve the aesthetics
of the chair corrosion and wear resistant material should be used. Also, contour and shape of
the chair is chosen such that chair look beautiful. To improve serviceability and reliability of
the chair, the engineering characteristics such as part reduction, easiness in assembling and
disassembling the parts and strength of the chair material can help.
Design of the folding chair

Principle of manufacturing and assembly suggests that the product should have minimum
number of components. It reduces the total assembly time, assembly cost, minimises the work-
in progress and simplifies the automation. So, the chair has been designed such a way that it
will have minimum number of components.
Based on the House of quality results the design of the folding chair has been prepared in
the Autodesk Inventor software as show in the Fig. 2. As it can be seen in the figure there are
total three major parts viz. part-1 with support, seat and part-2 as shown in Fig. 2a. In Fig. 2b,
total of two cylindrical joints are shown. Under the seat, there is a wedge type support for part-2
to rest. As it has only two joint, it makes it easier to fold and unfold the chair. The dimensions
of the seat will be 30˟30 cm2 and height from the floor will be 48 cm. The length of the back
is 50 cm. The hand rest is not provided in the chair because it’s lower customer requirement
importance value.

Fig. 2. Design of the Folding chair in Autodesk Inventor software (a) Isometric view, (b)
Side view and (c) View showing support under the seat
Material and manufacturing process selection

Materials and manufacturing process selected using Ashby’s method [10]. There are
total 3 major components in the chair. All the three components are subjected to bending. So,
stiffness of the material is the most important property along with its density.
Functional Requirements: Light and stiff panel, Objectives: Minimize weight, and
minimize cost, Constraints: Specified dimensions, Free variables: Choice of material
Fig. 3. Ashby material selection graph for the panel

Material index for a light and stiff panel is M = E1/3/CRr. So, it is required to maximize
the M2. From the Fig. 3, the materials such as carbon steels, cast irons and Al alloys have been
screened out. The material which is most suitable for the chair is aluminium alloy because the
weight was the most important factor for the chair. For the manufacturing process selection
also the Ashby’s method has been used. Following are the important requirements for the
manufacturing of the chair:
Functional Requirements: Shape an aluminium alloy, Objectives: Minimize cost,
Constraints: Material Class: non-ferrous, Shape: 3D solid, Section thickness: 1.5 cm,
Tolerance: 0.3 mm, Surface finish: 1 m, Planned batch size: 1000, Free variables: Choice of
manufacturing process
From the set of constrains, the most suitable manufacturing process for the all three
components is die-casting process.
Conclusion
This study has been carried out to find out which characteristics a folding chair should
possess. For that a tool of quality function deployment, House of Quality has been used to
find out the important engineering characteristics a folding chair for sewing worker. Results
from the customer survey indicated that users want a chair which is convenient to use and the
comfort was their second preference. It is found that mechanism of chair should be designed
such that folding and unfolding of chair becomes easy. It is also argued that weight of the chair
should be reduced at minimum.
From the input taken from the HoQ, a design of the folding chair is prepared which has
three major components. From the Ashby graph, the most suitable material found for the chair
is aluminium alloy; and the most suitable manufacturing process is the die casting process.
REFERENCES
[1] National Musium of Denmark, A folding chair from bronze age. https://en.natmus.
dk/historical-knowledge/denmark/prehistoric-period-until-1050-ad/the-bronze-age/a-
folding-chair-from-the-bronze-age/
[2] Matt T., Who invented the folding chair? The history of party chairs, 2020 https://
tentandtable.net/blog/2020/02/11/who-invented-the-folding-chair-history-of-party-
chairs/
[3] Fredric, A., Collapsible folding chair. U.S. Patent (1959), 2,871,921.
[4] Chen, C.T., A study of design demand of applying quality function deployment in
plastic folding chairs. In Applied Mechanics and Materials, Trans Tech Publications
Ltd, 2013, Vol. 284, pp. 3632-3636.
[5] Mohamad, E., Sumaidy, E.S., Rahman, M.A.A., Salleh, M.S., Sulaiman, M.A.,
Salleh, M.R., Yahaya, S.H., and Hussein, L., Ergonomic Design Chair for Postpartum
Mothers. In International Conference on Design and Concurrent Engineering 2017 &
Manufacturing Systems Conference, 2017, pp. 7-8.

[6] Rahman, M., Tahiduzzaman, M. and Dey, S.K., QFD based product design and
development of weight measuring chair for the benefits of physically challenged
person, American Journal of Industrial Engineering, 2018, 5(1), pp.12-16.
[7] Mukhtar, M.N.A., Applied quality function deployment (qfd) for elongated chair
design. Tibuana:: Journal of Applied Industrial Engineering, 2019, 2(02), pp.68-73.
[8] Wang, Z., Chen, M., Lyu, J., Chen, S. and Chen, Y., Research on Human-Computer
Interaction Design of Office Chair Based on QFD Method, In IOP Conference Series:
Materials Science and Engineering. IOP Publishing, 2020, Vol. 740, No. 1, pp. 012180.
[9] Zin AH, Shamsudin SA, Sudin MN, Nazim M, Rahman A, Zainal Z. Design and
Analysis of a Cam-Actuated Wearable-Chair. International Journal of Engineering and
Advanced Technology. 2020, 9(3), pp.984-9.
[10] Ashby MF, Johnson K. Materials and design: the art and science of material selection
in product design. Butterworth-Heinemann, 2013.

Stressing Building Energy
Consumption through Net Zero
Energy Building (NZEB) in Northern
Nigeria
Adam Muhammad Adama, Akanksha Mishraa
a
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Sharda University, Greater Noida 201306 Uttar
Pradesh, India
abstract
The ongoing global warming resulting in weather fluctuations which is caused by too much
carbon (iv) oxide emission affect almost every part of the world. Nigeria is among the countries
in Africa that emits more CO2 to the atmosphere. The greater fraction of the emitted CO2 was
contributed from the generators of residential buildings and more than half of these generators
were based in the northern part of the country. This paper study the trends of building energy
consumption in Northern Nigeria and evaluate how well aware the residents are regarding Net
Zero Energy Buildings (NZEB) and the possibilities of implementing them to supplement the
energy from the grid, as well as self-generated energy from conventional electric generators.
Introduction
Northern Nigeria comprises of 19 states out of the 36 states and the federal capital of
federal republic of Nigeria. The region is considered to be the most suitable when it comes
to the adoption/implementation of NZEBs due its abundant means of renewable energy
sources (RES). Inspite of that, the residents in that region failed to make proper utilization of
the available RES and rather depend solemnly on grid connected power supply in which the
region suffers greatly from its shortage. To supplement that shortage, the residents consider
petrol/diesel engine (electric Generator) as their alternative means of energy generation.
This alternative method ejects a lot of CO2 to the atmosphere and hence causing climate
deterioration. The use of electric generators become common among the building residents for
generating electricity in this region, this is due to what they think as its affordability and ease
of maintenance. People prefer this method instead of RES method due to its high initial cost

for installation. Another issue in adopting RES is lack of awareness, the resident in that region
have little or no knowledge regarding the environmental impact on carbon emitted energy
means and how to make/provide clean and clear energy to the society.
ENERGY IN NIGERIA
In 2010, a World Bank study reported that Nigeria’s per capita power consumption (kWh
per capita) was 120.51 kWh [48]. Previous studies have shown that, despite this figure, about
60% of Nigerians lack access to electricity and 80% of these people live in urban areas [49-51].
As many rural communities in Nigeria have yet to be electrified, this number is higher in rural
areas. Most of these groups rely on fossils for cooking, illumination and heating purposes. The
persistent intermittent supply in Nigeria is the reason for this difficulty of consuming electricity
in Nigeria. Figure 1[48], for example, shows the consumption of electricity per capita (kWh per
capita) in Nigeria between 2002 and 2010.
Nigeria has an installed capacity of approximately 7876 MW on paper, which can only
cater to a large number of its population. The installed power, however, fluctuates between
4000-4500MW [49,52,53] as in 2010. Recently, the average daily power generation in Nigeria
is 2700MW [52], which is less than its expected peak load (8900MW). As a result, the nation
is experiencing consistent shedding and blackout of load, especially in several quarters of the
nation. For instance, Nigeria’s current power generation capacity is less than 5000 MW (as of
April 2018); this value is far below the capacity required to serve a population of about 180
million.
Figure 1Per capital electric power consumption (kWh per capita) In Nigeria 2002–2010
[48].

Nigeria is over depending on one source of energy (petroleum) for many years. This
results in the slowdown of development of other alternative energy sources (Aliyu et al. 2013).
The grid power should be given highest priority for generation and use, than the energy from
RES as proposed by Elusakin et al (2014). This explain the over dependency in grid connected
energy and neglecting the off-grid (RES) without considering future and environmental
consequences. Diversification on other energy sources (RES) will bring more energy supply
and alleviate energy shortage, thereby increasing the wealth of the country and her people.
Although Nigeria’s means of electricity generation is from RES (Hydro) which has periodic
challenges, Citizens face variation in the amount of energy supplied to the households which
is caused due to seasonal availability of water for generation. Northern region is the highly
affected region in energy shortage due to this variation, especially in the summer. The work by
Ajayi (2019) suggests that, utilizing wing energy in this region will help alleviate the energy
deficit due to the seasonal variation of hydropower.
NORTHERN NIGERIA AND ITS ABUNDANT RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES

Nigeria has abundant RES which when contained and applied with proper maintenance
and storage will provide the nation with morethan 100 years of energy supplied without adrift.
The potential estimate by Onyebuchi (1989), lovejoy (1984), ojosu and salawu (1990) indicate
that the untapped RES in Nigeria is per greater than the amount of energy demand in the
country. Despite the diverse RES in the country, hydropower take the lion share, in which
other RES were abandoned due to financial, technological, awareness and policy constraints
(Aknibami, 2001 & Oji et al. 2014). Also Akinyale et al. (2019) confirmed that, lack of
technological awareness and inconsistence policy as well as conflict of agency is the greater
barrier in adapting solar energy technology system in Nigeria.
A work by Mohammed et al (2013) suggested that, RES should be incorporated in the
current distruibuted power generation in Nigeria. Because, their existence is above the average
threshold value required for operation in residential and commercial buildings. The best option
to electrify rural areas (areas with energy diificulties) of Nigeria is the hybrid RES due to the
availability of solar and wind energies which can provide 28% and 57% of the total energy
fraction considering annual interest rate of 8% and 10% respectively Babatunde et al. (2019).
Maiduguri, Borno state in the northern part of Nigeria has potential energy generation
using RES resulting in 31% less energy compared to the system with energy efficiency measures
(Jumare, 2019). Also integrating solar panel to the building with/without grid power will
reduce the problem of electricity by self generation and provide suitable comfort to the building
residents (Aji and Uchenna, 2018). It is possible to supply about 60% of building energy in
residential buildings of northern Nigeria using solar enrgy alone, and provide sufficient energy
so that, the need for electric generators will be avoided (Salisu et al. 2014).
BUILDING ENERGY CONSUMPTION

Many households in northern Nigeria are using incandescent lamps for their lighting
system. These lamps have high wattage which results in high energy consumption and emission

of heat. Most people in this region concentrate on lighting their houses irrespective of how
much it will cost them, due to lack of energy efficiency knowledge. The same happen to all
other means of using energy. Ahemen et al. (2016) found that, replacing incandescent lamps
with energy efficient lamps will save up to 70% of electricity consumption in lighting and also
save significant amount of money used in buying fuels to power electric generators. There is a
linear correlation between electricity consumption, inflation and economic growth (Iyke, 2015).
This explains that for proper Nigerian economic development, the price of energy (electricity)
should be regulated to average adaptable size and the energy supply should be optimum.
The northern region of Nigeria has sufficient solar energy which will alone be used to
replace petrol/diesel electric generators, but one issue is that, the heating from the sun causes
thermal discomfort which is a result of improper building orientation, glazing and shading.
Thus result in extra energy consumption. Ochedi & Taki (2019) found that, a reduction of
about 30% solar gain and about 2% reduction in annual temperature is possible when perfect
building orientation, glazing and proper shading devices were used. Many residential buildings
in northern Nigeria prefer natural ventilation and shading for their thermal comfort, among
the shading devices , veranda is the most widely used. According to Chareille et al. (2001),
veranda can save from 4% up to 23% of the building energy consumption. Another work by
Ishaq & Alibaba (2017) on shading devices indicates that, the presence of shading devices in
residential buildings increase the average thermal comfort of the building structure and this is
achieved with zero energy expense. This means the resident of northern Nigeria can provide
passive thermal comfort to their buildings even with their lack of energy efficiency awareness,
which signifies that with better energy awareness more energy and more money will be saved.
The energy consumption of contemporary home was approximately 3.5 times that of a
home with sustainable factors (Danesh et al 2014). The increase in building energy consumption
depends on the type of building (Flat, Apartment, Detached, terrace, etc.). Sulaiman et al. (2015)
found that, there is 7% to 8% and 9% to 12% increment in energy expenditure by detached and
terrace building as compared to Flat and apartment respectively. The research by Irimiya at al.
(2013) show that, energy consumption in residential buildings of Kano and Kaduna states in
Northern Nigeria has greater positive impact when green buildings are adopted as compared to
conventional buildings. Zhao et al (2016) identify a possible reduction in energy consumption
and expenditure of up to 43% in building designed based on green building technology in the
US.
NET ZERO ENERGY BUILDINGS IN NORTHERN NIGERIA

A Net Zero Energy Building (NZEB) is an energy efficient building that generates
sufficient energy on-site over the course of a year to supply all expected on-site energy for
the building users”[1]. Building practitioners and the owners in Nigeria lack knowledge about

NZEB and its potential energy saving, cost savings, as well as the payback period. It was found
by Nduka et al. (2019) that, greater percentage of building professionals has been not aware
and are not employing NZEB practices talkless of the common building owners.
REFERENCES
[1] Electric power consumption (kWh per capita) in Nigeria. http://www.tradingeconomics.
com/nigeria/electric-power-consumption-kwh-per-capita-wb-data.html. Accessed
27/01/2017.
[2] N.I. Nwulua, O.P. Agboolab, Int. J. Therm. Environ. Eng. 3 (1) (2011) 15–20.
[3] Stephen Ogunyiola. ‘‘Energy Crisis In Nigeria.’’ http://perpetualminds.com/2011/10/03/
energy-crisis-in-nigeria/. (Accessed 25 January 2019).
[4] A.S. Sambo, B. Garba, I.H. Zarma, M.M. Gaji, J. Energy Power Eng. 6 (7) (2012)
1050.
[5] Electric Power Investors’ Forum by Bureau of Public Enterprises (BPE). Power
Generation (Status and Outlook). Presidential taskforce on power. https://studylib.net/
doc/8304653/power-generation-status-and-outlook. (Accessed 22nd,November 2018).

