ROLE OF IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE IN INDIA

INTRODUCTION

Agriculture occupies a key position in the Indian

economy because of its contribution to overall economic
growth through supplies of food, raw materi als and
exports. It is a source of livelihood for a majority
of the population and provides a large market for non-
goods and servic es. It has often been
agricultural
observed that the economy fluctuates with the
agricultural production in the country. Sustained
over 4a period is effective in
agricultural production
controlling the consum er price index even if there is
drought in some parts of the countr y for 2-3 years.

IMPORTANCE OF IRRIGATION FOR AGRICULTURE PRODUCTION

water is a key input for improved

Irrigation
agricultural production. In India, development
in irrigation have been takin g place for
activities
Irrigation sources in the past comprised
centuries.
wells, tanks, small, medium and large reservoirs,
canals by diversion of water throu gh weirs or
gravity
inundation canals from rivers etc. The policy all
along has been to provide prote ctive irrig ation .

In India, planned efforts in the post-independece era,

witnessed a great spurt in the development of
irrigation activities, both for surface and ground
water uses. The pre-plan (pre 1951-52) irrigation
potential was only 22.6 million hectares, while an
irrigation potential of 67.9 million hectares has been
created by the end of the Sixth Five Year Plan (1984-
85). The happy develo pment in the food grain
production, which trebled in the above period, has been
directly associated with increase in the irrigated
area,

Drainage

During rain or irrigation, the fields become wet. The water infiltrates into the soil and is stored in its
pores. When all the pores are filled with water, the soil is said to be saturated and no more water
can be absorbed; when rain or irrigation continues, pools may form on the soil surface. Part of the
water present in the saturated upper soil layers flows downward into deeper layers and is replaced
by water infiltrating from the surface pools. When there is no more water left on the soil surface, the
downward flow continues for a while and air re-enters in the pores of the soil. This soil is not
saturated anymore. However, saturation may have lasted too long for the plants’ health. Plant roots
require air as well as water and most plants cannot withstand saturated soil for long periods (rice is
an exception). The water flowing from the saturated soil downward to deeper layers, feeds the
groundwater reservoir. As a result, the groundwater level rises. Following heavy rainfall or
continuous over-irrigation, the groundwater table may even reach and saturate part of the rootzone.
Again, if this situation lasts too long, the plants may suffer. Measures to control the rise of the water
table are thus necessary.

“"—- tne : oda

= 501 ( still saturated =——4
ee
io
in ration from 2 = .
al

=
=

rhe surface poois’— > =

The removal of excess water either from the ground surface or from the rootzone, is called drainage.
Excess water may be caused by rainfall or by using too much irrigation water, but may also have
other origins such as canal seepage or floods. In very dry areas there is often an accumulation of
salts in the soil. Most crops do not grow well on salty soil. Salts can be washed out by percolating
irrigation water through the rootzone of the crops. To achieve sufficient percolation, farmers will
apply more water to the field than the crops need. But the salty percolation water will cause the
water table to rise. Drainage to control the water table, therefore, also serves to control the salinity
of the soil.

Benefits of Drainage
 @cr soil aeration results from good drainage,
This permits more extensive root development and.
more favorable environment for beneficial sil
Microorganisms and earthworms. When soil aeration
is reduced, the severity of soil-borne root diseases
is increased,

Better soil moisture with good drainage permits mo re

“SEETCLIENt Operation of tillage, planting and
harvesting equipment.
er re
soil structu
Bett can be developed and
with good drainage since there is lean
maintained
—fHSnce of destroying soil tilth due to compacti on

when working soil is too wet.

up more quickly when free walker is

Soils warm
by a drainage system. This results tn
removed
seed
“be tte r n
germinatio and an increased rate oF
Plant growth.

. An increased supply of nitrogen can be obtained from

the soil when drainage lowers the watertable in t he
root zone. Denitri ficatio n often occurs in soi ls
with poor drainage.

»cCertain toxic substance and disease organisms are

removed from the soil due to better drainage and
soil aeration. In wet soil, roots can be injured by
toxic substances produced in the reduction of iron
and manganese salts and the reduction of nitrates to

nitrites.

to uproot plants growing im

Winds are less liable
Soils that have been properly drained, since root
systems are deeper, and soil strength is qreater.

