STRUCTURAL TERMS
Surface forces are caused by the direct
contact of one body with the surface of
another.
A body force is developed when one body
exerts a force on another body without
direct physical contact between the
bodies.
Prismatic. All cross sections are the same
throughout its length.
Homogeneous material has the same physical
and mechanical properties throughout its
volume.
Isotropic material has these same
properties
in all directions.
Load Factors reflect the probability that
the total loading R will occur for all the
events stated.
Resistance factors (𝜙) are determined from
the probability of material failure as it
relates to the material’s quality and the
consistency of its strength.
If we select two line segments that are
originally perpendicular to one another,
then the change in angle that occurs
between them is referred to as shear
strain.
Yielding. A slight increase in stress above
the elastic limit will result in a
breakdown of the material and cause it to
deform permanently. This behavior is
called yielding.
The stress that causes yielding is called
the yield stress or yield point, 𝜎𝑌 , and
the deformation that occurs is called
plastic deformation.
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Strain Hardening. When yielding has ended,
an increase in load can be supported by the
specimen, resulting in a curve that rises
continuously but becomes flatter until it
reaches a maximum stress referred to as the
ultimate stress.
Necking. Up to the ultimate stress, as the
specimen elongates, its cross-sectional
area will decrease.
Ductile Materials. Any material that can
be subjected to large strains before it
fractures is called a ductile material.
Brittle Materials. Materials that exhibit
little or no yielding before failure are
referred to as brittle materials.
As a material is deformed by an external
load, the load will do external work, which
in turn will be stored in the material as
internal energy. This energy is related to
the strains in the material, and so it is
referred to as strain energy.
Modulus of Resilience. When the stress
reaches the proportional limit, the
strain-energy density is referred to as the
modulus of resilience.
Modulus of Toughness. This quantity
represents the entire area under the
stress–strain diagram, and therefore it
indicates the maximum amount of strain-
energy the material can absorb just before
it fractures.
Ductility Factor. The ratio of modulus of
toughness to the
modulus of resilience.
Creep. When a material has to support a
load for a very long period of time, it may
continue to deform until a sudden fracture
occurs or its usefulness is impaired.
Fatigue. When a metal is subjected to
repeated cycles of stress or strain, it
causes its structure to break down,
ultimately leading to fracture.
Plasticity. A condition where a material
break down and deforms permanently even due
to a slight increase in stress above the
elastic limit.
Residual Stress. When the plastic moment
is removed from the beam then it will cause
residual stress to be developed in the
beam.
STRUCTURAL TERMS
Beams. Members that are slender and support
loadings that are applied perpendicular to
their longitudinal axis.
Dilatation. The change in volume per unit
volume is called the “volumetric strain”
or the dilatation.
Resonance. It occurs when a building period
coincides with the earthquake period.
Torsional Shear Stress. Occurs when the
structures center of mass does not coincide
with the center of rigidity.
Ground Displacement. Measured by a shaking during earthquake.
seismometer.
Rigidity of a Structure. Reciprocal of
deflection
Story. It is the space between two adjacent
floors.
Diaphragms. Rigid horizontal planes used
to transfer lateral forces to vertical
resisting elements.
Shear wall. Wall designed to resist lateral
forces acting on its own plane, typically
wind and seismic loads.
Center of Gravity. It is the point where
the object “suffers” no torque by the
effect of the gravitational force acted
upon it.
Center of Rigidity. It is point through
which the resultant of the resistance to
the applied lateral force acts.
Center of Mass. It is point through which
the applied seismic force acts.
Eccentricity. It is the distance between
the center of rigidity and center of mass.
Design seismic base shear. It is the total
design lateral force
Flexibility of a structure. Inverse of
stiffness.
Story drift. It is the displacement of one
level relative to the level above or below.
Story displacement. Lateral displacement
of the story relative to the base.
Damping. Rate at which natural vibration
is absorbed.
Seismometer. Instrument use to measure the
peak ground acceleration, which is one of
the most important characteristics of an
earthquake.
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Magnetometer. Instrument use to measure
the strain of rock under pressure.
Focus (Hypocenter). The originating
earthquake source of the elastic waves
inside the earth which cause shaking of
ground due to earthquake.
Epicenter. The point on the earth’s surface
directly above the focus.
Story drift ratio. Story drift divided by
the story height.
Intensity. A measure of the strength of
Magnitude. A measure of energy released in
an earthquake.
Liquefaction. Is a state in saturated
cohesionless soil wherein the effective
shear strength is reduced to negligible
value.
Earthquake. Is an oscillatory, sometimes
violent movement of the ground’s surface
that follows release of energy in the
Earth’s Crust.
Shear Drift. The sideways deflection of a
building due to lateral (sideways) loads.
Chord Drift. The sideways deflection of
axial (vertical) loads.
Vertical Structural Irregularities
1. Stiffness Irregularity – Soft Storey
- A soft storey is one in which the
lateral stiffness is less than 70 % of
that in the storey above or less than 80
percent of the average stiffness of the
three stories above.
2. Weight (Mass) Irregularity
- Mass irregularity shall be considered
to exist where the effective mass of any
storey is more than 150 % of the effective
mass of an adjacent storey. A roof that
is lighter than the floor below need not
be considered.
3. Vertical Geometric Irregularity
