Chapter:1: Basic Concepts 13

The properties of radiant heat in general, are similar to those of light. Some of the properties are:
I t does not require the presence ofa material medium for its transmission.
() Radiant heat can be reflected from the surfaces and obeys the ordinary laws of reflection.
(iit) It travels with velocity of light.
(iv) Like light, it shows intereference, diffraction and polarisation etc.
( ) I t follows the law ofinverse square.
The wavelength of heat radiations is longer than that of light waves, hence they are invisible to
heeye.
1.2. HEAT TRANSFER BY CONDUCTION
1.2.1. FOURIER'S LAWS OF HEAT cONDUCTION
Fourier's law of heat conduction is an emperical law based on observation and states as follows:
The rate offlow of heat through a simple homogeneous solid is directly proportional to the
and change of temperature with
area of the section at right angles to the direction of heat flow, to

respect to the length of the path of the heat flow.

Mathematically, it can be represented by the equation

A.

where, O Heat flow through a body per unit time (in watts), W,
A =Surface area of heat flow ((perpendicular to the direction of flow), m,
of thick-
dt =
Temperature difference of the faces of block (homogeneous solid)
ness 'dr' through which heat flows, °C or K,
and

dx = Thickness of body in the direction of flow, m.

.(1.1)
Thus Q= -k.A
dx
k Constant of proportionality and is known as thermal conductivity of the
where =

body.
the direction
The-ve sign of k [eqn. (1.1)] is to take
care ofthe decreasing temperature alongwith
dt
flow. The temperature gradientis always negative
ofincreasing thickness or the direction ofheat
along positive x direction and, therefore, the value of Q becomes + ve.

Assumptions
on which Fourier's law is based:
The following are the assumptions
state conditions.
.Conduction of heat takes place under steady
2. The heat flow is unidirectional. linear.
and the temperature profile is
.The gradient is constant
temperatures
4. There is no internal heat generation.
surfaces are isothermal in character.
S. The bounding is constant
value of thermal conductivity
. The material is homogeneous
and isotropic (i.e., the

in all directions).
Fourier's law:
Some essential features of
Following are some essential features of Fourier's law:
be solid, liquid or gas).
. It is applicable to all matter (may derived from first principle.
evidence and cannot be
2. It is based on experimental
 1 4 Heat and Mass Transfer
3. It is a vector expression indicat that heat flow
rate
direction
is in the dire

temperature and is normal to an isotherm.

It helps to define thermal conductivity 'K (transport property) of the mediun
4.
heat is conducted.

1.2.2. THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF MATERIALs

From eqn. (1.1), we have

k d

The value of k = I when Q = 1, A = 1 and

dx

Now k = dx (unit of k: W 1
= W/mK. or W/m°C
dt K(or
follows:
°C)
Thus, the thermal conductivity ofa material is defined as
"The amount of energy conducted through a body of unit area, and unit thickness in
when the difference in temperature between thefaces causing heatflow i5 unit temperature dife

It follows from eqn. (1.1) that materials with high thermal conductivities are good condu
heat, whereas materials with low thermal conductivities are good thermal insulator. Condur
heat occurs most readily in pure metals, less so in alloys, and much less readily in non-metal
very low thermal conductivities of certain thermal insulators e.g., cork is due to their porosity. t
trapped within the material acting as an insulator.
Thermal conductivity (a property of material) depends essentially upon the following fa
(i) Material structuree (i) Moisture content
(ii) Density of the material (iv) Pressure and temperature
(operating condition=
Thermal conductivities (average values at normal pressure and
materials are as under: temperature) of some co
Material Thermal conductivity (k)
Material Thermal conductivit
(W/mK)
(W/mK)
I. Silver 410
8. Asbestos sheet
2. Copper 385 0.17
9. Ash
3. Aluminium 225 0.12
10. Cork. felr
4. Cast iron 55-65
11. Saw dust 0.05-0.10
5. Steel 20-45
12. Glass wool 0.07
6. Concrete 1.20
13. Water 0.03
7. Glass (window) 0.75
14. Freon 0.55-0.7
Following points regardinghermal
different conditions are worth noting conductivity -