Design of air conditioning system
for a residential building: a review
Ramesh Das, R S. Ojha, Vineet Kumar, Sudesh Singh*
Pradesh, India
* Corresponding author:sudesh.sengar@gmail.com
abstract
Annually, the climate in most places rises, and as a result, the total energy to provide
climate control rises as well. The HVAC industry faces a tough task in developing energy-
efficient equipment to fulfil growing demands while also decreasing climate change and
depletion of the ozone layer. Cooling water central air conditioning systems are used in places
where entire major buildings, such as retail malls, airports, and hotels, with multiple floors, must
be air conditioned. The project entails the design of a Shandilya Villa Mumbai air conditioning
system as well as its criterion for new buildings Establishing a thermal stabilized atmosphere
inside a building, such as a kitchen, master bedroom, or dining hall, is the major focus. The
planned air - conditioning system site is situated on the tower’s rooftop patio.
Keywords: Humidification, Dehumidification, Specific Humidity, Ton-of-Refrigeration,
Indoor-Air-Quality, British-thermal-unit.
Introduction
Air conditioning investigation is among the most challenging areas of research, and it is
carried out in stages. Analysis of the heat load. Heat load estimation considers the heat generated
by occupants as well as the equipment installed within, as well as ambient elements. Prior to
implementing the Air conditioning system, an Engineer must have a thorough understanding of
the construction, surrounding environment, occupants, and other factors affecting the system.
The following stage will be to choose appropriate equipment based on the findings of the
previous analysis. By choosing the right size and load bearing capacity equipment, the main
goal of comfort and energy savings will be met. The initial and continuing costs will be higher
if we choose an air conditioning system that is larger than what is required. On the other hand,
if a smaller air conditioning system is built than is required, under cooling will occur, defeating
the aim of the air conditioning system installation. The goal of this paper is to define the

steps required in designing an air conditioning system that incorporates accurate heat load
calculations. The size of the system that delivers best efficiency at the lowest cost is determined
by the HVAC designer.
Free cooling is a simple method that uses pump to recirculate a refrigerant (usually or a
liquid mix) from a cooling mechanism, which then functions as a heat sink for the energy lost
from of the cooled environment. Free cooling systems can have extremely high efficiency,
and they’re sometimes paired with different seasons thermal energy storage to utilize the cold
of winters for summer air conditioning. Thermal comfort conditions are considered adequate
when seventy percent of the building’s occupants are pleased, according to this guideline. A
predicted mean vote (PMV), The average of a large group of people’s thermal sensory votes
on a scale is used to predict the best comfort settings. The essential variables that make it
up an indoor climate subject to human comfort are air temp, air humidity, air velocity, mean
temperature, and human impacts.
Components of air conditioning system

The components of a HVAC system are various. Each of these components works together
to ensure the system’s overall performance. If one of the components fails, the entire system
will fail soon after. The major components of air conditioning system are: -
 Compressor
The term “compress” is defined as “to reduce in size, quantity, or volume as though by
compressing vapour. The compressor compresses the refrigerant gas, reducing its volume and
transforming it into a hot, high-pressure gas. The application of HVAC compressors can be
classified. In air conditioning units, there are five different types of compressors:
1. Reciprocating Compressor: Uses in light commercial and industrial.
2. Rotary: Appliances and household A/C units can employ a rotary compressor.
3. Scroll: Residential, light commercial, commercial, and refrigeration applications are
all possible.
4. Screw: For commercial air conditioning, refrigeration, and industrial uses.
5. Centrifugal compressors: Centrifugal compressors can be utilize in commercial air
conditioning systems.
 Condenser
A condenser is a heat exchanger that chills a gases substance into a liquid form for use in
heat transfer applications. As a consequence, the high temperature of the substance is liberated
and redistributed to the surroundings. Cooling towers are used in many industrial systems to
effectively reject energy.
 Expansion Valve
A thermal expansion valve, also known as a thermostatic expansion valve, is a component
in vapor-compression refrigeration and air conditioning systems that controls the amount of
refrigerant released into the evaporator and is designed to keep the superheat of the refrigerant
that flows out of the evaporator at a constant value.

 Evaporator
The evaporator coil is the part of your air conditioning system that absorbs heat from the
air. To finish the heat exchange process that creates cool air, it works with a condenser coil. The
evaporator coil is full of refrigerant that has evaporated and has been pumped as a liquid by the
compressor to the metering device and then into the evaporator. The air forced through the coil
by the blower fan will pass through the coil, where the heat will be absorbed by the refrigerant
in the evaporator.
Experimental Investigation
Heat Load
The temperature we experience indoors is influenced by the weather outside. HVAC
systems must work extra hard in harsh weather to keep a comfortable environment. The term
“heat load” refers to the amount of cooling or heating required to maintain a comfortable indoor
temperature. Insulation, building materials, number of windows, size and location of windows,
appliances, electronics (computers, printers, and other electronic devices all emit heat), how
many persons generally occupy the home, and more are all aspects to consider. BTUs (British
Thermal Units) are used to assess heat load (British thermal units).
SHG LHG COMMENT

External
Walls Radiation, Conduction, heat transfer, using
CLTD’s, Sol-
Roofs air, temperature, time lags.
Windows (Glass on Solar radiation and conduction using SCL, zones.
wall)
Skylight (Glass on
Roof)
Partitions
Floors Heat transfer by conduction
Ceilings
Infiltration Latent and sensible heat transfer with mass
transfer
Internal
People Sensible heat gain using CLF
Lights
Equipment Latent heat gain is instantaneous
Total Room SHG LHG Use to determine supply air quantity and
condition

The Heat Load Calculation sheets for the proposed building are listed below
The Tonnage and Litre/second flow of air in each room/space are the values needed for
subsequent calculations. heat load calculation software, which is an excel sheet with predefined
calculations, is used to calculate the Heat Load for the project:
Area in sqft Length*Breath Height in sqft Height of room

Total no. of occupant **
Fresh Air CFM Per 7.5 Assumption taken
Person
Total Fresh Air CFM Total no. of occupant
*fresh air cfm per
person
Total Fresh Air @ (7.5*total occupant) +
7.5CFM*Person + (0.12*area)
0.12CFM/Sft.
Selected Fresh Air = Max(freash air per person cfm),(total fresh air cfm),(Total Fresh Air @
7.5CFM*Person + 0.12CFM/Sft.)
East wall/glass/open space Floor heat gain
West wall/glass/open space Ceiling heat gain
North wall/glass/open space Total Glass heat gain
South wall/glass/open space Total Partition heat gain
People heat gain Lights (W) heat throw
Eqp. (KW) heat throw
Assumption temperature of Delhi Calculated ADP

DB WB RH GR/Lbs ADP (Sel.) ** **
Season F F % Deh. Rise ** **
Summer > 110 75 19.00 73.4 Deh. CFM ** **
Monsoon> 95 83 61.00 153 Cooling Load ** *
Winter > 45 41 71.00 31.4 Reheat **
Room>S/M 72 61.4 55.00 64.6
Room>W 70 60 55.00 60.3
Sel. CFM = Max Deh. CFM calculated
Sel. TR = MAx. Delhi cooling load
calculated

1.2 Insufficient cooling or heating, Efficiency & Air Quality
Refrigerant is a liquid substance that is required for the removal of heat and the creation
of cool air in cooling systems. The device will not cool properly if the system loses refrigerant
due to leakage or theft. A refrigerant recharge, or refill, is usually sufficient to restore the
system’s ability to cool. One of the most prevalent HVAC issues is a lack of refrigerant. An air
conditioner’s evaporator coils can freeze over, forming a thick layer of ice that obstructs the
equipment’s ability to cool. It’s generally enough to defrost the coils and remove the ice build-up
to get the system cold again. HVAC systems can degrade over time, resulting in a large increase
in your monthly heating and cooling costs. This occurs when the system tries to compensate
for the loss by operating more frequently. If your energy expenses have suddenly increased and
can’t be explained by increasing consumption or weather-related difficulties, you should get
your HVAC system inspected by a professional. The air filters in your air conditioning systems
remove dust, pollen, and other particles from the air that circulates through the system. They
prevent those particulates from entering your facility’s indoor air by doing so. If the quality of
your indoor air appears to be deteriorating, check the air filters in your HVAC system and replace
them if they’re dirty. Cooling systems should also provide some level of dehumidification for
your home environment. If the humidity level rises, the equipment may need to be serviced.
Whenever you experience weird noises from your HVAC system that you haven’t heard before,
or if the noises it normally makes are louder than usual, it could be an indication of significant
trouble. Cause sure the noises aren’t coming from loose parts, loosened doors or access panels,
or other parts that make rattling, banging, or clattering noises first. Screaming or squeaking
noises may indicate that lubrication of a fan or other moving gear is required. They can also
indicate the need for a new fan belt. Internal popping or banging sounds in a gas furnace could
indicate that gas is building up and burning off with a sound. This could become a major
issue in the future and should be investigated as soon as feasible. Whenever the HVAC system
didn’t work at all, it’s likely due to a malfunctioning thermostat. Many current programmed
thermostats are battery-powered, and if the batteries die, the thermostat will turn off and the
HVAC system will not operate. Check the thermostat’s screen, and if it’s blank, replace the
batteries. This is one of the most common HVAC issues, and the thermostat will normally turn
back on and the HVAC system will resume regular operation. If replacing the batteries doesn’t
fix the problem, the thermostat may need to be changed. A tripped circuit breaker may also be
to blame for a broken HVAC system. Power
3.3 Common Issues

Commercial heating and cooling systems are built to last a long time and deliver consistent
performance. The system will eventually become less reliable as the equipment matures. Here’s
a quick rundown of five of the most prevalent HVAC issues in buildings.
a. Insufficient cooling or heating
Refrigerant is a liquid substance that is required for the removal of heat and the creation
of cool air in cooling systems. The device will not cool properly if the system loses

refrigerant due to leakage or theft. A refrigerant recharge, or refill, is usually sufficient to
restore the system’s ability to cool. One of the most prevalent HVAC issues is a lack of
refrigerant.
An air conditioner’s evaporator coils can freeze over, forming a thick layer of ice that
obstructs the equipment’s ability to cool. It’s generally enough to defrost the coils and
remove the ice build-up to get the system cold again.
b. Efficiency Drop
HVAC systems can degrade over time, resulting in a large increase in your monthly
heating and cooling costs. This occurs when the system tries to compensate for the loss by
operating more frequently. If your energy expenses have suddenly increased and can’t be
explained by increasing consumption or weather-related difficulties, you should get your
HVAC system inspected by a professional.
c. Indoor Air Quality Issues
The air filters in your air conditioning systems remove dust, pollen, and other particles
from the air that circulates through the system. They prevent those particulates from
entering your facility’s indoor air by doing so. If the quality of your indoor air appears to
be deteriorating, check the air filters in your HVAC system and replace them if they’re
dirty.
Cooling systems should also provide some level of dehumidification for your home
environment. If the humidity level rises, the equipment may need to be serviced.
d. Unusual noise
Whenever you experience weird noises from your HVAC system that you haven’t heard
before, or if the noises it normally makes are louder than usual, it could be an indication of
significant trouble. Cause sure the noises aren’t coming from loose parts, loosened doors
or access panels, or other parts that make rattling, banging, or clattering noises first.
Screaming or squeaking noises may indicate that lubrication of a fan or other moving gear
is required. They can also indicate the need for a new fan belt.
Internal popping or banging sounds in a gas furnace could indicate that gas is building up
and burning off with a sound. This could become a major issue in the future and should be
investigated as soon as feasible.
e. Sluggish performance
Whenever the HVAC system didn’t work at all, it’s likely due to a malfunctioning
thermostat. Many current programmed thermostats are battery-powered, and if the
batteries die, the thermostat will turn off and the HVAC system will not operate. Check the
thermostat’s screen, and if it’s blank, replace the batteries. This is one of the most common
HVAC issues, and the thermostat will normally turn back on and the HVAC system will
resume regular operation.
If replacing the batteries doesn’t fix the problem, the thermostat may need to be changed.
A tripped circuit breaker may also be to blame for a broken HVAC system. Power surges

in the electrical wires can cause breakers to trip. An occasional breaker trip isn’t cause for
concern, but consistent breaker trips could suggest a serious problem. The system should
operate again after you reset the breaker.
Control system for the HVAC system

The indoor thermal feeling is the subject of HVAC system modelling, which is linked
to the modelling of buildings, air handling unit (AHU) equipment’s, and indoor thermal
processes. Many HVAC system modelling approaches have been made accessible until now,
and the techniques have matured. However, there are several flaws in the application and
integration procedures for the various types of HVAC models. Irregular, pure lag time, high
thermal inertia, unpredictable disturbance sources, large-scale systems, and limitations will
be accumulated through the application and integration processes for both AHU equipment’s
and building models. This research examines many types of HVAC models and their benefits
and drawbacks for various applications, concluding that the Gray-box type is the greatest
representation of indoor thermal comfort. However, its application fails when it comes to the
integration procedure, as its response deviates from reality.
Future Scopes
Dehumidification Optimization
Single-zone cooling units have a bad reputation for providing “cold and damp” environments,
which can lead to discomfort, moisture damage, and health risks. We can entirely resolve this
issue without requiring significant changes to existing equipment. For the sake of brevity, we’ll
assume that refrigeration-based dehumidification will continue to be the most cost-effective
option for most applications. This technology has flaws since the cooling coil is designed to
fulfil two distinct functions: cooling and dehumidification. In today’s single-zone systems, the
shotgun marriage of these two functions is the source of inadequate dehumidification. If we
use dehumidification equipment to dehumidify, reheat can be added to single-zone systems
as a solution. In multiple-zone systems, reheat is the source of good humidity management.
Isn’t reheating, though, somewhat costly? It’s only expensive in multi-zone air handling
systems, which squander a lot of reheat energy to keep zone temperatures consistent. Single-
zone systems, on the other hand, do not employ reheat to regulate temperature. Reheating for
dehumidification is also always free. This is because any cooling process rejects more heat than
it removes, and reheat is only required to cancel a portion of the sensible cooling process, that
is, the part that causes the space temperature to drop below what we desire.
Using Dehumidifiers and Air Conditioners Together

When all of the compressor discharge gas is directed to the external condenser, the machine
in Figure 2 becomes a conventional air conditioner. If all of the discharge gas is directed to the
reheat coil, the machine becomes a standard room dehumidifier. This shows that we may obtain
comparable results by combining a common air conditioner with a common dehumidifier. It

is simple to control such a combination. The thermostat controls the air conditioner, whereas
the humidistat controls the dehumidifier. In fact, technically, such a combination is comparable
to our combination unit. The distinctions are purely functional. Separate equipment is more
costly.
Optimize Latent Heat Recovery

Dehumidification is treated as a two-part process in optimized design, with mechanical
dehumidification being the second phase. The first stage is to take advantage of as much “free”
dehumidification as possible by allowing exhaust air to collect moisture from the incoming
ventilation air. This is accomplished by the use of latent air-to-air heat recovery technology.
Single-zone systems with built-in heat recovery already have a devoted following.
Future Onwards
Major changes in engineering are common, with existing processes being abruptly rejected
and embryonic approaches fast gaining supremacy. After years of rising strain, when important
realities become too strong to ignore, such upheavals occur. We’ve arrived at a critical juncture
in the design of HVAC systems. In a century of extremely high energy prices and security
attacks, a breakthrough in HVAC is required to keep buildings safe. The impending HVAC
design shock is akin to the mass extinction, which grew too huge and unadaptable to survive
and were replaced by small, adaptable animals. Similarly, multiple-zone air handling will be
phased out in favour of a flexible new design idea we’ve dubbed “optimized-function HVAC.”
The transformation is already underway. Create HVAC systems for the twenty-first century,
not the past.
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INTERDISCIPLINARY ENGINEERING
An ISM approach for cost factors in
a product lifecycle costing
Naveen Ja,*, Himanshu Payala
a
Pradesh, India
a
*Corresponding author.Mob: 7503758119 ;E-mail address: naveen.j.murthy@gmail.com
abstract
The global increase in the competition and a strong battle to establish market dominance,
the application of product lifecycle cost estimation between designers and manufacturing firms
has become a convincing approach as it places great emphasis on cost control. The existing
product lifecycle costing (PLCC) approach on a product helps in breaking down the cost factors
related to the total cost involved during its life cycle of a product. From rigorous literature
review, the cost factors included in the product lifecycle cost analysis are market study cost
(MSC), research & development cost (RDC), manufacturing cost (MFC), quality control cost
(QCC), transportation & logistics cost (TLC), operation cost (OPC), service cost (SVC), and
disposal cost (DPC). The principle objective of this work is to distinguish and comprehend
interrelationships among different cost factors which are recollected for the existing product
lifecycle cost investigation of a product. An incorporated model utilizing interpretive structure
modeling (ISM) for cost influencing product lifecycle costing is created and the primary
connection between these factors of costs is displayed, further MICMAC examination is done
to break down the driving power and dependence of cost factors which will be useful to the
administrator to distinguish significant rules and to uncover the immediate and circuitous
impact of every standards on the product lifecycle costing analyses. Finally, outcomes show
that two costs i.e., market study cost (MSC) and research & development cost (RDC) act as a
strong driver.
Keywords: Interpretive Structural Modelling (ISM); Product Lifecycle Costing (PLCC);
Cost factors;
INTRODUCTION
Product lifecycle costing (PLCC) is a concept that is essential to reduce the cost along the
life expectancy of a product or an equipment, or a system. The LCC, is a method of estimating

the cost incurred on a product, or a system, or an equipment over the period of its life when in
use. Therefore, LCC is the cost of any system covered from cradle to grave [1]. Aftermarket
entry stages are development, maturity and decline stages [2]. PLCC can identify the acquisition
expenditure in the product design, manufacturing, usage, disposal and other phases from the
economic perspective of decision-makers too [3].
Thus, PLCC of a product brings about prior activities to generate income or to lower
the costs than in any case may be thought of. Improved decisions ought to follow from a
more precise and practical appraisal of revenues and expenditures, essentially inside a specific
lifecycle stage. LCC not only used to predict the future expenditures but it also helps in
monitoring the current expenditures [4].
While, on the other hand there are some limitations that PLCC yields are just gauges
and can never be more precise than the information sources and the stretches utilized for the
evaluations this is especially valid for cost-hazard examination therefore, LCC cost models
should be adjusted to be exceptionally helpful.
OBJECTIVE
The principle objective of this work is to
a. recognize significant cost factors in individual phase of the product lifecycle.
b. foster interrelationships between different cost factors.
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Generally, the lifecycle of a product is estimated using PLCC model. An PLCC model
basically identifies the various cost components, and these different components of cost are
discussed in the study of literature below.
Market Study Cost (MSC)