- Vertical geometric irregularity shall
be considered to exist where the
horizontal dimension of the lateral-
force-resisting system in any storey is
more than 130 % of that in an adjacent
storey. One-storey penthouses need not be
considered.
4. In-Plane Discontinuity In
Vertical Lateral-Force-Resisting
Element Irregularity
-An in-plane offset of the lateral-load-
resisting elements greater than the
STRUCTURAL TERMS
length of those elements.
5. Discontinuity In Capacity – Weak
Storey Irregularity
-A weak storey is one in which the storey
strength is less than 80 % of that in the
storey above. The storey strength is the
total strength of all seismic-resisting
elements sharing the storey for the
direction under consideration.
Horizontal Structural Irregularities
1.Torsional irregularity (To Be
Considered When Diaphragms Are Not
Flexible)
-Shall be considered to exist when the
maximum storey drift, computed including
accidental torsion, at one end of the
structure transverse to an axis is more
than 1.2 times the average of the storey
drifts of the two ends of the structure.
2. Re-Entrant Corner Irregularity
Plan configurations of a structure and
its lateral-force-resisting system
contain re-entrant corners, where both
projections of the structure beyond a re-
entrant corner are greater than 15 % of
the plan dimension of the structure in
the given direction.
3.Diaphragm Discontinuity Irregularity
Diaphragms with abrupt discontinuities or
variations in stiffness, including those
having cutout or open areas greater than
50 % of the gross enclosed area of the
diaphragm, or changes in effective
diaphragm stiffness of more than 50 % from
one story to the next.
4. Out of Plane Offsets Irregularity
Discontinuities in a lateral force path,
such as out-of-plane offsets of the
vertical elements
5. Non-Parallel Systems Irregularity
The vertical lateral-load-resisting
elements are not parallel to or symmetric
about the major orthogonal axes of the
lateral force-resisting systems.
PAST BOARD EXAM OBJECTIVE
QUESTIONS (SEC)
2012
Resultant
- Is the force which determines whether
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the body will be in Equilibrium or will
have a varying state of motion
Hooke’s Law
- The principle used in equations related
to the deformation of axially loaded
material.
- That the stress is proportional to
the strain within the elastic region.
Poisson’s Ratio
- The ratio of the lateral to the
longitudinal strain is constant.
Young’s Modulus
- It is the constant of
proportionality that defines the
linear relationship between stress and
strain.
Column
- A structural member that has the
ratio of its unsupported height to its
least lateral dimension of not less
than 3 and is used primarily to support
axial load.
Kinetic Friction
- Retarding force acting opposite of
body in motion.
Proportional Limit
- It is the term for the value beyond
which the stress is no longer
proportional to the strain.
Homogeneous
- Materials which have the same
composition/compression at any point.
- Material has the same elastic
properties in all directions.
Ductility
- Property of a material enables it to
under large permanent strains before
failure.
- Ability of a material to deform/
defuse in the plastic range without
breaking. (2013 & 2016).
Pre-Tensioning
- It is described herein stressing
high strength steel wires before
concrete hardens.
Post-Tensioning
- It is described herein stressing
high strength steel after the concrete
has been cast and has attained
sufficient strength.
STRUCTURAL TERMS
Relaxation
- Is described herein loss of stress
that takes place with the passage of
time as concrete is held at a
constant strain.
Resilience / Modulus of Resilience
- Ability of a material to absorb
energy in the Elastic Range. (2016)
2013
Toughness / Modulus of Toughness
- Ability of a material to absorb
energy in the plastic range or fracture
point. (2016)
Elasticity
- Property of a material which makes it
return to its original dimension when
the load is removed.
Center of Rigidity
- It is the point through which the
resultant of the resistance to the
applied lateral force acts. (2018)
Eccentricity
- It is the distance between the Center
of Rigidity and Center of Mass.
2017
Soft Story
- One in which the lateral stiffness is
less than 70 percent of the stiffness of
the story above is called .
Story Drift
- A Lateral Displacement of one level
relative to the level above or below is
called . (2021)
2018
“Liquefaction” is best described as
....
- A sudden drop in the shear strength
of a soil.
Which refers to the Rigidity of a
Structure?
- Deflection
- Reciprocal of Deflection
- Product of Stiffness and Deflection
- Reciprocal of Stiffness
Center of Mass
- It is the point through which the
applied seismic force acts.
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Reciprocal of Stiffness
- Refers to flexibility of structure.
Orthotropic
- The material has the same composition
at every point but the elastic may not
be the same in all directions.
- The composite material exhibits
elastic properties in one direction
different from that in the perpendicular
direction.
Focal Depth
- Besides the Epicenter, it describes
the location of the Earthquake.
Actual Displacement or
Seismic/Earthquake Waves
- It is measured by a seismometer.
Magnitude of Earthquake
- It is measured by the Richter Scale
2021
Fatigue
- The material is subjected to repeated
cycles of stress or strain, it causes
the structure to breakdown ultimately
leading to fracture.
Creep
- When a material has to support a load
for a long period of time, what causes
it to continue to deform until a sudden
fracture occurs.
Plasticity
- Condition of a material when it breaks
down and deforms permanently even due to
a slight increase in stress above the
elastic limit.
Resonance
- It occurs when a building period
coincides with the earthquake period.
Torsion/Torsional Shear Stress
- It occurs when the structure’s center
of mass does not coincide with its
center of rigidity.
Additional Terms
Proportional limit
- The greatest stress a material is
capable of developing without
deviation from straight line
proportionality between strain and
stress *
STRUCTURAL TERMS Review Innovations