Soil erosion and sediment loss can be reduced by

sUbsurface drainage, since drained soils have a
greater capacity to absorb rainfall and the soil
filters out suspended sediment.

Good drainage saves fuel that would be used in

r ng Around wet areas in fields, that are not
Properly drained. Also, since drained land is
easier to work, there is less need for dual wheels
Or four-wheel drive tractors, besides increasing the
life of machinery and equipment.

A good variety of crops can be grown successfully on

& well drained farm land.

‘Weed problem is minimized and its control is easier

with good drainage since shallow rested weeds and
undésirable grasses often thrive in wet soil,
‘crowding about the planted crop.

Sood drainage reduces diseases that thrive on wet

rao + These include foot rot and liver fluke that
nfect livestock, and diseases carried by mosquitoes
to both livestock and human beings. The plant
diseases
reasonably such as root
controlled. rot, f stem rot etc. are also

Drainage is essentia
control in arid/semi-ar 1 for salinity-alkalinity
id regions,
Soil Characteristics affecting drainage

The primary concern when evaluating subsurface drainage requirements is determining the
capability of the soil to transmit water both laterally and vertically. The capability of the soil to
transmit water is a function of the hydraulic conductivity, effective depth of the saturated zone, and
the hydraulic gradient. All of the soil characteristics of density, porosity, panicle size, grain
distribution, texture, structure, chemical properties, and water-holding capacity affect the
movement of water through soil, as does the chemical composition of the water itself. However, of
all the characteristics that affect this movement, the one which integrates the combined effects for
particular water and a particular soil-and the one which is basic in the solution of drainage problems-
is the hydraulic conductivity or coefficient of permeability.

(a) Hydraulic Conductivity: The facility with which water moves in soil is a measurable property
of the soil called hydraulic conductivity.

K in Darcy’s Law:

K=v/i where v is velocity of flow and iis the hydraulic gradient.

(b) Texture: The term “texture” relates to the proportion of the various sizes of particles in a soil
sample. Texture is important in subsurface drainage because it is a soil characteristic which
has a general relationship with hydraulic conductivity and water retention. In general, the
coarse-textured soils have higher hydraulic conductivities and lower water retention than
fine-textured soils. Texture is readily measurable by performing a gradation analysis to
separate the size groups
{c) Color: Color is an important soil characteristic that permits quick and easy identification
and comparison of soils. In itself, color has no direct influence on hydraulic conductivity, but
when combined with texture and structure, color helps identify similar soils. Results of
hydraulic conductivity tests can then be projected for these similar soils.
(d) Structure: Soil structure is a characteristic that is very useful in evaluating and correlating
the hydraulic conductivities of soils with similar textures. The size, shape, and arrangement
of the aggregates and the shape and size of the pore spaces give the soil its structure.

ANGULAR SUBANGULAR
PRISMATIC COLUMNAR BLOCKY BLOCKY

Cy = SS > =

GRANULAR PLATY
TYPES OF SOIL STRUCTURE
Figure 2-3.—Types of soil structure. 103-D-1619,
(1) Platy.--In this type of structure, the aggregates are arranged in horizontal sheets. The
hydraulic conductivity rate varies with the class of structure and is usually at its highest
for medium platy material.
Structure class Plate thickness, millimeters
Very thin platy Less than 1.0
Thin platy 1.0 to 2.0
Medium platy 2.0 to 5.0
Thick platy 5.0 to 10.0
Very thick platy Greater than 10
(2) Prismatic or columnar.-These structure types are usually found in the upper horizons of
a soil profile. In these types, the aggregates form prisms that have longer vertical than
horizontal axes. The prism shape can be approximately square, pentagonal, or
hexagonal.
Structure class Macroprism width, millimeters
Very fine prismatic or columnar Less than 10.0
Fine prismatic or columnar 10.0 to 20.0
Medium prismatic or columnar 20.0 to 50.0
Coarse prismatic or columnar 50.0 to 100.0
Very coarse prismatic or columnar Greater than 100.0
(3) Angular blocky.-When the term, blocky, is used alone as a type of structure, it means
angular blocky if the aggregates are in dense blocks bounded by planes intersecting at
relatively sharp angles. A soil with this structure usually has good hydraulic conductivity
in both horizontal and vertical directions, and the rate is influenced by both the class
and grade.