The market study cost is defined by the cost of the economic feasibility study to know if
the product to be launched will have good economic results [5]. Market study cost measures
the feasibility of the economic cost which will help to understand the system whether it will
provide an improved economical result or not so, it may be considered under concept and
definition cost [6,7].
Manufacturing Cost (MFC)

The manufacturing cost should be evaluated and considered from the initial process
conception stages onward, and given an equal weightage along with product quality and
safety [8]. The manufacturing costs can be directly calculated by the product of manufacturing
hours and unit cost per hour [9]. The consumers are benefitted with lower running cost with a
restricted penalty to the manufacturer by reduced manufacturing cost [10]. Therefore, overall
cost of the product can be reduced directly by lowering the manufacturing cost [11]. Also,
while assessing the product life cycle costs and environmental performances manufacturing

cost may be considered [10].
Operation Cost (OPC)

The total operation cost is defined as the sum of the materials inventory cost stored in the
succeeding work station together with the withdrawal cost [12]. It has been seen that operation
cost dominates the life cycle of a product, and accounts for more than 80% of the greenhouse
gases emissions and total energy usage [13]. Operation cost is the recurring costs needed for
the operation of system and by optimising strategies for spare part and logistical support,
operational cost can be decreased [14].
Quality Control Cost (QCC)

A manufacturer neutral risk, in the long run, the optimal price depends on the quality
control includes inspection cost per item, and defective cost of the items [15]. In minimisation
of machine and process failures the quality control plays an important role and hence reducing
the its cost. By adopting six sigma techniques in the industries, quality control may be improved
significantly [16]. In this manner, cost of quality control is the expenses caused in guaranteeing
and guaranteeing quality just as the misfortune brought about when quality isn’t accomplished
[17].
Service Cost (SVC)

The manufactured products have a specific requirement of maintenance that includes cost
of service of product which may be referred as cost of product maintenance e.g., disassembling
and assemblage cost [18]. In manufacturing system, processes are tightly integrated and service
cost can be considered as an economic sustainability metric. Due to this reason service cost
should include taxes, insurance, usage of product, financial services etc. [19]. Majority of
the studies has only focused on estimation of cost of the product rather than on services but
increasing in demand for services are becoming a foremost part of the company’s offerings in
the manufacturing sector [20]. Therefore, while foreseeing at long haul product costs requires
a transportation organizer which incorporates both preliminary expenses and future service
support costs [21].
Disposal Cost (DPC)

In the PLCC analysis at the end-of-life (EOL) phase the cost involved in the exclusion
of the waste products without any recovery in the intrinsic value may be referred as disposal
cost. however, it may reduce the cost of disassembling in the PLCC analysis, but continues to
have a sever environmental impact [22]. Besides, in several works, the waste situation has been
estimated, an average disposal cost is considered [23]. In the analysis of PLCC disposal cost
accounts during the operation of power generation and modelling maintenance and repair costs
using stochastic point processes [24,25]. In some scenarios at the EOL phase, cost of disposal
of the equipment was used for landfilling through disinfection process too [26].

Research and Development Cost (RDC)
The RDC includes of resources that is required to create a system to a point where it can
be introduced for operation [27]. This factor is mainly included in feasibility study, preliminary
design and development of model [28]. The product lifecycle initiates with the identification of
the needs and expands through design development and research of a model in lifecycle include
the design phases of conceptual design, preliminary and detail design [4]. The RDC is the one-
time investment and it should be disintegrated into the probable production of each subsequent
set of connected-container and connector [29].
Transportation and Logistics Cost (TLC)

TLC are all of the expenditures acquired in moving the items from raw materials source
to delivery of orders to the customers and each stage in between [30]. Transportation costs get
affected if the product manufacturing is done keeping in mind economic and social impacts
Like Cross laminated timber, pre-cast and pre-stressed concrete is constructed off site, and
delivered for final assembly [31]. Discrepancy arises due to addition of transportation costs
after accounting for the densification factor “densification factor,” which is a function of the
waste form’s heat load in light water reactor fuel cycles [32].
TECHNIQUE
Interpretive structural modelling (ISM) is an interactive learning method for creating
interrelationships among explicit components establishing an issue or a problem. It additionally
assists to yield graphical representations of complex systems with intricate frameworks. The
critical concepts that is necessary to understand ISM technique is transitivity and reachability.
The interrelationship established between different cost factors requires certain convections
to be defined which are as follows:
The symbols utilised to depict the course of relationship involved among the various cost
factors are:
R: cost m impacts cost n
L: cost n impacts cost m
X: cost m and cost n are interdepended
O: cost m and cost n does not impact on each other
In preliminary stage structural self-interaction matrix is created using these symbols and
later it is then, converted into initial reachability matrix which is a binary matrix. Steps involved
in this technique are as follows.
• Identification of the several cost factors influencing PLCC.
• Establishment of the contextual relationship among various the cost factors.
• Development of structural self-interaction matrix (SSIM).
• Development of initial reachability matrix (IRM).
• Development of final reachability matrix (FRM).
• Level partition on FRM.

• Development of conical matrix.
• Development of diagraph.
• Development of ISM model.
• MICMAC analysis
In this work, subsequently by incorporating the above-mentioned steps a FRM, result for
first iterations and ISM based levels of cost factors has been obtained as shown in table 1, table
2 and table 3 respectively. Accordingly, diagraph showing the level of cost factors has been
established (Ref. Fig. 1) and driving and dependence was developed as shown in Fig 2.
Table 1: Final reachability matrix (FRM)
S.N Cost Factors 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

1 MSC 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1
2 MFC 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1
3 QCC 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 1
4 SVC 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1
5 DPC 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1
6 OPC 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 1
7 RDC 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
8 TLC 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 1
Table 2: Result of first Iteration
Cost Factors Reachability Antecedent Intersection Level

MSC 1,2,3,4,5,6,8 1,2,7 1,2
MFC 1,2,3,4,5,6,8 1,2,3,4,6,7,8 1,2,3,4,6,8
QCC 2,3,4,5,6,8 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8 2,3,4,5,6,8 I
SVC 2,3,4,5,8 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8 2,3,4,5,8 I
DPC 3,4,5,8 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8 3,4,5,8 I
OPC 2,3,4,5,6,8 1,2,3,6,7,8 2,3,6,8
RDC 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8 7 7
TLC 2,3,4,5,6,8 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8 2,3,4,5,6,8 I
Table 3: ISM based levels of variables.
Cost factor Levels

MSC III
MFC II
QCC I

SVC I
DPC I
OPC II
RDC IV
TLC I
Fig. 1: Diagraph representing the cost factors level
Fig. 2. Dependence power and driver power diagram

CONCLUSION
The purpose of this work was to recognize and analyse key cost factors and their
relationships that could help to achieve an effective PLCC by minimising the cost of the product
through its lifecycle. In this work, a model based on ISM is used to analyse the interrelationship
between the several cost factors of a product lifecycle.
From the study we found that two cost factors namely Research and development cost and
Market study cost are having the highest driving power and lowest dependence power and out
of these two cost factors research and development cost is the most driving cost factor hence
also called as key factor.
Therefore, the independent variant or key element is the most powerful driver that may be
considered as an important of all cost factors, which need to be addressed during the analyses
of PLCC.
Acknowledgements
We are thankful to our colleague Dr. Prashant Chauhan who provided expertise that
greatly assisted the work, although they may not agree with all of the interpretations provided
in this paper. And last but not the least, we are also grateful to my friends Mr. Deepanshu Goel
and Mr. Deepak Prajapati for assisting in survey and the data required for this work
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Application Deployment and
Performance Measurement
in Various Cloud Domains for
Microservices
Mr. Sushant Jhingran , Dr. Nitin Rakesh
Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Sharda University Greater Noida
sushant.jhingran@sharda.ac.in , nitin.rakesh@sharda.ac.in
abstract
Cloud technology can only become advantageous if it provides a high level of performance.
measurement-based performance evaluation entails identifying the aim and applicability of the
assessment and investigating the capabilities of cloud services. When analyzing the use of
enterprise applications deployed on a cloud, the service provider may consider the deployment
model of the application and specify the various security, networking, and operational
constraints in order to conduct an evaluation to identify Benchmarks, configurations, test runs,
analysis of results, and recommendations. Cloud services can be evaluated based on a variety
of performance metrics that can be applied to different aspects of the service Results and
findings show the data in the figures below with resource utilization and effects of load on the
application. microservices allow organizations to deploy applications on the cloud by providing
web service functions and architecture that allows scaling and updating of applications with
less inconsistency. By using facilities such as the Amazon web services and other public cloud
technology, organizations can deploy secure and valuable applications to the cloud.
INTRODUCTION
Cloud computing is a computing paradigm with a broad spectrum of technicalities,
including virtualization and abstraction, which provide users services via internet. The rapid
advancement of networking technologies and cloud computing has led to the development of
multiple cloud services pertinent to different organizations’ information systems.
Due to the complexity of deploying and operating techniques involving numerous
technologies, analytics systems, and infrastructure, the cloud-based service providers utilize

three cloud deployment models: private, public, and hybrid. Each deployment model has its
unique characteristics. Some are more popular than others depending on the user’s needs; for
instance, some individuals may opt to specify their desired data location, security constraints,
and how they want to manage latency issues. This paper discusses strategies to deploy
applications on a cloud microservice model and explores performance evaluation techniques
of cloud services.
I. DEPLOYING APPLICATIONS ON A PRIVATE CLOUD

A private cloud is a deployment model exclusive to a single organization and can be
located at the organization’s site or controlled by a third-party service provider. Since various
virtual private clouds (VPCs) cannot communicate directly, providers strive to achieve network
isolation for applications’ setup and deployment [6]. Overall, four distinct steps are common to
all cloud plans and domains used to deploy enterprise applications. First, select a web server,
database environment, and load balancer from virtual machine images. Second, configure all
graphics to make customized images, send them to the cloud storage where multiple database
servers are available, then run the new customs code into the system’s architecture [2]. Lastly,
the developer must select a pattern that manipulates the images and deploys them hence
managing security, networking, and other computing aspects such as deploying microservices.
For updates, the virtual machine images are changed, copied, and redeployed in the entire
infrastructure.
Alternatively, one can establish a hybrid cloud computing environment and set up
applications such as the ERP using a VPC [5]. This technique allows organizations to access
applications using Remote Desktop Protocol instead of a physical device. Additionally, the
organization can deploy the application with the RemoteApp to avoid establishing a connection
on the cloud every time an employee needs to use it. One advantage of this technique is that
employees can access the app from anywhere. The provider can ensure optimum security by
creating a local user VPN from the workstation to the VPC. Besides, Private clouds are more
secure than other models since they utilize a single organization’s existing data center and
firewall [4]. The private cloud relies on the institution’s electronic and physical measures;
hence sensitive data is highly secure.
II.
DEPLOYING MICROSERVICES Microservices is an emerging
architecture that
breaks down applications into independently deployable services. Modern cloud platforms
use different methods to deploy microservices, including instances per host pattern, instances
per host pattern, instances per container pattern, and serverless deployment. While using the
spring cloud framework, first create a java microservice application from a spring boot rest
application. Next, establish a git configuration repository, create a spring cloud configuration

server, and a Eureka registry server to manage and view configurations. The last step is to use
server port 8080 to find deployed microservices. In Amazon Web Services (AWS), microservices
are deployed by stating task definitions, configuring the app to load balancer, and configuring
listener rules. Lastly, switch traffic to microservices and validate the deployment.
III. PERFORMANCE MEASUREMENT OF CLOUD SERVICES

Cloud technology can only become advantageous if it provides a high level of performance.
According to Duan [3], measurement-based performance evaluation entails identifying the
aim and applicability of the assessment and investigating the capabilities of cloud services.
When analyzing the use of enterprise applications deployed on a virtual private cloud, the
service provider may consider the deployment model of the application and specify the various
security, networking, and operational constraints. The next essential step is identifying the
appropriate performance metrics and choosing the benchmark applications to test the service.
Afterward, the provider can set up a suitable environment to test and evaluate the cloud service.
Bahga and Vijay [1] propose an automated performance evaluation system with realistic
benchmark and workload models. This system is designed to automate all activities involved in
the evaluation, starting from analyzing user behavior and developing a virtual workload that is
comparable and has almost similar characteristics to the actual workload. The workload consists
of attributes like session length, think time, and inter-session interval, and the benchmark
model includes features like data dependencies, workload mix, and operations [1]. This system
is among the many other models created and used by various providers.
The following are the steps that make up a standard practice for measuring and evaluating
service performance on a Cloud platform. First, in order to conduct an evaluation, the
researchers must state the goals and scope of the evaluation., Second, determine the Cloud
services features/aspects to be evaluated. Next, Identify the performance metrics to be examined
and the appropriate benchmark applications to be tested. Father that set up an experimental
environment and to perform run testing experiments. Identifying Benchmarks, configurations,
test runs, analysis of results, and recommendations. Cloud services can be evaluated based on
a variety of performance metrics that can be applied to different aspects of the service. Table
1 contains a list of standard performance metrics that can be used to evaluate general Cloud
services.
IV. COMPARASION AND EVALUATION OF ENVIRONMENTS

Using microservices, web applications can be deployed on a variety of public cloud
platforms. Microservices have several advantages over traditional monolithic application
deployment, including the ability to scale resources as demand grows. Some parameters will be
displayed in this section based on the deployed application on elastic beanstalk, a microservice
provided by the AWS cloud platform. Figures below illustrate the parameters that will be
considered for analysis.

Fig 1: shows CPU Utilization and Disk
Fig 2: Shows Disk Utilization
Fig 3: shows Network input

Fig 4: shows Status Checks failure rate
Fig 5: shows Status CPU credit Utilization
V. METHODS
Using a tool or IDE like eclipse a war file can be generated and deployed using Elastic
Bean Stalk which is a Platform as a Service Offering of AWS. It helps in creating a stack i.e.,
a computation platform with all required applications (App Server, Web Server, RDS, Install
Software’s etc.). If there’s already an AWS environment present or an instance running, in that
situation AWS Code Deploy can be used.
VI. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

In this section a performance analysis of microservice based application in AWS has
been presented, this comprehensive analysis was conducted on the basis of bandwidth-based

performance. The quantity of data that can be transferred to the user is measured in bandwidth
usage. In fig1, fig 2 there us CPU utilization and disk metrics. CPU metric measures CPU
resources used in the current instance. Alarms should be set in case there is any major metric
fluctuate or CPU utilization is 80% or above. If the metric remains 50% or below over the
period of runtime, the instance can be downscaled for resource conservation. Disk read and
write metric shows completed read and write operations from strage volumes of the instance
in a set period of time.fig 3 shows the network interface metric which identify’s the volume of
incoming network traffic in the instance, next network packet in and packet out metric show the
number of packets sent and received by the instance. This metric locate the volume of packets
incoming and outgoing traffic in 5 minutes time frame. These metrics together can tell the
performance of the network connection, any sudden decrease , increase and loss of traffic over
a long time should be kept in check. Alarms can be created to detect the deviation from average
stats of the instance between two points. Fig 4 shows the overall , instance and the system
status checks failure rate, a pass or fail status is returned every minute , on passing all status
checks the instance as OK , on failure of one or more checks the status of overall is impared. A
cloudwatch alarm can be created to monitor the instance so that the instance can be recovered
automatically if any issues turn the status to impaired.
Lastly in fig 4 it shows the CPU credit usage and CPU credit balance metric which
measures the current burst credit , these lets instances to boost the operations for a short time,
on exhausting these credits the instance performance will fall to the standard basic performance
type. Alarms can be set to notify when the average falls below 25% of the credit balance.
VII. CONCLUSION
Cloud service performance evaluation is critical and beneficial to both service providers
and consumers. This paper will provide an overview on the performance evaluation of Cloud
service from the perspective of the microservice web application deployment in order to reflect
the status of this environment and testing process.
In summary, innovations and improvements in cloud computing have led providers and
users to explore various services available in the cloud using the internet. Among these services
is deploying enterprise applications on the cloud and managing it remotely. The complexity of
the infrastructure used to achieve this particular service has led to several models for deploying
applications on the cloud. microservices allow organizations to deploy applications on the
cloud by providing web service functions and architecture that allows scaling and updating of
application with less inconsistency. By using facilities such as the Amazon web services and
other public cloud technology, organizations can deploy secure and valuable applications to
the cloud. Service providers assess the performance of cloud services to ensure that they are
fully functional using various benchmark applications and metrics. They must ensure that they
understand the purpose of the measurement and the parameters of the services to be observed.
assessed. With practical application deployment models and suitable performance evaluation
techniques, cloud services remain indispensable for numerous organizations and allows useful
data for improving application performance as well as threshold limit.