Elastic limit before actual rupture.

Toughness
- The greatest stress a material is
capable of developing without a - The property of a material enabling
permanent elongation remaining upon it to endure high-impact loads or
complete unloading of the shock loads.
specimen
Resilience
Modulus of elasticity
- The property of a material enabling
- Slope of the straight line portion high impact loads without inducing
of the curve or the ratio of stress a stress in excess of the elastic
over the strain limit.
Ductility Factor of safety
- The ability of a material to deform
in the plastic range without - Ratio of the failure stress to the
breakage or the ability to undergo allowable stress.
considerable plastic deformation
under tensile load before actual Failure
rupture. *
- The condition that renders the load
resisting member unfit for
Plasticity resisting further increase in
loads.
- A property of a material where if
the specimen be unloaded, it will Diagonal tension
not return to its original
length, rather it will retain a - The tensile stress that develops on
permanent elongation sometimes the diagonals surface.
called a permanent set. *
Poisson's ratio
Yield stress
- The ratio of lateral strain to
- The stress at which there occurs a axial strain for an unrestrained
marked increase in strain without member.
an increase in stress
Dilatation
Ultimate stress
- Change of volume per unit
- The max. stress a material is volume.
capable of developing
Ductile material "e"
Rupture strength
- Is one having a relatively large
- The stress at which the specimen tensile strain up to the point of
actually breaks. rupture
Brittle material
Stiffness
- Is one having a relatively small
- The property of a material to
tensile strain up to the point
withstand high stress without
of rupture
great strain
Tangent modulus
Brittleness
- The rate of change of stress with
- Implies the absence of any plastic
respect to strain
deformation prior to failure.
Specific strength
Malleability
- The ratio of the ultimate or
- The property of a material enabling
tensile strength to specific weight
it to undergo considerable plastic
that is the weight per unit volume.
deformation under compressive load
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Specific modulus

- Ratio of the Youngs modulus to the

specific weight.

Isotropic material

- One having the same elastic

properties in all directions at any
one point of the body.

Seismograph

- Is a ground mounted – device which

measures the actual displacement
of the ground with respect to a
stationary reference point.

Intensity

- It is the oldest useful measure

of an earthquake’s strength which
is based on the damage and other
observed effects on people,
buildings and other features.
Dynamic
Forces generated by a body in motion.