Structure class Block dimension on any side, millimeters

Very fine, angular blocky Less than 5.0
Fine, angular blocky 5.0 to 10.0
Medium, angular blocky 10.0 to 20.0
Coarse, angular blocky 20.0 to 50.0
Very coarse, angular blocky Greater than 50.0
(4) Subangular blocky.-In this type of structure, the aggregates are in dense blocks having
mixed rounded and plane faces with vertices mostly rounded. As far as hydraulic
conductivity is concerned, there appears to be little difference between the angular and
subangular blocky structure. The classes are described as subangular blocky but have the
same description and sizes as the blocky structure. The grades have the same
designation as blocky structures.
(5) Granular.-The granular type of structure is formed of uniformly sized relatively
nonporous aggregates, spheroidal in shape, and having plane or cured surfaces which
have slight or no conformity with the faces of the surrounding aggregates. Soils with this
type of structure usually have good hydraulic conductivities both vertically and
horizontally.
 Structure class Aggregate thickness on any side, millimeters
Very fine granular Less than 1.0
Fine granular 1.0 to 2.0
Medium granular 2.0 to 5.0
Coarse granular 5.0 to 10.0
Very coarse granular Greater than 10.0
(6) Crumb.-This type of structure is the same as granular except aggregates appear very
porous. It has good hydraulic conductivity rates in both vertical and horizontal
directions, with the rates dependent on class and grade. Classes are the same as for
granular except there are no coarse or very coarse crumb structures. A crumb-type
structure can be of weak, medium, or strong grade.
(7) Massive.-Structure type is massive when the soil is coherent and there is no observable
aggregation or definite orderly arrangement of natural lines of weakness. A soil with
massive structure has neither class nor grade and negligible hydraulic conductivity.
(8) Single grain.-Single-grain structure is a non coherent soil with no observable
aggregation, such as sand. Usually, soil with single-grain structure has good vertical and
horizontal hydraulic conductivity. A single-grain soil has neither structural class nor
grade.
{e) Specific Yield—Specific yield may be defined as the volume of water
released from a known volume of saturated soil under the force of gravity and the
inherent soil tensions. It is expressed as a percentage of the total volume of
saturated soil:

volume of water drained

Specific yield, S= x 100
total volume of saturated soil
The optimum percent of specific yield in the 1- to 3-meter zone should be about 6 to 10
percent. A soil in this percent range would have sufficient aeration, hydraulic
conductivity, and water-holding properties for optimum crop growth. When the specific
yield is less than 3 percent, drainage becomes difficult and expensive. For specific yields
greater than 16 to 18 percent, aeration and hydraulic conductivity are good, but the soil
moisture-holding capacity is low.

(f) Capillary Fringe.-The soil zone just above the water table is not at field capacity as assumed
in the drain-spacing computations. This zone, sometimes defined as the capillary fringe,
varies in thickness according to the soil texture and varies in moisture content from nearly
saturated to field capacity.
STATICS OF SOIL WATER

Nature Of Water

1) Electrical properties
Water is the chemical substance with chemical formula H 20; one molecule of water has
two hydrogen atoms covalently bonded to a single oxygen atom. Molecules like water are
called dipoles. Dipoles can be attracted to charged surfaces such as negatively charged clay
particles.

2) Density of Water
Each water molecule is surrounded by a tetrahedral group of four other water molecules.
This open structure is the cause of the relatively low density of water; about 1 g/cm* at 4°C.
When water freezes the structure 3 becomes even more loose and hence the density of ice
is 0.917 g/cm®

Forces Holding Water In Soils

Cohesion and adhesion forces: These two basic forces are responsible for water retention in the soil.
One is the attraction of molecules for each other i.e., cohesion. The other is the attraction of water
molecules for the solid surface of soil i.e. adhesion. By adhesion, solids (soil) hold water molecules
rigidly at their soil - water interfaces. These water molecules in turn hold by cohesion. Together,
these forces make it possible for the soil solids to retain water.