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Algorithm-Based Sentiment
Recognition Music Player
Akshat Ajit , Chayanika Arora, Jagriti Pal , .Ardhendu Neogi , Mr. Sushant Jhingran
Department of Computer Science Engineering
Sharda University, 201315, India
abstract
This paper aims to detect the emotion of a person and select music to be played based on
the detected emotion. With the help of Open CV, a well-trained model is created, that will be
able to catch and then propose a piece of music according to the emotion caught by the camera
in the domain area of the user. The authors of this paper have used the Fisherface algorithm that
works on the principle of Linear Discriminant Analysis (LDA) and Principle of Component
Analysis (PCA). For the training, we used the JAFEE database and the Cohn-Kanade database.
The model has been trained with different states of emotions like Happy, Sad, Anger, and
Normal. The authors of this paper also used Haar Cascade Algorithm and Ada Boost technique
to detect the facial emotions of the user and improve the accuracy of the model. Finally, the two
algorithms have been compared with results and analysis has been carried out by the authors.
Keywords: Neural Network (NN), Artificial Intelligence (AI), Machine Learning (ML),
Fisher Face Algorithm (FFA), Convolutional Neural Network (CNN), Haar Cascade Algorithm
(HCA).
Introduction
Artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML) techniques greatly help mankind
and have a bright future in the upcoming years. Music plays a very important role in recognizing
an individual’s emotions and state of mind; it is a great way for people to express themselves
as well as it is an important medium of entertainment for music lovers and listeners. Music
and listening to songs is the most effective way of soothing and relaxing a person’s mind. It
influences our emotion and turns our mood, like when we listen to a sad song we become sad
and there is a decline in our mood when we listen to a happy song it uplifts our mood and we
feel excited or happy. Sometimes it also imparts a therapeutic approach or plays the role of
a counselor. This is where our project comes into the role, as we all know to face an organ

of the human body which plays a vital role in extracting human behaviors and their state of
mind. It is said if you want to find out about someone’s emotion without asking, the easiest
way is to take a look at their facial expressions because it gives important clues and helps in
the identification. Identifying music based on emotion recognition is a challenging job because
people can perceive different emotions for the same song, but it is not an impossible job as
the model proposed by us will extract the feature and will determine the current mood of the
person. Now that the mood has been detected it will present a song playlist to the user according
to the emotion identified which will enlighten the mood of the user. The model will work on
the basic moods of humans like happy, sad, angry, fearful, and neutral. The input will be taken
from a stored database or it can be taken from the webcam [1-2]. Haar Cascade algorithm is
also used and a comparison of results is done between HCA and Fisherface algorithm. Open
CV and HCA together give better accuracy as the bar graph in the results shows each emotion
on the user’s face after recognizing each segment of the face closely and decrypting the desired
information as the output.
Literature Review
Dhruvisha Bansal et al, in their research paper, describe how expression can be used to
determine the current state and mood of an individual, it helps in extracting and understanding
the facial emotion. They have focused on developing a portable device that can be used
anywhere with the help of raspberry pi providing the functionality of playing music according
to the emotion detected, and the project uses Python libraries such as OpenCV and Imutils for
processing the image, Keras for developing deep learning models, TensorFlow for training
neural network models, and NumPy to store an array of images [1].
Yi-Hsuan Yang et al, through their research paper, tell that universally describing emotions
is not easy because the same emotion may vary from person to person and tell that emotion
classes, defined in the terms of arousal and valence. Four quadrants are divided for detection
according to Thayer’s arousal valence emotion plane.
The method used in this project is a regression approach and there is a comparison
shown between support vector regression and linear regression, the approaches are used with
a continuous perspective [2].
Pratiksha Yadav et al in their research paper describe that the most effective media is music
as it shows the feeling of a person. The project is mainly based on the use of SVM(Support
Vector Machine) to develop an intelligent system that can easily recognize facial expressions
from an input image. The project uses two databases namely the JAFEE database and Cohn-
Kanade(CK+) database. After implementation, they get the result that the JAFEE database has
71% of accuracy and Cohn-Kanade(CK+)database has 91% of accuracy [3]. Hawre M.A et
al describe that facial expression is a nonverbal form of communication [4]. Ahmed Hamdy
Ahmed Ibrahim uses a Convolutional Neural Network with high accuracy. They have built a
fully functional app (Front end and Back end) and report that CNN is the best for building any

network that works with images [5].
A) Haar cascade classifier

It uses Haar-like features for human face detection. There are three formations of Haar-
like features. The Algorithm searches for specific Haar features of a face. This detection takes
the image and converts it into a 24 x 24 window. Each Haar feature is smeared to that window
pixel by pixel. Several positive images and negative images are needed to train the classifier.
Then, these features are extracted and their numerical values determined from images that are
used to distinguish one image from another.
B) Cascade Classifier
Each node in the series contains a weak classifier and filter for one Haar feature. All
or nearly all negative image sub-windows will be eliminated in the first stage. When image
regions successfully passed the filter, they go to the next stage, which contains a more complex
filter. Only regions that successfully pass all filters are considered to contain a match of the
face.
Feature extraction and Comparison: After the face is detected, the next step is to extract
features which are done using a linear binary pattern algorithm. To start with, convert the test
image into greyscale. This L x M pixel size image will get divided into regions. The same pixel
size is used for the regions, producing n x n regions [6].
Problem Definition
The user experience of online music is based on manually browsing through a playlist,
looking for the perfect music that will suit the mood of the user. The challenge that most
people are facing is that there is a variety of songs classification based and going through all
these classifications for finding the perfect playlist is quite a hard task. The platforms offering
these services are for example Spotify that is the most popular one, Google Play, and Amazon
music listing only these three and the features available are creating a playlist, pausing the
song, next music, previous music, lyrics, etc.
Based on the proposal, the authors of this paper came up with the idea of creating a
platform that will be using emotions to detect the current acquired user state and suggest a list
of songs concerning the environment (sad, happy, depressed, fear, anger, etc.). Applying this
is quite a challenge, to build the front-end for the user that should be very simple and build
the back-end using a Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) that should be able to catch the
emotion of the user using the Webcam. Using the Web camera to capture the facial expressions
of the user, process them, and then give the output in terms of the user’s mood is the simple
motive of this project. Haar Cascade algorithm and Fisherface algorithm were put into trial
on the dataset and according to the results and analysis, the accuracy of the Haar Cascade

algorithm is slightly better than that of the Fisherface algorithm.
The Fisherface Ml Algorithm

The algorithm used by authors is the Fisherface ML algorithm. This algorithm works
on the principle of Linear Discriminant Analysis (LDA) and Principle Component Analysis
(PCA).
ML is subdivided into three types namely: Supervised Learning, Unsupervised Learning,
and Reinforcement Learning. LDA comes under the category of Supervised learning in which
the machine has to learn with prior data. LDA applies the Dimensionality Reduction technique
which decreases the time in executing and classifying the data [7].
PCA converts uncorrelated and correlated variables in the form of mathematical values. It
uses dimensionality reduction to reduce large datasets by transforming them into smaller parts.
PCA observes data and calculates probabilistic generative models. Fisher face algorithm
captures classified images, performs dimensionality reduction on the data, and then calculates
the statistical value categorically. In addition to that, it also calculates the same for the input
image and compares the value with the training dataset, and gives desired output.
The mood of the user is determined through his facial expressions in the Fisherface
algorithm with the help of the trained model. As the input is related to the user, it will give
a good accuracy rate with the advantage of fewer amounts of the dataset and less memory
storage. Faster output is also obtained with a quick response time. Thus we trained with the
Cohn-Kanade dataset and we made some classifications to train and test our model [7-9].
Results And Analysis-Fisherface Algorithm

The execution of the system has been completed using Python 3. In this, the static image
was used for the database’s facial reaction or response perception motive evaluation. The
captured photo is taken from a photo stored for testing. In this, we used two databases (the first
is JAFEE and the other one is the Conh-Kanade database) to evaluate our system.
Cohn-Kanade database has a total number of 890 photos and as for the JAFEE database,
it has a total number of 213 photos out of which the database is distinct in both parts: first is the
training set and the other one is the evaluation set.
For training and evaluation motive we arrange database in 80/20 relation manner. Both
the set carries seven expression assertion. Cohn-Kanade Database: We gave one solo captured
photo to the system for the evaluation model. Then system first recognizes the position of the
exclusive mark and then finds those marks.
THE HAAR CASCADE ALGORITHM

The Haar Cascade is an ML object detection algorithm used to identify objects in an image
or video and is based on the concept of features proposed by Paul Viola and Michael Jones in
their paper [9]. The Haar Cascade algorithm is used with the python function of Open CV for
facial recognition and emotion detection. The dataset is divided into 80:20 ratio respectively
for training and testing on the model. It reads and analyzes the training dataset which is fed

into the model at first. Then, it uses Open CV on static images to capture the image and use the
algorithm in real-time scenarios. Haar Cascade measures each pixel of the image captured and
compares it to the training data to give the desired output.
Haar features are decided and defined in the dataset. These are digital image features in
use. Comparing and contrasting the color around the eyes (darker) and the color around the
nose (lighter in comparison) are significantly different is one such example of Haar features in
facial recognition. The Haar Cascade algorithm uses the pixel value of each divided pixel in the
training image to classify the emotion as happy, sad, angry, neutral, disgust, fear, or surprise. An
integral image is created and it is divided accurately for the Haar Cascade to work efficiently.
We can find the lighter or darker region by summing up the pixel values of both regions.
A simple way to find out which region is lighter or darker in color is by summing the pixel
desirability of the two and comparing these regions. The darker region sum of pixel values is
always greater than the lighter pixel values. This can be accomplished using Haar-like features
and with the help of them, we can interpret the different parts of a face [10-11].
Ada Boost algorithm is used to identify the best and the worst features in our dataset
to make the model more accurate than the Fisher face algorithm. It keeps a check on the
performance of the classifier for better results. Ada Boost does select the best features for the
model while testing on the Cohn-Kanade dataset. Various facial emotions are captured and the
bar plot graph represents the emotion that is maximumly depicted by the user’s facial detection.
The ‘haarcascade_frontalface_alt.xml’ is a pre-trained face detector present in the Open CV
library.
Result And Analysis-Haar Cascade Algorithm

We have used the Haar Cascade algorithm along with the Open CV-library and the
Ada Boost technique to have better accuracy and results than the Fisherface algorithm. The
execution of Haar Cascade is done in Google Colab and Python 3. The data taken as inputs
and the outputs received are downloaded and stored in the system. There are seven emotions
detected: happy, sad, neutral, angry, disgust, fear, and surprise.
The mean accuracy of each emotion that is the accuracy of each emotion divided by seven
is the accuracy of the model. The accuracy of the Haar Cascade Algorithm is 94% which is 2%
more in comparison to the Fisherface algorithm.
Comparison Between Fisherface And HCA

a) Fisher face ML algorithm works on the principle of Linear Discriminant Analysis
and Principle Component Analysis whereas Haar Cascade Algorithm is used with
the python function of Open CV for facial recognition and emotion detection.
b) In the Fisherface ML algorithm, PCA converts uncorrelated and correlated variables
in the form of mathematical values, whereas in the Haar Cascade Algorithm object
detection algorithm is used to identify objects in an image or video.
c) Fisher face ML algorithm uses dimensionality reduction to reduce large datasets

by transforming them into smaller parts. In Haar Cascade Algorithm, the dataset is
divided into 80: 20 ratios respectively for training and testing on the model.
d) Fisher face ML algorithm calculates the same for the input image and compares the
value with the training dataset and gives desired output. Haar Cascade Algorithm
measures each pixel of the image captured and compares it to the training data to
give the desired output.
e) Fisher face ML algorithm is faster than Haar Cascade algorithm but, Haar Cascade
is more efficient and effective.
f) The accuracy of the Fisherface Algorithm is 92% whereas that of the Haar Cascade
Algorithm is 94%.
g) Fisher’s face algorithm is insensitive to light. Haar Cascade Algorithm is sensitive to
light like at low light or dark places it is difficult for this algorithm.
Future Scope Of Work

In this paper, the authors have discussed and compared two algorithms: the Fisher Face
algorithm and the Haar Cascade Algorithm. In the future, the authors aim to provide a wider
range of languages to select songs from to the user and also enhance the working of the system.
The latest and the old-retro songs also would be included in the dataset shortly. This will benefit
people suffering from mental illness or depression or any other illness. The future scope of
work aims at holding music therapy sessions that will help many who are suffering from mental
illness, who are sad but want to be happy, etc. The mobile application-based emotion detection-
based music player has to be user-friendly with more and more options [5].
Conclusion
In this paper, we have discussed the implementation of emotion detection using facial
recognition. This enables the detection of the mood of the user and playing the song playlist
accordingly. The various attributes are discussed with the help of a flowchart. We have also
gone through various techniques including NN, ML, PCA, LDA, and Fisherface algorithm.
A vast section tells us about the literature review. The two databases we used are JAFEE and
Cohn Kanade with the overall correctness of the system being 71% and 90% respectively. Thus
our paper which focused on developing an emotion (reaction or response) based music playlist,
has met the requirement. Haar Cascade algorithm is used to detect the facial emotions of the
user with classifiers and the Ada Boost technique to enhance the overall performance of the
model. Haar Cascade is proved to be better and more accurate than the Fisherface algorithm.
Haar Cascade has an accuracy of 94% whereas Fisherface has an accuracy of 92%. It will be of
great use to many users who want music to be played according to their state of mind.
Tables
The average accuracy of the CK database when the Fisher Face algorithm is used is 92%.

This is calculated as the mean accuracy of each emotion detected which is shown in Table 1.
Table1: Accuracy Report of CK+ Database
Emotion Accuracy
Anger 95.83%
Happy 98%
Sad 89.58%
Neutral 85.71%
Illustrations
Figure 1: Data Flow diagram of emotion detector music player

Figure 2: Flowchart describing the process of playlist selection based on user moods
Some of the mind’s states of an individual, in particular, and understudies, by the system
are depicted below:
a) ANGRY FACE
Figure 3: When a user is in an Angry State

b) SAD FACE:
Figure 4: When a user is in Sad State

c) HAPPY FACE:

Figure 5: When a user is in Happy State User
d) NORMAL/NEUTRAL FACE:
Figure 6: When a user is in Normal State

The output is plotted in the form of bar graphs and each emotion is shown in the below
figures.
a) Angry Face:
Fig 7(a): When a user is in Angry State User Fig 7(b): Graph shows angry face
b) Sad Face:

Fig 8(a): When a user is in Sad State Fig 8(b) Graph shows a sad face
c) Happy Face:
Fig 9(a): When a user is in Happy State User Fig 9(b) Graph shows a happy face
d) Neutral Face:
Fig 10(a): When a user is in Normal State Fig 10(b) Graph shows neutral face
Acknowledgments and References

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[11] Slusarczyk, B. Industry 4.0—Are we ready. Pol. J. Manag. Stud. 2018, 17, 232–248.
[12] Viola, P.; Jones, M. Robust Real-Time Face Detection, 2001. Int. J. Comput. Vis. 2004,
57, 137–154.