Surface tension: This phenomenon is commonly evidenced at water- air interfaces. Water behaves
as if its surface is covered with a stretched elastic membrane. At the surface, the attraction of the air
for the water molecules is much less than that of water molecules for each other. Consequently,
there is a net downward force on the surface molecules, resulting in sort of a compressed film
(membrane) at the surface. This phenomenon is called surface tension.

Capillary force or capillary tension: In the soil, water is held by the forces of surface in the capillary
spaces and around the soil particles. The movement of water under unsaturated soil conditions is
due to force of surface tension. Once the flow due to gravitational force has ceased the water moves
in the form of thin or capillary film from a wet region to a dry region through finer or micro-pores.
The surface or capillary tension is responsible for the capillary movement of water to all directions
from low tension to high tension.
index line. To read le
omit the final zero af
To read iength in cei
il

ao

Pore size relationship

—

TO
|
0
5
|gite ty CUOPH RAN ENL AEE

, Macropores are wide enough that water in the cenier

of the pare cannot be held against the force of gravity
4j0

(sirap ace)
3/0

Micropores are small enoughto hold water

againstthe force of gravity
2io

Macrapores present
in the water film
ilo
The moisture characteristic curve

FIELD CAPCAITY

AVAILABLE MOSITURE, PER GENT

PERMANENT WILTING POINT

50 PER CENT LEVEL

15 PEA CENT

3 4 5 6 7 8 8 TO 11 12 4
SOIL MOISTURE TENSION, ATMOSPHERES
Fig 4.32 Molsture characteristic curves for clay, loam and sandy solls.

Soil moisture tension: the force per unit area required to remove film water from soil.

soil moisture characteristic curves (moisture extraction curves), which are plot of moisture content
versus moisture tension, the amount of moisture a given soil holds at various tensions. Soil moisture
characteristic curve is more strongly affected by soil texture.

Greater the clay content, the greater the water content at any particular suction and more gradual
the slope of the curve. In a sandy soil, most of the pores are relatively large and once these large
pores are emptied at a given suction, only a small amount of water remains.
Suction (Log scale)

—t— Clayey soil

Sandy soil

Water content

Fig. 7.14. The effect of texture on soil-water,

Dynamics of soil water

DYNAMICS OF SOIL WATER

a1 DARCY'S LAW
The flow of fluids through the individual pores of a porous media is very
complex. Fortunately, an empirical law discovered by Henry Darey in 1856
adequately describes the flow through a large mass of soil, Darcy's law
states that the flow of water through porous material is proportional to the
hydraulic gradient and to a factor K, which is & characteristic of the particular
porous media.

Q@=KiaA (3.1)

where @ = volume of water per unit time ae)

i = hydraulic gradient or driving force causing the water to flow
(dimensionless)
A eress sectional area of flow (2?)
K = hydraulic conductivity (14)
The hydraulic gradient represents the driving foree that causes the
water to move. Bernouilli's equation can be used to evaluate the energy of
the flowing water and hence the driving force.
The energy per unit volume of fluid along 4 stream line for steady
flow with no acceleration is given by the following equation:

[coke (3.2)
a

where p = density of the fluid

¥ = velocity of the fluid
p = pressure in Muid
y = specific weight of fluid, equal to pg
 # = vertical distance from a reference plane to the point in fluid
where the energy & being determined.

Steady flow means that the Velocity of flow must remain constant
with time at all points in the flow region. If Ey is not a function of time,
then

R= ov?/2 + p + yz = constant (3.3)

Each term in the above equation has the dimensions of energy per unit
volume. The first term i the kinetic energy and the second two represent
potential energy. This equation of energy is known as Bernoulli's theorem.
If each term of the above equation is divided by y, the specific weight of
the fluid, then we have

E,= v"/2g +piy +z (3.4)

Each term now has the dimensions of energy per unit weight of fluid. This
is equivalent to a length and henee the several terms are characterized as
heads. E. is the total head, v'/2g is the velocity head, pAy is the pressure
head and 2 is the elevation or gravity or positional head. The sum (py +
#) is called the potential head. The total head, then, at any point is a
constant.
In ground water flow, to account for the energy loss due to viscous
resistanee within the individual pofes, we must introduce another term called
the loss in head. AH represents the total head loss in energy per unit weight
of fluid over a distanee, As, that the fluid has traveled.
Referring to Fig. d.1, we see that

pi + Ze ‘ va. /2g SSA Vp. (28 +4 H (3.5)

where AH represents the total head loss (energy per unit weight of fluid)
of the fluid over the distance As.
 7b
Reterence | Plane