Industry 4.0 and its Technological
Enablers: A Review
Arpita Asthanaa* , Himanshu Payala
a
Pradesh, India
a
*Corresponding Author.Mob:7703995805 ; E-mail address: asthana1988@gmail.com
abstract
“Industry 4.0 or Industrie 4.0” was initially originated at Germany in 2011. Intelligent
Manufacturing and Digitalization are the motive forces behind materialization of Industry
4.0. Digital technology helps in achieving customized production which is the latest trend
in manufacturing units. I4.0 is established on the concept of cybernated manufacturing
including various technologies like Cloud supported Production Models, Web of Things, Cyber
Manufacturing and Big Data. I4.0 mainly focuses on consolidation of human with intelligent
real time workspace. The focal objective of this paper is presenting a review on the concepts of
Industry 4.0 and its trend shift from First Industrial Revolution to Fourth Industrial Revolution
as well as to understand clearly the Nine Technology pillars and challenges faced during its
implementation in real life situations and to identify its future perspective.
Keywords: Industry 4.0; Internet of Things (IoT); Augmented Reality (AR); Cyber
Physical System (CPS); Big Data
Introduction
Technological advancements in day to day lives are posing an impact on industrial spheres
also which eventually results in progression of industrial era and introduces Industry 4.0 [1].
The word “Industry 4.0 or Industrie 4.0” was initially originated at the annual Hannover Messe
trade fair, Germany, in 2011 [2]. Industries, since its inception transforms from first, second,
third revolution and finally reaches to its fourth stage, i.e., the fourth industrial revolution
which is well symbolized by the term Industry 4.0 [3]. Digitalization is the prime mover in the
emergence of Industry 4.0. This concept of Digital technology aids in achieving customized

production which is the latest trend in manufacturing units [3,4]. Industry 4.0 plays a vital
role in the mutation of conventional manufacturing units into the digitalized Smart Factories
with the help of various digital technologies such as Internet of Things (IoT), Cyber Physical
Systems (CPS). Industry 4.0 is an amalgamation of Nine elemental technologies such as Big
Data and Analytics [11], Internet of Things (IoT) [12], Autonomous Robots [13], Simulation
[14], Augmented Reality [15,16], Horizontal and Vertical System Integration [1,3], Additive
Manufacturing [17], Cloud Computing [1,5], Cyber Security and Cyber Physical Systems
[3,18] which enable sustainable implementation of Industry 4.0 in manufacturing systems
[5,6]. The major objective of this paper is to describe Industry 4.0, Trend shift in Industrial
Revolution, Nine Technological Enablers and Issues faced with the help of reviewed literature.
Trend Shift in Industrial Revolution

Fourth Industrial Revolution (Industry 4.0) marks huge transition in manufacturing
industries. This trend shift was initially started with First Industrial Revolution (Industry 1.0)
in 18th Century which introduced use of mechanical power generated by steam and water.
Second Industrial Revolution (Industry 2.0) was characterized by Electric Power. The Third
Industrial Revolution (Industry 3.0) or Digital Revolution marked its beginning in late 1900s
and was characterized by the spread of automation through the use of advanced electronics and
information technology [1,7].
A significant change had been witnessed in manufacturing industries from conventional
production processes to smart digitalized fabrication setups. This trend shift in industrial
revolution is summarized below for better understanding of the emergence of Industry 4.0 [7]:
• Industry 1.0 : Manual production System is replaced by Mechanical Production
Equipments powered by steam and water.
• Industry 2.0 : Introduction of Mass Production Assembly Lines requiring labour and
Electrical Energy.
• Industry 3.0 : Automated Production System using Advanced Electronics and
Information Technology.
• Industry 4.0 : Intelligent Production system assimilated with IoT, Cloud Computing
and Big Data Analytics.
Literature Review : Technological Enablers of Industry 4.0

Industry 4.0 is based on Nine key elements which enables Digitalization of all the sectors
of production units and manufacturing processes. These nine elements are considered as Nine
pillars or Technological Enablers of Fourth Industrial Revolution. In this section, the nine
important technologies are described according to the literature available in last few years.

Fig. 1. Nine Enablers of Industry 4.0
(Source : Oztemel, E., & Gursev, S. (2020). Literature review of Industry 4.0 and related technologies. Journal of
Intelligent Manufacturing, 31(1), 127-182.)
2.1 Big Data and Analytics : Big data refers to Grouping and exhaustive assessment of
unexplored data available at various sources and systems so as to enable Real time Decision
Making. Big Data is made up of 4 V’s – Data Volume, Data Variety, Data Velocity & Analysis
and Data Value [1,3].
2.2 The Internet of Things (IoT) : The IoT is defined as an incorporation of internet to the
physical objects so as to obtain real time data and process it to achieve more efficient results or
it can be considered as transforming physical objects into Smart Objects [3,12].
2.3 Autonomous Robots: Autonomous Robots are playing crucial role in today’s digital
sphere of Manufacturing industry. They are more flexible, efficient, versatile and can work
in such situations which are not feasible for humans. Software based Autonomous robots can
be trained to work like humans which increase the productivity and overall efficiency of the
production system [13].
2.4 Simulation: Simulation is a digital technology based on a mathematical model which

mimics the processing of an existing or proposed system considering the real time decision
making. Products are assessed in virtual mode concurrently with the production lines to give
optimized results which lead to cost effectiveness. It helps in recognizing the halt time and
reducing it prior to actual production process which automatically minimize the failures during
planning stage itself [3,14].
2.5 Augmented Reality (AR): AR is an amalgamation of Reality and Virtual world in Real-
time environment. It may be achieved with the help of various digital devices. In Augmented
Reality based systems, workers are furnished with the real time data required by them which
help them in taking decisions and improvise the work procedures or processes [1,15,16].
2.6 Horizontal and Vertical System Integration: Horizontal and Vertical System
integration refers to setting up of an alliance between all the operations in an industry starting
from planning phase to engineering designing to production processes, marketing and supply
chain management [10]. This integration allows all the processes to exchange information from
each part which lead to flexibility and automation in the system which is a crucial feature of
Industry 4.0.
2.7 Additive Manufacturing: In manufacturing industries nowadays there is a shift from
mass production to customized production. This advancement can be facilitated with the help
of Additive Manufacturing (AM) Technology. It is also called 3D Printing (3DP). In this
technology presently various machines based on techniques like extrusion, binding, laser or
sintering are used to print 3D shapes. This reduces the cost involved in complex tool making in
conventional manufacturing [17].
2.8 The Cloud: The operating principle of Industry 4.0 is mainly based on data sharing,
networks and interconnections among various platforms in a production unit, other companies
and global sites. The Cloud is an isolated system which is used to store, monitor and compute
this numerous data. Cloud supported systems act as technological foundation for Industry 4.0
[1,3]
2.9 Cyber Security and Cyber Physical Systems (CPS): Cyber security is a point of
major concern as it is necessary to protect production systems or industries from any type of
unauthorized access or attack because of the increasing data sharing and internet access [1].
CPSs are automatic diffused systems that merge physical real world with information and
communication networks and computing devices. CPS has the potential to gather real time
data as well as services from any location on its own by connecting production units to internet
access.In Industry 4.0 setup, CPSs also subsets clients, services and inventories along with
machines and products [18].
Challenges faced in implementation of Industry 4.0

The acquisition of Industry 4.0 worldwide brought a significant change in manufacturing
industries. Its implementation is highly strategic and need inclusive and sustainable study of
various technologies for its transformation to fully automated system. Following are the various
challenges faced during the implementation of Industry 4.0 [1] :
• Assessment and Analysis of culture following at the company.

• Proper networking and digitalization of all the departments of the enterprise.
• Infrastructure Lags and huge initial investments.
• Cyber security.
Conclusion and Future Scope

The Prime focus of this review paper is shortly describing the concept of Industry 4.0
along with its evolution from Industry 1.0 to Industry 4.0. After reviewing the related literature,
nine technological enablers or columns (Big Data, IoT, Simulation, AR, System Integration, 3D
Printing, Autonomous Robots, Computation of Cloud and CPS) are explained to understand
their implementation. Introduction of Industry 4.0 and its technologies brought many changes
across every sector and this led to various challenges in its real life implementation. Those
challenges are briefly mentioned in this paper. Implementation of Industry 4.0 carries a future
perspective as it gives scope of research in all the technologies involved in it. Research work
can be proposed to achieve Future production models.
REFERENCES
[1] Kumar, A., & Kumar, S. Industry 4.0: Evolution, Opportunities and Challenges. Name
Page No., 139.
[2] Mubarok, K. (2020, July). Redefining Industry 4.0 and Its Enabling Technologies. In
Journal of Physics: Conference Series (Vol. 1569, No. 3, p. 032025). IOP Publishing.
[3] Vaidya, S., Ambad, P., & Bhosle, S. (2018). Industry 4.0–a glimpse. Procedia
manufacturing, 20, 233-238.
[4] Hizam-Hanafiah, M., & Soomro, M. A. (2021). The situation of technology companies
in industry 4.0 and the open innovation. Journal of Open Innovation: Technology,
Market, and Complexity, 7(1), 34.
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trends in the development of enterprises in globalization era, 761-767.
[6] Trotta, D., & Garengo, P. (2018, March). Industry 4.0 key research topics: A bibliometric
review. In 2018 7th international conference on industrial technology and management
(ICITM) (pp. 113-117). IEEE.
[7] Oztemel, E., & Gursev, S. (2020). Literature review of Industry 4.0 and related
technologies. Journal of Intelligent Manufacturing, 31(1), 127-182.
[8] Yang, F., & Gu, S. (2021). Industry 4.0, a revolution that requires technology and
national strategies. Complex & Intelligent Systems, 7(3), 1311-1325.
[9] Hasnan, N. Z. N., & Yusoff, Y. M. (2018, November). Short review: Application
areas of industry 4.0 technologies in food processing sector. In 2018 IEEE Student
Conference on Research and Development (SCOReD) (pp. 1-6). IEEE.
[10] Saucedo-Martínez, J. A., Pérez-Lara, M., Marmolejo-Saucedo, J. A., Salais-Fierro, T.
E., & Vasant, P. (2018). Industry 4.0 framework for management and operations: a
review. Journal of ambient intelligence and humanized computing, 9(3), 789-801.

[11] Wang, L., & Wang, G. (2016). Big data in cyber-physical systems, digital manufacturing
and industry 4.0. International Journal of Engineering and Manufacturing (IJEM),
6(4), 1-8.
[12] Liu, C., & Zhong, R. Y. (2017). Internet of Things for Manufacturing in the Context
of Industry 4.0. In Transdisciplinary Engineering: A Paradigm Shift (pp. 1013-1022).
IOS Press.
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review on industrial automation and robotic. Jurnal Teknologi, 78(6-13).
[14] de Paula Ferreira, W., Armellini, F., & De Santa-Eulalia, L. A. (2020). Simulation in
industry 4.0: A state-of-the-art review. Computers & Industrial Engineering, 106868.
[15] Van Krevelen, D. W. F., & Poelman, R. (2010). A survey of augmented reality
technologies, applications and limitations. International journal of virtual reality, 9(2),
1-20.
[16] Bottani, E., & Vignali, G. (2019). Augmented reality technology in the manufacturing
industry: A review of the last decade. IISE Transactions, 51(3), 284-310.
[17] Horst, D. J., Duvoisin, C. A., & de Almeida Vieira, R. (2018). Additive manufacturing
at Industry 4.0: a review. International journal of engineering and technical research,
8(8).
[18] Pivoto, D. G., de Almeida, L. F., da Rosa Righi, R., Rodrigues, J. J., Lugli, A. B.,
& Alberti, A. M. (2021). Cyber-physical systems architectures for industrial internet
of things applications in Industry 4.0: A literature review. Journal of Manufacturing
Systems, 58, 176-192.

Arduino Based 6-Axis Mini Industrial
Robotic Arm
Manasa.Sa*, Sumek Nayan Jhaa, Himanshu Payala
a
Pradesh, India
a
* Corresponding author
abstract
This paper presents the Research and Development of Robotic arm which simulates
the human hand movement to grip an object. The robotic arm is Arduino controlled robotic
arm hence it can be implemented to a robot which can analyse hazardous area do a material
handling. In order to look at those torque characteristics, we consider a model of humanoid
robotic arm and simulate typical object lifting and transferring tasks by using it. The majority
of current robotic hands does not completely replace the functionality of it and cannot be
utilized in environments which are designed for the use of humanoid hand. This paper has
some possible applications of 6 D.O.F robotic arm mechanism based on the type of end effector
attached to the robotic arm.
Keywords: Arduino; Humanoid Robot; DOF; End Effector;
Introduction:
In Today’s time, Robotic arms had been mostly used in industry automation and operation
in the hazardous environment. They are being used in industries to minimize the human
errors and increase efficiency, productivity, precision of the operations taking place. One of
the foremost important advantages of introducing Robotic arm in Industries is that it can add
crucial conditions like high temperatures, pressures where it’s risky for humans to work.
Many robotic machines are very expensive, thanks to high-precision actuators and custom
machining of components. We recommend that robotic control research can advance more
rapidly if the robotic arms of valuable performance were highly reduced in terms of price.
Increased affordability can lead to wider acceptance, which can lead to turn in faster progress.
However, drastic cost reduction will require design trade-offs and compromises. There are
various factors/dimensions on which robotic arms are being evaluated, like backlash, speed,

repeatability, payload, compliance, human safety, and more important cost. In research of
robotics, a number of these dimensions are more important than others: for grasping and object
manipulation, high repeatability and low backlash are important.
Many elements of these robots are built inspirationally from the character. Manipulator
construction is there because the arm of the robot is predicated on human arm. The robot
has the power to control objects like pick and place operations. They attempt to reproduce
movement similar to a human arm. Robots are generally wont to perform operations that are
risky, hazardous and troublesome tasks. They are used for various operations like material
handling, assembly, arc welding, resistance welding and machine load and unload functions,
painting, spraying, etc
Human-safety is difficult if the manipulator is used near or close to the people. Arduino
UNO A000066 is used as the brain of the robotic arm, force sensors are placed at the gripper
for finding the force applied on the object, and potentiometers are for detecting the position of
the motor shaft used at the joints.
Literature Review:
[1] Mishra et.al (2017), Development of Robotic Arm Using Arduino
UNO
They have used 4 servo motors to make joints of the robotic arm from where the movement
will be controlled by potentiometer through analogue input signals. The controller used is
Arduino UNO. The arm is created specifically to select and place light weight objects. So low
torque servos, with a rotation of 0 to 180 degrees are used. Programming is done using Arduino
1.6.10.
[2] Jadeja et.al (November,2019), Design and Development Of 5-DOF

Robotic Arm manipulators
The authors have built a 5 DOF robotic arm. They have used one cortex microcontroller
which is M3 LPC1768 (Mbed). It can lift upto a maximum mass of 100g. Ultrasonic sensors
were used in this technique , to detect the space of the thing from the robotic arm system. Once
the thing is detected the microcontroller send signals to the servo motors which are placed
within the robotic arm to perform the pick and place mechanism.
[3] Sunil Kumar et.al (August2020), Design and fabrication of pick and
place robotic arm
The robotic arm is designed using CATIA software.
They have fabricated robotic arm which performs ASRS function using Aluminium as
the fabrication material. The torque exerting at each of the joints has been calculated and
a servo with the required torque rating is being selected for each joint. Selecting a suitable
servo controller and control software for the Robotic arm is developed using Microsoft’s
programming language.

[4] Rishank et.al (2016), Design and Structural Analysis of a Robotic Arm
In this paper the authors have a successfully built a 4 DOF robotic arm used for handling
metal sheet in a conveyor system. Reducing manual handling of sheet from stack to shearing
machine is that the main reason of designing this pick and place robotic arm. Integration of the
manipulator position sensor in the robot’s control unit is done by RCC installed which enables
the Robot to interact with the surrounding.
[5] Reddy Kunchala et.al (2017), PLC based Robot Manipulator Control
using Position and Image based Algorithm
The author of this paper has used Programmable Logic Controller for controlling the
manipulator along with the artificial intelligence algorithms that is position based and image-
based algorithms. The manipulator used has 5 DOF. The main purpose of this paper was to use
the data from the images captured by the camera and the space coordinates to the specific object
which at last controls the movement of the robot while performing certain task.
[6] Rahul Kumar et.al (2017), Object Detection and Recognition for a
Pick and Place Robot
In this paper, the authors have presented the modelling and implementation of feature
extraction algorithm and two classifiers for object recognition and detection. The accuracy of
the classifier developed in this paper was 99.33% and the accuracy for the feature extraction
algorithm was 83.6443%. The overall system performance after experimentation was 82.7162%.
The authors developed an IP technique which can involve the FE (Feature Extraction), used on
SCORBOT ER-4U (robotic arm platform) which was refurbished and utilized to sort electronic
components.
[7] Rakhimkul et.al (2019), Autonomous Object Detection and Grasping

Using Deep Learning for Design of an Intelligent Assistive Robot
Manipulation
The paper highlights the method of designing a smarter human machine interface for a
robotic arm which is controlled by a joystick. This was done by integrating a set of methods
based on machine learning for automatic object detection, an estimation of its position which
was done by RGB-D sensor using processing of the collected data. A three fingered mechanical
gripper was used to grasp the target object. The movement of robot towards the object was
started by selection of a desired element in the GUI.
[8] Godwill Matlou et.al (November,2017), Utilising Artificial Intelligence

in Software Defined Wireless Sensor Network
This paper shows how a significant role is played by AI in our society. WSNs have been
used in industries where reliability and network performance are very important for success.

Improved network management, security in SDWSN which result in a more reliable network
are achieved when AI algorithms are applied to SDN. One topic that has been researched very
frequently in almost all research arenas by engineers and scientists is AI.
[9] Iscimen et.al (October,2015), Smart Robot Arm Motion Using

Computer Vision
The combination of computer’s vision and robotic arm is shown by the author which can
identify objects from images automatically and perform desired tasks. Their study consisted
of two phases: First phase includes the recognition of the objects through computer vision
algorithms and determining the specified objects’ coordinates. Second phase was the self-
actuation of the robot arm’s movement to the given coordinates. Artificial neural network was
used for object recognition in this system. The authors have achieved an overall accuracy of
98.30%.
[10] Omijeh et.al (2014), Design Analysis of a Remote Controlled “Pick

and Place” Robotic Vehicle
In this paper, the design of a Remote-Controlled Robotic Vehicle has been completed.
A prototype was built and confirmed functional. This system would make it easier for man
to unrivalled the risk of handling suspicious objects which could be hazardous in its present
environment and workplace. Complex and complicated duties would be achieved faster and
more accurately with this design.
[11] Sengsalonga et.al (2019), Review on Object-Moving Robot Arm

based on Color
The objective of this finding is to make a manipulator which can sort objects on basis of
colour using specific motors and photodiode sensors programmed with an Arduino Mega series
microcontroller. The light photodiode sensor can identify RGB colors. In this system the output
of Arduino Mega 2560 is displayed on an LCD screen which is an indication of the observed
color. The step of object moving process is by distinguishing the RGB color. The gripper of
robotic arm will move to pick objects based on color, depending on the color input given by the
light photodiode sensor.
[12] Elfasahany et.al (2011), Survey on Design and Development of
competitive low-cost Robot Arm with Four Degrees of Freedom
This paper represents the design, development and implementation of 4 DOF robot arm,
which has the ability to perform simple tasks, such as light material handling. The robotic arm is
designed and made from acrylic material where servo motors are used to perform links between
arms. The servo motors consist of encoder so that no need to use controller. However, the
rotation range of the motor is less than 180º span, which greatly decreases the region reached
by the arm and the possible positions.

Objective:
The main objectives of this research project are mentioned below:
• To Build an Arduino based 6 axis Mini Industrial Robotic Arm.
• To design and assemble the robotic arm in a designing software.
• To construct physical parts of the robot using 3D Printing Machine and assemble them
as in designing software.
• To implement program with accuracy and precision, for doing tasks.
Results:
This robotic arm consists of six degrees of freedom. It has various links forming an
open chain. The arrangement of these links depends upon the adopted design. The arm has a
rotating base that is resting on the upper region of the vehicle. The arm ends with a gripper or
a specialized tool holder; it has six (6) degrees of freedom. The first three links of the arm form
the body and which helps to place the tool holder at the desired position at a location inside the
workspace or environment. The rest of the three links make up the wrist of the robotic arm and
are used to define the orientation of the robotic arm end points. For the analysis, the robotic arm
will made of joints, which will be named as gripper, wrist, elbow, shoulder, arm and base. The
robotic arm is designed using SolidWorks Software.
Figure 1 [3D Model of 6DOF Robotic Arm

Figure 2 [ Axis Capabilities]
Table 1 [Axis Capabilities (cont.)]
SERVOS MAXIMUM SPEED TORQU -E (N/mm)

LOCATION ANGLE(º)
BASE 360 0.17 s/60º 0.92
WAIST 180 0.17 s/60º 0.92
ARM 1 180 0.17 s/60º 0.92
ARM 2 180 0.17 s/60º 0.92
GRIPPER 270 0.17 s/60º 0.92
Methodology:
This robotic arm works on the principle of electrical input energy to perform mechanical
works. It has a servo motor which is employed for angular rotations of the arm for catching
items (to hold items, to release, to rotate, to place).
The servomotor works on the principle of Fleming’s left-hand rule and fc it is controlled
using Arduino circuit card. Includes the sensor which enables the power to sense the objects
of various composition. the entire process of recognition depends on the info stored within the
processing system.

Figure 11 [Electrical Connectivity]
Figure 12 [User Interface]
Future Scope:
Robotic Arms has a wide scope of development. In the near future these arms will be
able to perform every task as humans do and in much better way. Imagination is the limit for
its future applications. It can be a boon for handicapped people, who are paralyzed or lost their
hands in some accident. These arm can be trained to listen to the command from a human and
perform that task.
The Robotic Arm research results have an important meaning in the research and
development of advanced intelligent algorithms combining speech recognition, computer
vision, and the integration of IoT systems in the coming time.
Conclusion:
This report details the research and development of a robotic arm capable of performing
simple tasks such as picking and placing items. The proposed pick-and-place robot concept is
developed utilizing Arduino and Bluetooth control. The robotic arm’s design is confined to six
degrees of freedom: a Base, a Waist, Arm 1, Arm 2, a Wrist, and two Grippers.

With the use of arms and six servo motors, it was discovered that the robot can locate
itself to the spot where the object to be carried is available. Furthermore, the object is lifted and
located at the required location based on the controlling action provided to the servo motor.
Duties that are complex and difficult with this robotic arm, this task might be completed faster
and more precisely.
By providing feedback and allowing the robot to work on its own without human
interaction, the robot configured for pick and place operations can become more versatile and
efficient. These robots can be trained and used in automated assembly lines, welding, sorting,
and other applications.
REFERENCES
[1] Priyambada Mishra, Riki Patel, Trushit Upadhyaya, Arpan Desai “Review of
Development of Robotic Arm Using Arduino UNO”, International Journal on Recent
Researches in Science, Engineering and Technology, ISSN: 2348-3105 Volume 5,
Issue 5, May 2017.
[2] Yagna Jadeja, Bhavesh Pandya “Design and Development Of 5-DOF Robotic Arm
Manipulators”, INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF SCIENTIFIC & TECHNOLOGY
RESEARCH, Volume 8, Issue 11, November 2019, ISSN 2277- 8616.
[3] Dr.T.Sunil kumar, K.sarath, Sd.Famil, A.V.S.Bhagyesh and Sk.Althaf “Design and
fabrication of pick and place robotic arm”, 2nd National Conference on Recent Trends
in Mechanical Engineering, GIST, Nellore. Conference Paper • August 2020.
[4] Gurudu Rishank Reddy and Venkata Krishna Prashanth Eranki “Design and Structural
Analysis of a Robotic Arm” Blekinge Institute of Technology, Karlskrona, Sweden,
2016, ISRN: BTH-AMT-EX--2016/D06—SE.
[5] Harshavardhan Reddy Kunchala & JackToporovsky “PLC based Robot Manipulator
Control using Position based and Image based Algorithm”, Global Journal of Researches
in Engineering: H Robotics & Nano-Tech Volume 17 Issue 1 Version 1.0 Year 2017
Type: Double Blind Peer Reviewed International Research Journal Publisher: Global
Journals Inc. (USA) Online ISSN:2249-4596 Print ISSN:0975-5861.
[6] Rahul Kumar, Sunil Lal, Sanjesh Kumar and Praneel Chand “Object Detection and
Recognition for a Pick and Place Robot”.
[7] Sanzhar Rakhimkul, Anton Kim, Askarbek Pazylbekov and Almas Shintemirov
“Autonomous Object Detection and Grasping Using Deep Learning for Design of an
Intelligent Assistive Robot Manipulation System”.
[8] Omolemo Godwill Matlou and Adnan M. Abu-Mahfouz “Utilising Artificial Intelligence
in Software Defined Wireless Sensor Network”, Conference Paper • November 2017
DOI: 10.1109/IECON.2017.8217065.
[9] Bilal Iscimen , Huseyin Atasoy , Yakup Kutlu , Serdar Yildirim , Esen Yildirim

“Smart Robot Arm Motion Using Computer Vision” ELEKTRONIKA IR
ELEKTROTECHNIKA, ISSN 1392-1215, VOL. 21, NO. 6, 2015.
[10] Omijeh B. O, Uhunmwangho R, Ehikhamenle M, Design analysis of a remote controlled
“Pick and Place” Robotic vehicle, International Journal of Engineering Research and
Development, 2014, Volume 10, Issue 5.
[11] Areepen Sengsalonga , Nuryono Satya Widodo “ ObjectMoving Robot Arm based on
Color”, Signal and Image Processing Letters, Vol.1., No.3, November 2019, pp. 13-19
ISSN 2714-6677.
[12] Elfasakhany A, Yanez E, Design and development of a competitive low cost Robot
Arm with four degrees of freedom, MME, Nov 2011.

A Review on Laser Cutting
Technology Used in Industrial
Applications
Saurabh Kumar, Ashutosh Sahu, Saigeeta Priyadarshini, Lavish Kumar Singh*
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Sharda University, Greater Noida, India
*Corresponding author: Email id: lavish.singh@sharda.ac.in, Phone: +91-8116385352
abstract
Laser beam cutting has become one of the best ways for cutting, drilling and welding in
industries. In this review paper, the authors have discussed the general working and principle
of a laser. Classification of lasers along with their advantages, disadvantages and applications
have also been discussed. It was observed that there has been continuous evolution in laser
cutting technology. With time the laser has displayed low optical deficiency, higher wall-plug
proficiency together with improved reliability and ease of maintenance. The evolution in laser
technology is testified by the fact that a direct diode laser exhibits substantial improvement
in cutting speed as compared to a fiber laser; which exhibits 2-3 times higher cutting speed
as compared to the CO2 counterpart. Micro-jet laser has high dicing speeds, parallel kerf,
and omnidirectional cutting. These features have helped it to be used in industries where
sophisticated products like gears of watches are made.
Keywords: Laser beam cutting; Photon; Gain medium; Cutting speed
Introduction
LASER, an acronym of Light Amplification by Simulated Emission of Radiation, is a
coherent, monochromatic and polarized characteristic beam of electromagnetic radiation with
wavelengths ranging from infrared to ultraviolet on the spectrum mainly in the visible light
spectrum. Many scientific, military, medical and commercial laser applications have been
developed since its invention [1].
Laser has a long history. The first idea for the laser came from the suggestion made by
Albert Einstein in 1916 [2]. After a few decade of research, Charles H. Townes was able to create
a working device that emits a pure microwave frequency and named it MASER (Microwave
Amplification by the Stimulated Emission of Radiation). In 1960 T.H. Maiman efficiently
achieved simulated optical emission which was the first success of its kind, followed by the

development of the first CO2 laser by Kumar Patel at AT&T Bell Labs in 1963. Subsequently
by 1967 pressured oxygen was used as an assist gas to cut thin steel plates [3]. Form 1970
onwards, laser cutting system evolved at a fast pace and provided a reliable technology for
industries and medical treatments. In the industrial sector, laser technology has become one of
the best ways for cutting, drilling and welding owing to its ability to penetrate patterns that are
very small and sharp [4]. Laser beam cutting (LBC) is based on the use of intense localized
energy on a small area on the surface of the material which is to be cut. Material that receives the
laser, absorbs the energy and gets melted or vaporize while assist gas removes the melted part
from the cutting area. Mainly laser cutter has a laser beam, focusing lens, reflectors, pressurized
gas, nozzle and laser jet etc. It also uses a motion control system to follow a CNC or G-code of
the desired pattern to be cut. This review paper discusses about laser cutting technology and its
industrial applications. The characteristics and principles of working different types of lasers
along with their cutting capacity advantage and disadvantages of using them in industry has
been discussed in detail.
Principle and Working of Laser

Working of a laser is little bit complex as it requires a deep understanding of quantum
mechanics. Every laser has some commonalities whose first part can be broken into three
terms: stimulated absorption, spontaneous emission and stimulated emission. As we know
every electron in an atom tends to be in the ground state. However, an electron can be excited
to a higher energy level by projecting a photon (which has the same energy required for an
electron to reach a higher level, Fig. 1). The photon is annihilated and energy gets absorbed by
the excited electron. This phenomenon is called stimulated absorption as we stimulate electrons
to get into a higher state. Since after absorption the electrons cannot hold in the excited state for
more than 100 nano-second, they come back to the ground state by releasing absorbed energy
[5]. This emission is called spontaneous emission as electron falls back again in the ground
state.
Fig. 3. Excitation of an electron by absorption of a photon.

In stimulated emission, if a photon of the same characteristic interacts with an electron
in an excited state, it stimulates the electron to lose its photon and go back to a lower level,
resulting in two identical photons. However, if the electrons undergo spontaneous emission,
the photons are unlikely to be present in the same phase. Then, for an electron to undergo
stimulated emission there should be enough time available, but as discussed electrons are there
for only 100 nanoseconds [6]. Nevertheless, the researchers have found certain materials that
exhibit metastable states which is also an exciting state with slightly lower energy. For the
sake of understanding, let’s take an example in which the ground state has 1 unit of energy,
the excited state has 5 units of energy and the metastable state has 4.9 units of energy. In this
metastable state, the electron remains for some milliseconds which is enough for stimulated
emission. Creating a laser will require a greater number of emitted photons or electrons in a
metastable state and for this to happen ‘population inversion’ is required. In this process, a
massive collection of excited electrons is emitted within the gain medium. When there are
more excited electrons than the grounded electrons in a medium, this state is called population
inversion. This phenomenon results in good number of emitted photons, and to harness and
channel these photos mirrors are set between both sides of the medium. In this system, rear
mirror is fully refractive, whereas, the output mirror is partially refractive. When then photons
get sufficient energy to pass through the partial mirror and with the help of a small hole in the
output mirror a precise beam of light shines through. And that’s how laser is emitted.
Fig. 2. Block diagram of general laser cutting system.

A block diagram of a general laser cutting system is illustrated in Fig. 2. A laser cutter
system has mainly three parts: pump source, gain medium and resonant system (includes
transmission system and nozzle). A gain medium, that may be solid, liquid, or gaseous, produces
appropriate excitation and population inversion. The transmission system can be of a mirror or
optical fiber. The nozzle is a complicated device that integrates the focusing lens, the tracking
system and the nozzle as well as the assist gas supply system, to provide the laser beam as an

output. The pattern to be cut is controlled by CAD/CNC control system. The Control system
can control the machine’s working table and/or the cutting head. The power supply, cooling
system, control system, and assist gas delivery system are all auxiliary equipment in a complete
laser cutting system. The common gas used in this system is oxygen, nitrogen, argon, helium,
and compressed air (based on its use) [7]. Assisted gas can control the environment around
the cutting area. It helps in blowing out the melted part, also makes the cutting area smooth
and clear. Because of using oxygen in the laser, the temperature might be elevated due to the
oxidation effect.
Type of Laser Used in Industries

According to gain medium, there are mainly four types of laser cutters: solid-state, liquid,
gas, and semi-conductor. However, the industries use special types of laser cutters, which has
been discussed in subsequent sections.
3.1. Carbon dioxide (CO2) Laser

CO2 Laser comes in a category of a gas medium laser. Its mechanism is also the same
as has been discussed in section 2, but what makes it different is its gain medium. A gain
medium in CO2 lasers is a combination of carbon dioxide, nitrogen (N2), and helium (He) with
a standard ratio of 1:1:10 [8]. In this system, CO2 works as active lasing medium, He causes
energy population inversion, and N2 facilitates energy transfer mechanism.
Fig. 3. Block diagram of a convectively-cooled CO2 laser.

CO2 laser is pumped either by using high-pressure electrical discharge or by using radio-
frequency energy. Radio-frequency approach is the latest one which is continuously gaining
popularity. CO2 lasers come in a variety of configurations, including fast axial flow, slow axial
flow, transverse flow, and slab. A turbine or blower circulates a mixture of carbon dioxide,
helium, and nitrogen at high velocity in a rapid axial flow resonator. Transverse flow lasers
circulate the gas mixture at a slower rate, necessitating the use of a less complex blower. The
static gas field of slab or diffusion cooled resonators requires no pressurization or glassware,
resulting in extensive cost savings. A block diagram of a convectively-cooled CO2 laser is
shown in Fig. 3.
3.2. Nd-YAG Laser

Nd-YAG laser is a part of the solid-state group. Nd-YAG is neodymium-doped yttrium
aluminum garnet also sometimes called Crystal Lasers. In this laser, the laser rod is made up
of yttrium aluminum garnet (YAG) which has an active element as neodymium. Because of its
physical hardness, stability, optical isotropy, and good thermal conductivity, the YAG crystal
becomes a suitable host for the lasing material [9]. Typically, solid-state lasers are pumped by
flash lamps or arc lamps. These lasers are known for their extremely high-powered cutting
technology and are used for both metals and non-metals. It is primarily used for cutting, scribing
metals and ceramics. Sometimes in place of Nd- YAG, industries use Nd-YVO (neodymium-
doped yttrium ortho-vanadate).
Fig. 4. Block Diagram of Nd-YAG laser system.