Hydraulic Head At a= BL/y + 4, = Ha

Hydraulic Head At b = B,/ ths Hy

H_ -H
Hydraulic Gradient a

Figure 3.1 Diagram for determining the hydraulic gradient.

is called the hydraulic gradient . A velocity of 20 em/see whieh is

very large produces a velocity head of only 4.6 mm. Henee, we can ignore
the velocity head and write,

Ty
Py
2b +a, + oH (3.7)

and the hydraulic head, H, is given by

Hales (3.8)
 HYDRAULIC HEAD
The bevdraulic head is the sum of the pressure head and the previtational
head. The pressure head is measured with a piezometer or manometer, An
open-ended pipe placed below the water table can be used as a piezometer.
The pressure head at the end of the
pipe will be equal to the height of water in the pipe. The gravitational
head is the distance from a reference plane to the end of the pipe. The
location of the reference plane is arbitrary and the gravitational heed will
depend on this location. In any particular problem, only one reference plane
can be use! (Figg. 3.2).

Piezomerters

Upward Fiow Dieete aire IF lia

Pigure 3.2 West of piezometers used to measure hydraulic gradients.

Vertical hydraulic gracients are measured in the field by placing

plezometers side by side. The pipes may be placed in the same hole but
often are plated about 2 meters apart. Sinee horizontal gradients in
froundweter flow are usually small, the head drop over short horizontal
distances is negligible. From Fig. 3.3 we see that the drop in hydraulic head
between the pipes & equal to the difference in elewation of water in the
Pipes. The hydraulic gradient is calculated by dividing the head drop by the

vertical distance between the emis of the pipe. Am example of hydraulic

Bredient calculation is given in Fig. 3.4.

i ||
my |
J1 ||
-
_
ars
RAAT
—

Reterence Plane c
Pressure Heads Hydraulic Heads

ALA = da- &, = d, - K,

Ata
Ate =d,- Be ALB
= do - Ke
ALG = do + mM, ALC
= do+ Ke

Figure 3.2 Use of piezometers to cealeulate vertical hydraulic gradients.

Application of Darcy’s Law to Some Flow Problems
In the preceding section it was shown that the flow through soil is pro-
portional to the hydraulic gradient and some characteristic of the soil called
permeability (hydraulic conductivity).
Soils, as they occur in nature, rarely have uniform permeability (hydraulic
conductivity). In most cases the hydraulic conductivity decreases with depth
due to the accumulation of clay found in the subsoil of soils. It is of interest
therefore to examine the flow through a stratified column of soil to see how
Darcy’s law may be used to analyze such flow.

,
i i
}
i

Figare 7-5 Vertical flow through a stratified soil. The water escapes into the gravel at
atmospheric pressure. The reference plane is taken to coincide with the upper surface of the
gravel stratum.
 Rearrangement of the above equations gives

0, = = (H, —H,)A
ky

0, =1H,—H,)A
ky
0, =(H, — HA
ky
0, A =(H, ~O)A
If we add the four equations above and remembering that 0, = Q,= 9, ~
QO, = Q we get

of rpr.b.o.t
44444) ms
ky kp ky ke
H
O= _ dt if
L, by, Lb; ly L
Sere Ot
ky ke ky kg

where l,l, 2L Ls hs may bebe calle

called the “apparent’’
ppa pe permeabilit y-

by hy hy he
Let us suppose that instead of the stratified column of the previous example
the water is moving parallel to the direction of the strata. Such situations are
very common in the field.
The hydraulic gradient must be the same through the two soil layers.
Therefore there will be no flow from one layer to the other. The total flow
will be the sum of the individual flows through each layer.
If the flow through I is
QO, = kA,
and through 2 QO. = kiiA-
then the total flow is
QO, + QO: = kyiA, + kaiAy
or = (k,A, + ks A,)i