With a wavelength of 1.064 micrometers, it has several applications. However, the biggest
demerit of this type of laser is that it has an expensive piece of kit owing to the use of expensive
pump diode. Moreover, it has a shorter life span (8000 h to 15000 h) than other lasers available
in the market [10, 11]. They can produce both waves, continuous and pulsed waves. A detailed
figure of Nd-YAG is illustrated in Fig. 4.

3.3. Fiber Laser
Fiber lasers are also a member of solid-state lasers. In a fiber laser, the beam is generated
by a series of small laser diodes (also called a seed laser). A high-power fiber laser system is
made up of double cladding, Ytterbium-doped fiber and many multimode high-power laser
diodes. In this laser system, the laser beam is transmitted through an optical fiber where it
gets amplified and then the amplified collimated beam is focused with the help of a lens or
concave mirror, thereby, cutting the material. It has a wavelength of 1064 nanometers and its
spot diameter is very small (100 times smaller than CO2 laser), making it ideal for cutting
reflective metals [12]. Schematic diagram of a fiber-laser system is displayed in Fig. 5.
Fig. 5. Schematic diagram of a fiber-laser system.
3.4. Direct Diode Laser

Direct Diode Lasers (DDLs) are the newest enhancement in the field of solid-state laser
technology. Of late, industries have been taking keen interest in direct diode lasers rather than
conventional fiber lasers and CO2 lasers owing to their superior performance which allows
high-speed diode cutting of all industrial materials. Though it is primarily used to cut aluminum
based objects, it does possess the ability to cut conventional steels, stainless steel, titanium
based alloys, Inconel etc. In this technology, several laser beams are emitted from laser emitting
diodes of different wavelengths and superimposed using beam combining technique [13]. This
gives them a low optical deficiency, higher wall-plug proficiency together with improved
reliability and ease of maintenance. But, this system does not include the brightness enhancing
stage, which reduces the quality of the beam. Recent innovations in direct-diode laser systems
now enable direct cutting of metals with diodes, eliminating the complexity and cost associated
with fiber and disk lasers, which both require additional components and a secondary gain
medium to produce a good-enough-quality beam for material processing [14]. A comparison of
direct-diode and fiber laser cutting systems is shown in Fig. 6. It is observed that a direct-diode
laser displayed a 100% improvement in cutting speed in comparison to a fiber laser; which
exhibits 2-3 times higher cutting speed as compared to a CO2 laser [15].

Fig. 6. Comparison of 1 kW direct-diode laser and fiber laser cutting systems with
similar beam parameter product and spot size at the work-piece [16].
3.5. Micro Jet Laser

It is a water-jet-directed laser in which a pulsed laser beam is paired with a low-pressure
water jet. It is used to carry out various laser cutting operations while using the water jet to
direct the laser beam, like an optical fiber, with the help of total internal reflection. Micro-jet
has the advantage that the water also helps in removing debris and cools the material at the
same time.
Fig. 7. Schematic diagram of water-jet coupling with laser [18].

Micro-jet laser has high dicing speeds, parallel kerf, and omnidirectional cutting. These
features have helped it to be used in industries where sophisticated products like gears of
watches are made. This laser system is also suitable for very small components that requires
high precision [17]. A comparison between different types of lasers on various parameters is
illustrated in Table 1.
Table 1. Comparison chart between different types of lasers [10, 19].
Laser Characteristics Nd-YAG CO2 Fiber Laser Direct Diode

Lasing medium Solid rod Gas mixture Doped fiber High brightness
(crystalline) (solid) diode
Wavelength (nm) 1064 10,600 1070 970
Beam transmission Fiber/ Mirror Mirror lens Fiber, lens Fiber cable
lens
Typical delivery fiber (mm) 0.6 -- 0.1-0.2 0.1-0.2
Output power (kW) up to 4 up to 15 up to 20 up to 4.68
Typical beam quality 25 3.7 20
(mm, mrd) 12 3.7 1.8 24.6
Maintenance interval (1,000 0.8-1.0 2 100 100-200
h)
Power efficiency (%) 3-6 5-10 20-30 40-50
Footprint of the laser source Medium Larger Small Smallest
Laser mobility Low Low High Higher
kW laser cost (€/kW) 260 60 160
Approximate cost per kW 130-150 60 140-160
(K$)
Conclusion
The review paper extensively discussed the working, principle, classifications,
advantages, disadvantages and applications of different types of laser used in cutting operation
by industries. It was found that ‘population inversion’ is very important for laser creation.
Assisted gas is another important component of a laser cutting system whose function is to
control the environment around the cutting area. It helps in blowing out the melted part, also
makes the cutting area smooth and clear. The common gas used in this system is oxygen,
nitrogen, argon, helium, and compressed air. The evolution of laser can be testified by the fact
that since inception of laser cutting technology, its cost, precision, applicability and efficiency
has continuously improved. Nd-YAG laser are known for their extremely high-powered cutting
technology and are used for both metals and non-metals. It is primarily being used for cutting,
scribing metals and ceramics. However, the biggest demerit of this type of laser has been that it

is an expensive piece of kit owing to the use of expensive pump diode. Furthermore, fiber laser
has a wavelength of 1064 nanometers and its spot diameter is very small (100 times smaller
than CO2 laser), which makes it ideal for cutting reflective metals. However, a direct diode
laser does exhibit substantial improvement in cutting speed as compared to a fiber laser; which
exhibits 2-3 times higher cutting speed in comparison to the CO2 counterpart. Micro-jet laser
has high dicing speeds, parallel kerf, and omnidirectional cutting. These features have helped it
to be used in industries where sophisticated products like gears of watches are made.
REFERENCES
[1] X. Teng, M. Zhang, A. S. Mujumdar, Trends in Food Science & Technology 118 (2021)
711-722
[2] J. Hecht, Laser applications, website: https://www.britannica.com/technology/laser/
Laser-applications
[3] J. Hecht, Short history of laser development, Optical Engineering 49 (2010) 091002
[4] A. K. Sahu, J. Malhotra, S. Jha, Laser-based hybrid micromachining processes: A
review, Optics & Laser Technology 146 (2022) 107554
[5] S. E. Huether, How laser work, AORN Journal, 38 (1983) 207-215
[6] K. F. Renk, Basics of Laser Physics, second ed., Springer, Cham, 2017
[7] A. Riverio, F. Quintero, F. Lusquinos, R. Comesana, J. D. Val, J. Pou, The Role of the
Assist Gas Nature in Laser Cutting of Aluminum Alloys, Physics Procedia, 12 (2011),
548-554
[8] M. Liezers, A. J. Fahey, A. J. Carman, G. C. Eiden. The formation of trinitite-like
surrogate nuclear explosion debris (SNED) and extreme thermal fractionation of
SRM-612 glass induced by high power CW CO2 laser irradiation, Journal of Radio-
analytical and Nuclear Chemistry, 304 (2015) 705-715
[9] C. Chagnot, G. de Dinechin, G. Canneau, Cutting performances with new industrial
continuous wave ND:YAG high power lasers, Nuclear Engineering and Design, 240
(2010) 2604-2613
[10] T. Muangpool, S. Pullteap, Reviews on laser cutting technology for industrial
applications, Proc. SPIE 10714, Third International Conference on Photonics Solutions
(ICPS2017), 107140Q (5th March 2018)
[11] C. Anghel, K. Gupta, A Review on Laser Beam Cutting, Proceedings of the 5th NA
International Conference on Industrial Engineering and Operations Management
Detroit, Michigan, USA, (10th-14th August 2020)
[12] A. Mahrle, E. Beyer, Theoretical aspects of fibre laser cutting, Journal of Physics D:
Applied Physics, 49 (2009) 175507
[13] R. K. Huang, B. Samson, B. Chann, B. Lochman and P. Tayebati, Recent progress
on high-brightness kW-class direct diode lasers, IEEE High Power Diode Lasers and
Systems Conference (HPD) (2015) 29-30
[14] M. Wood, Laser beam technology development and application, 7th Alta Brillanza
Workshop, Milan, Italy (September 2015)

[15] D. Larcombe, Fiber versus CO2 laser cutting, Industrial Laser Solutions (Nov/Dec
2013)
[16] F.V. Saucedo, B. Chann, B. Samson, P. Tayebati, Direct diode vs. other laser systems
used in laser cutting, website: https://www.laserfocusworld.com/industrial-laser-
solutions/article/14216486/direct-diode-vs-other-laser-systems-used-in-laser-cutting
[17] X. Lu, H. Xie, C. Lin, Y. Huang, The Enhanced Measurements of Laser Micro-jet
Processing, Journal of Modern Physics, 2 (2011) 109-112
[18] A. Richmann, B. Richerzhagen, Comparison study: Cutting with the laser micro-jet vs.
well-established and new micro-machining technologies for applications of the watch
industry, Journal of Laser Applications, 2014 (2014) 269-277
[19] G. Verhaeghe, P. Hilton, Battle of the Sources - Using a High-Power Yb-Fibre Laser for
Welding Steel and Aluminium, 58th Annual Assembly and International Conference of
International Institute of Welding, Prague, Czech Republic (14 - 15 July 2005)

Lean Supply Chain – Modern day
approach for effective supply
Vivek Kumar Pansari
Research Scholar
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Sharda University, Greater Noida
Gautam Buddh Nagar, Uttar Pradesh
abstract
Increasing competition and globalisation is putting emphasis on transforming
manufacturing outline from mass production to lean production across the all manufacturing
industries.. Supply chain is a network which not only ensures the supply of materials but
supply of information and services also and it’s effectiveness can be improved by reducing
inventory. In this context Lean Supply chain approach is found to be suitable for improving
the effectiveness of supply chain by reducing wastes and non value added activities. Therefore
Lean Supply Chain Management (LSCM) has become an integral part of any business across
the globe. LSCM focusses on removal of waste and includes value added activities mostly
which are required to be performed while supplying the goods from raw material to finished
goods and to end users.
Introduction
A network which links each component between customer and supplier through
manufacturing and services so that smooth flow of material, money and information can be
effectively maintained to meet the business requirement (Stevens, 1989) is supply chain. Supply
Chain Management is the process of managing the effectiveness of the network involved in
supply of goods and services by reducing inventory and improving the productivity. Now a
days companies are realizing that to evolve an efficient and effective supply chain, the process
requires to be assessed frequently for its performance (Gunasekaran et al., 2001). Christopher
and Towill (2001) identified quality, cost, lead-time and service level as four performance
measures. In case of lean supply quality, lead-time and service level are the performance

measures which are qualifier and cost is the most prominent among these.
India is turning into a manufacturing hub and there is an expanding request in domestic
and global markets. Lean Supply Chain Management (LSCM) enables manufacturer to
review processes related to production across the entire SC to plan and design activities in a
synchronized and organized manner. It also talks about the recursive relation between the SC
characteristics and lean practices. It helps to understand how adoption of lean practices enables
in systematically reduction of waste and maximization of values in manufacturing processes.
Inferior quality, delayed supply, unwarranted price rise, etc. are the issues would negatively
affect the credibility and business potential of the Indian industry. Discontinuity of Supply
chain is also a major issue, which can result in tangible and non-tangible losses faced by Indian
manufacturers. LSCM can be considered as an integrated socio-technical system to overcome
these issues. It aims waste elimination by reducing internal and external variability which are
not adding value along the SNs (supply networks). The goal of lean manufacturing is to reduce
response time to customer’s demand while producing a good quality product in effective and
economical manner by reducing various waste in human efforts, time to market, manufacturing
space etc. {Shah and Ward (2007)}.
Supply Chain Management

Conversion of raw materials into finished goods and timely delivery of the products
to end users is known as supply chain (Mabert and Venkataramanan, 1998). Supply Chain
Management talks about interrelationship between various processes and chain components.
It analyses the impact of their interaction on value additions and profit maximization (Ballou,
2007).
From the evolution of SCM, the scope and definition has been changed. The meaning of
the word supply chain management in industry and scope is now different from time of it’s
evolution. Some recent definitions and understanding of SCM are
Chang et al. (2013) took Supply chain management, a new strategic dimension for
e-procurement.
Dubey and Ali (2013) Supply Chain Management may be defined as the management of
upstream and downstream members from vendors to customers to provide better customer
value at lower cost to the supply chain.
Machowiak (2012) SCM is a methodology of improving the business processes, making
them more resilient, more agile and as a result, more competitive. The main function of SCM
is to improve the product or service competitiveness.
Randall and Mello (2012) Supply Chain Management incorporate supply and demand
management inside and across companies.
Dubey et al. (2012) Supply Chain Management as a concept manages the flow of material,
information and funds end to end i.e. from upstream to downstream members. It also talks
about the disposal of material after it’s use as per the environmental norms. SCM tries to
achieve this at the lowest cost with maximum efficiency.
By going through the literature quality, cost , lead time to market and customer satisfaction

are identified as performance measures for any supply chain and it has many dimensions such
as long term relationship, concurrent engineering and strategic purchasing.
Lean Manufacturing
Lean manufacturing means to improve performance in production system by identifying
and eliminating waste and delivering value to customer. It is to minimize the waste which
prevents the smooth flow (non value added activities ) of products and services. Toyota
Production System identified seven wastes overproduction, unnecessary transportation,
inventory, unnecessary motion, defects, over processing and waiting time. Lean methods
enable the accomplishment of just in time (JIT), total preventive maintenance (TPM), value
stream mapping (VSM) and continuous improvement (kaizen).
Lean is about achieving a balanced use of man, material and resources. It allows to
reduce cost, eliminate waste and deliver goods on time. For implementing the concepts of lean
manufacturing many tools such as 5s, jidoka, JIT, kaizen, Kanban, PDCA, POKA yoke, takt
time, TPM etc. are suggested in literature.
Lean Supply Chain Management

For measuring the performance of supply chain cost, quality and lead time to market are
prominent measures. Tools of lean manufacturing also focuses on quality, cost and time to
market by reducing non value added activities i.e. eliminating wastes to maintain the smooth
flow. Lean supply chain can be one of the new approach for achieving the goals of supply
chain. LSCM can be considered as an integrated socio-technical system to overcome the issues
related to quality, delayed supply, price rise etc. It aims waste elimination by reducing internal
and external variability which are not adding value along the SNs (supply networks). It also
talks about the recursive relation between the SC characteristics and lean practices. It helps to
understand how adoption of lean practices enables in systematically reduction of waste and
maximization of values in manufacturing processes.
Conclusion
Supply chain management and Lean manufacturing are having some common goals such
as reduction of cost, reduction of lead time and improved quality. These goals are ultimately
enhancing the customer satisfaction. Hence it can be concluded that by using the lean tools
goals of supply chain can also be achieved and lean supply chain (LSCM) can be considered
as modern approach.
REFERENCES
[1] Agarwal, A., Shankar, R., Tiwari M, 2006. Modeling the metrics of lean, agile and
leagile supply chain: An ANP-based approach, European Journal of Operational
Research 173 (2006) 211–225
[2] Ballou, H.R. (2007), “The evolution and future of logistics and supply chain

management”, European Business Review, Vol. 19, No. 4, pp. 332 - 348.
[3] Chang, H. H., Tsai, Y. C., & Hsu, C. H. (2013). E-procurement and supply chain
performance. Supply Chain Management: An International Journal, 18(1), pp 34-51.
[4] Christopher, M., 2000. The agile supply chain, competing in volatile markets. Industrial
Marketing Management 29, 37–44.
[5] Christopher, M., Towill, D.R., 2001. An integrated model for the design of agile supply
chains. International Journal of Physical Distribution and Logistics Management 31
(4), 235–246.
[6] Dubey, R., Singh, T., & Tiwari, S. (2012). Supply Chain Innovation is a Key to Superior
Firm Performance an Insight from Indian Cement Manufacturing. International Journal
of Innovation Science, 4(4), pp. 217-230
[7] Dubey, R., & Samar Ali, S. (2013). An exploratory study on logistics competency and
firm performance. International Journal of Logistics Systems and Management, 14(2),
pp. 179-199.
[8] Machowiak, W. (2012). Risk management-unappreciated instrument of supply chain
management strategy. LogForum, 8(4), pp. 277-285.
[9] Parkhi Shilpa, Joshi Sourabh, Gupta Shubham 2015, A Study of Evolution and Future
of Supply Chain Management, AIMS International Journal of Management 9(2)

Renewable energy in Nigeria: most
recent trends and future prospects
M. B. Muhammad
Ministry of Works, Housing, and Transport, Dan Hausa Rd, Jaoji, Kano, Nigeria
abstract
Nigerian population faces energy crises. The country’s electricity generation principally
depends on conventional energy resources: natural gas (85 %) and large-scale hydropower (15
%). Other renewable energy sources (REs) are either left unattended or underutilized. Nigeria
presently attains the total installed capacity of 12, 972 MW with 4,020 as the average generation.
The peak generation reached 5,090 MW for the increasing population of 200 million. This
paper briefly present untapped renewable energy sources across the country and their potentials
while presenting most recent changes and directions in the Nigerian power sector.
Keywords: Energy; Nigeria; renewable energy;
Introduction
Energy - at a reasonable cost - symbolizes the backbone of national development. Gross
Domestic Product (GDP) increases with the regular energy supply and consumption. While the
global consumption of oil and natural gas increased from 1965 to 2018 (Fig. 1) the universal
primary energy consumption rose by 5365 million tons of oil equivalent (M toe) from 1991 to
2017 [1,2].
Fig. 1. | Global primary energy consumption (2018). Source [2]

The current statistical analyses also demonstrate a gap between the projected
conventional energy generation of the world sources and demand growing at 2 % per year [3].
RE - low-carbon energy sources replenishable on human timescales – currently constitute about
20 % of world energy consumption by source (Fig. 2). The demand is growing at 5.2% annually.
It is likely sometime around 2050 to increase to the world global demand. RE stands critical not
only to addressing climate change but also for offering alternative economic opportunities.
Fig. 2. | Total global RE consumption by source (2017). Traditional biomass constitutes 9

of 12 % RE consumption and 80 % of total energy consumption
Population growth remains the primary reason for the growing energy consumption.
According to the united nation’s estimate, the current Nigerian population is over 200 million.
It was 140,003,542 in 2006 and 37,860,000 in 1950. By 2050, it is expected to reach 278
million representing the world third populous country. Consequently, the country’s Greenhouse
emissions (GHG) rose by 27 million tons from the year 2010 to 2016 [4] .These likely scenarios
command the extensive exploration and efficient utilization of untapped REs in Nigeria.
To attain the targets of 2,000 MW of renewable electricity, the Nigerian government
turns toward harnessing solar energy. The country pays attention to biofuels from biomass and
large hydropower; overlooking other REs like small hydropower (SHP), geothermal, wave,
and tidal. For this reason, most of the recently published studies focus on the utilized and
intended targets of REs. This paper presents the most recent policies and directions in the
Nigerian power sector while carefully exploring untapped REs and the corresponding trends.
4.1 Energy scenario in Nigeria

Before we discuss the scenario, we point out the geographical location of the country.
Nigeria lies in the western region of Africa. It comprises six geopolitical zones and subdivided
into 36 states and a Federal Capital Territory, Abuja (Fig. 3). The land covers 98.6 % of the total

area (923,768 km2). While the standard atmospheric temperature settles at approximately 25 o
C, the climate differs according to the regions. North has Sahel savanna with the rainy season
enduring 3 to 4 months. The most elevated temperature in this region is about 40 oC. Moving
toward North Central, rainfall increases as the temperature decreases. The South has a tropical
monsoon climate, characterized by heavy rainfall usually above 2,000 mm.
Fig. 3. | Map of Nigeria

Nigerian power generation primarily depends on natural gas (85 %) and large hydropower
(15 %). Efficient utilization of coal seriously declined after Nigerian Railways changed trains
from coal-powered to the modern diesel engine. The nuclear resource will soon be harnessed as
the country recently signed an agreement with Russia for the construction of two atomic plants
to attain the proposed 14000 MW. The available hydro resources are underutilized. Nigeria
has 14, 750 MW cumulative hydropower capacities as estimated by Adebayo and Yusuf
[5]. However, only 5 % is currently being harnessed [6]. This 5% represents the country’s
360 % growth of hydropower, from 1971 to 2005. Traditional biomass, normally fuelwood,
corresponds to 83 % of the energy consumption. At 10 % economic growth rate, the energy
demand is expected to rise to 95 Twh by 2022.
Although Nigeria is the Africa’s largest oil producer; world’s seventh, second largest oil

reserve after Libya with 37,060,001,792 bbl proved reserved; sixth world net energy exporter
and fourth world LNG exporter in 2012, her energy consumption per capita is unimpressive. It
is, in 2016, the African second largest importer of generators after Egypt and one of the highest
in the world. The considerable sum of $112 million is annually spent on importation of portable
generators. Recent EIA report equally places Nigeria at the bottom in electricity generation per
capita. In this fashion, electric energy consumption is low; 128 kWh per capita in 2016 [7].
According to the African Development Bank (AFDB), the gap between Nigerian electricity
demand and supply stands at 40 %.
1.2 Nigeria energy outlook

The first Nigerian power plant was constructed in 1896 in Marina Lagos state, 15 years
subsequent to the introduction of power plant in England [8]. The power plant retained a
generating capacity of 60 KW. Thirty-three years more gone, electricity generation in Nigeria
rose to prominence with the establishment of the first utility company called the Nigerian
Electricity Supply Company (NESCO). It utilized the generating capacity of 6,200 MW
from 4 thermal and two large hydropower plants. As the population grows, this amount
became inadequate. Therefore, retaining almost 50 %, the Federal government approved in 2001
the private ownership of the power plants. The power stations are now categorized according to
the ownership. The first category was precisely federal government owned, later on privatized.
They have an available capacity of 3880 MW from 10 stations (hydro and thermal). The
second recognized categories are owned by the three tiers of government namely federal, state
and local; they are managed by National Integrated Power Projects (NIPP) and funded from
Excess Crude Oil Account belonging to the three tiers. These plants are established to produce
4,775MW in addition to other categories but mainly grounded because of the insufficient gas
supply. Even the stations close to the oil and gas companies face a similar fate. Presently NIPP
possess the capacity of 3,492 MW from 7 stations. The third category, Independent Power
Producer (IPP), is owned by private bodies and/or state government.
Still the country records insufficient electricity supply as only 50 % of the expanding
population remains connected to the grid and 41 % of Nigerian private businesses inevitably
generate their own power. To remedy these problematic issues, the federal government
introduced the Electric Power Sector Reform Map in 2005 followed by the inauguration of The
Roadmap for Power Sector Reform in 2010. With these recent reforms, the federal government
renamed the National Electricity Power Authority (NEPA), a government-owned, with The
Power Holding Company of Nigeria (PHCN). The company was then disintegrated into
separate generation, distribution and Transmission Company of Nigeria (TCN). By early 2013,
the federal government further privatized its power plants (PHCN) maintaining a minority
stake in the generation. The TCN is still owned and controlled by the federal government. At
Present, Nigeria precisely attains a total installed capacity of 12, 972 from 26 grid-connected,
including Azura power plant (450 MW) commissioned on 27th November 2018. The current
average available and operational capacities of 7390 MW and 4020 MW respectively lag
behind the demands (Fig. 4 and 5).

Fig. 4 | Projection of Nigerian electricity demand [9]
Fig. 5 | Peak demand forecast [9]
Renewable energy in Nigeria

Nigeria is blessed with vast RE resources. Small Hydro Power (SHP), Geothermal, wave
and tidal power remain unexploited. Accordingly, the Renewable Energy Master Plan (REMP)
aims to increase renewable electricity to 16 % by 2030; small Hydropower (7.07%); wind
(0.25%); solar (5.90%) and Biomass (2.78%).

2.1 Solar Energy
Countries at the equatorial regions receive more solar radiation than those at polar. Nigeria
is situated between latitudes 5o and 15o north of the Equator where solar radiation is abundant
to harness. With Nigerian 6 hours of average sunshine per day and 290 days of sunlight/year,
about of 4.851 x 1012 KWh of solar energy strikes the country daily. This amount equals 1.082
million tons of oil. The core north receives 7 Wh/m2/day and 3.5 kwh/M2/ day in the Southern
part of the country. Notwithstanding the least solar radiation in the month of August, 3.7 %
of Nigerian land suffices solar energy equal to the national conventional reserve. At 15 %
efficiency, only 0.03 % of the Nigerian surface area suffices generation of 10, 000 MW.
2.2 Wind Energy

Unlike solar, windmills are the least popular in Nigeria because of the country’s average
potential. However, the NREAP (2015-2030) targets 800 MW from the wind by 2030. The
results of wind mapping conducted by the Nigerian Ministry of Science and Technology
revealed up to 5 m/s speed with an average between 2 and 4 m/s at 10 m height. This speed
can generate 50, 000 TJ/year. The on-shore mapping indicates the Coastal area of Lagos, Jos,
Plateau (up to 51 MWh/year in hilly areas) Sokoto (up to 97 MWh /year), Katsina and Kano as
the states with the highest wind speed in the country. Thus, 10 MW and 100 MW wind farms
were established in Katsina (the first wind farm in the country) and Jos Plateau states. Unlike
the off-shore, the Nigerian on-shore wind potential is unviable for commercial applications.
Generally speaking, the Northern part has more solar and wind productive potentials than the
south.
2.3 Hydropower
Nigeria enjoys extensive waterways and waterfalls. Lake Chad, Niger and Benue rivers
(estimated 1,800 m3 combined discharge per capita) represent the three main water resources
utilized for hydropower generation. The aggregate exploitable capacity of hydropower in the
country is more than 14,120 MW. Thus, Nigeria is above average line in hydropower potential.
Of the total installed capacity, it produces over 2, 062 MW hydroelectricity in 2017 from small
and LHP resources combined. This amounts to 26 % of the on-grid electricity. It dropped to 15
% by late 2018. At the present time, three main hydropower stations namely; Kainji (760MW),
Jebba (570MW) and Shiroro (600MW) are operational. Zungeru (700 MW) is expected to
commence the operation in 2022. Others like Challawa (8 MW), Gurara 1 (30 MW), Tiga (10
MW) and (10 MW) are of reduced capacity.
2.4. Geothermal energy

Although in the cause of oil exploration authorities obtained several geological features
and subsurface temperature data in both Northern and southern parts of the country; and 48 % of
the Nigerian combined land is Precambrian with sedimentary regions predominantly covering
the rest; Nigeria consumes zero geothermal energy as stated by the World Bank collection of

development in 2012. However, the Energy Commission of Nigeria and the United Nations
Development Programme (ECNUNDP, 2005) identified 5 sources of geothermal energy in the
country.
Conclusion and recommendation

To improve extensive exploration and proper utilization of untapped REs, the government
should ensure effective implementation and compliance with the present policies. A tax cut
during the first 4 productive years of any private investor willing to harness REs stands to
transform the situation. This tacitly allows existing investments to develop and instantly attract
contemporary projects. Capable RE institutions with offices at state or local government levels
should be established to achieve the targets. Transfer of conversion technologies from modern
countries will also help. Assurance of Feed-in tariffs extendable to other RE technologies
should be guaranteed. Research grant specifically in the academic field of RE should be
earmarked by each state and the Federal Government.
REFERENCES
[1] M. T. Islam, S. A. Shahir, T.M.I. Uddin, A.Z.A. (2014). Saifullah. Current energy
scenario and future prospect of renewable energy in Bangladesh. Renew Sustain
Energy . doi:10.1016/j.rser.2014.07.149.
[2] BP. Methodological changes. n.d.
[3] S. Babatunde. (2015). Development and testing of biogas-petrol blend as an alternative
fuel for spark ignition engine. Int J Sci Technol Res 2015 (41)79–86.
[4] I. Abba, A. Aminu. (2018). analytical study of hydrokinetic energy potentials in some
tidal-rivers of kano state nigeria (4)
[5] A.A. Adebayo, B. Yusuf. (2013). Ameliorating power supply problem in Nigeria
through small hydropower. J Res Dev (5) 56 – 60.
[6] O.S. Ohunakin, S.J. Ojolo, O.O. Ajayi.(2011) Small hydropower (SHP) development
in Nigeria: An assessment. Renew Sustain Energy Rev (15) 2006–13. doi:10.1016/j.
rser.2011.01.003.
[7] Country comparison : electricity - consumption. CIA; 2013.
[8] Nigeria advisory power team. Nigeria Power Baseline Report 2015:36. doi:10.1111/
josi.12220.
[9] Update of the ECOWAS revised master plan for the development of power generation
and transmission of electrical energy Final Report. 2018.

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Proceeding of the 2 nd International Conference on

TECHNOLOGY INNOVATIONS IN MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Selective & Scientific Books

It gives me immense pleasure to know that the Department of Mechanical Engineering

Prof. (Dr.) Sibaram Khara

Prof. (Dr.) Parma Nand

Prof. (Dr.) Bhim Singh

It gives me immense pleasure that Department of Mechanical Engineering, Sharda

Prof. Sachin Maheshwari

Dr Salim M Salim CEng MIMechE SHFEA

Engineering is a rapidly changing, interdisciplinary field that gives opportunities to express

Dr. Himanshu Payal

Dr. Akanksha Mishra

Dr. Vineet Kumar

01 Tribological Performance of Cold Spray Coatings: A Review 1

Introduction: Tribology and Its Significance

Cold Spray Process

Fig. 2: High pressure cold spray system [5].

Tribology of Cold Spray Coatings

Fig.1. Friction welding Machine and Principle

Fig.2. – CAD Model

Fig.3.Friction welding sample specimen

SS 304 (12 mm) SS 304 (14 mm)

SS 316 (10 mm) SS 316 (14 mm)

2 103 106 209 200 9 8.3 1284.6 13 23 48

3 103.5 103 209.5 201.6 7.9 8.3 1293.1 13 23 48

4 103.5 104 208 201 7 9 1291.7 13 23 48

5 105 105.5 210 202.2 7.8 8.2 1301.3 13 23 48

SS304 1 107 108 210 202.6 7.4 7.9 1293.1 15 32 58

2 104 104 208 200.3 7.7 8.1 1302.1 15 32 58

3 104 105.5 209.5 201.9 7.6 7.5 1287.2 15 32 58

5 107.5 107.5 215 207 8 7.9 1290.7 15 32 58

SS316 1 101 108 209 202.8 6.2 7.9 1270. 10 17 34

2 101 103 204 197.6 6.4 7.6 1254.1 10 17 34

3 108 102 210 203 7 7.6 1268.2 10 17 34

4 102.5 103 205.5 197.9 7.6 8.2 1261.5 10 17 34

5 104 106 210 202.2 7.8 8.6 1259.7 10 17 34

SS316 1 104 105 209 202.5 6.5 7.5 1255.3 15 32 66

2 103 108 211 203 8 7.7 1253.2 15 32 66

3 102 103 205 199 6 6.9 1271.6 15 32 66

4 102.5 104 206.5 200.2 6.3 7.2 1269.8 15 32 66

5 104.5 107 211.5 207.5 4 6.8 1256.3 15 32 66

Fig.7. Hardness Indentation Locations

Material Diameter Distance 8 6 0.5 0.2 0 0.2 0.5 6 8

Fig.8.-Tensile Test Machining

MAXIMUM LOAD: 400 kN kN MAXIMUM ELONGATION: 250 mm

Graph 2 – SS 304 Stress vs Strain Graph 3 – SS 316 Stress vs Strain

SS-304 Specimen Ø 12 mm SS-316 Specimen Ø 10 mm

Table.1 mechanical properties of Al-6061

Methodology & Results:

Figure.5 surface imaging of Al6061-Al7075 composite with reinforcement at varying

3.2 Hardness Test:

Types of flanging process

Fig.1. Schematic diagram of straight flanging process [2]

Fig.2.Schematic diagram of stretch flanging [19]

Fig.3 Schematic diagram of shrink flanging [19]

Various aspects of Shrink Flanging Process

Fig.9. Schematic diagram of axisymmetric shrink flanging tool set up [19]

Fig.17 Examples of shrink flanges applied in (a) parts withivisual imapcti(exterior

Observers Method of Composition of Materials Observed Observed

Figure.1 Fabrication Techniques

Application of Aluminum Metal Matrix Composite

Academy of Higher Learning, Greater Noida-201306 (INDIA)

Table 2: composition of SiC

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