its 0.0083
variation for different materials and una
I. Thermal conductivity of
lattice vibrational waves
a
material is
in case of due to flow of
free
fluids).
2. Thermal
conductivity
conductivity in case
cas
of
electrons (in case of metals) am
decreases with increase pure metals is
in
The range of for
k
other impurity. the
highest (k
materials is as =
10 to 400
W/m°C).
follows
 Chapter: 1: Basic Concepts 15
Alloys k=12to 120 W/m °C
Heat insulating and building materials k=0.023 to 2.9 W/m°C
Liquids k=0.2 to 0.5 W/m°C
Gases and vapours : k=0.006
to 0.05 W/m°C
3 Thermal conductivity of a metal varies
considerably when it (metal) is heat treated or
mechanically processed / formed.
4. Thermal conductivity of most metals decreases with the increase in
and uranium being the exceptions). temperature (aluminium
In most of liquids the value of thermal
conductivity tends to decrease with temperature
(water being exception) due to decrease in density with increase in temperature.
an

In case of gases the value of thermal

conductivity increases with temperature.
Gases with higher molecular weights have smaller thermal conductivities than with lower
molecular weights. This is because the mean molecular path of gas molecules decreases
with increase in density and k is directly proportional to the mean free path of the molecule.
5. The dependence of thermal conductivity (k) on temperature, for most materials is almost
linear
k = ko(1 +Br) .(1.2)
where. k Thermal conductivity at 0°C, and
B Temperature coefficient of thermal conductivity, 1/°C (It is usually
posi- tive for non-metals and insulating materials (magnesite bricks
being the exception) and negative for metallic conductors (aluminium
and certain non-ferrous alloys are the exceptions).
6. In case of solids and liquids. thermal conductivity () is only very weakly dependent on
of pressure (near standard
pressure; in case of gases the value of k is independent
atmospheric).
7. In case of non-metallic solids:
Thermal conductivity of porous materials depends upon the type of gas or liquid present
in the voids.
Thermal conductivity
of a damp material is
considerably higher
than that of the dry
material and water

taken individually.
Thermal conductivity
increases with in-
crease in density.
8. The Wiedemann and Franz
law (based on experiment
results), regarding thermal
and electrical conductivi-
ties of a material, states as

follows
Internal Combustion (IC)
engine where
The ratio of the themal Diesel engine is an

fuel burns inside the cylinder.

and electrical conductivi-
16 Heat and Mass Transfer

ties is the same for all metals at the same temperature; and that th
proportional to the absolute temperaure of the metal" the ratio

Mathematically. AT

or,
=C

where. k =
Thermal conductivity of metal at
temperature T(KK),
o =Electrical conductivity of metal at temperature T
C
(K), and
Constant (for all metals), referred to as Lorenz number
2.45x 10 WK;Q stands for ohms).
This law conveys that the materials which are good conductors of electrticity
conductors of heat. are .

1.2.3. THERMAL RESITANCE

(R
When two physical systems are described
by similar equations and have
conditions, these are said to be analogous. The heat similar bue
with the flow of electricity in an electrical
transfer processes may be compared by
resistance. As the flow of electric a

resistance is directly proportional to current in the ele

potential difference (dV); similarly heat flow
proportional to temperature difference (dt), the driving force for heat rate, O. is dr
conduction through a me
As per Ohm's law (in elctric-circuit
theory),
we have

Current (I) = OIental difference (dV)

Electrical resistance (R)
By analogy, the heat flow equation (Fourier's equation) may be written as
Heat flow rate (Q) Temperature difference (dt)
=

By comparing eqns. (1.4) and (1.5), we find that I is analogous to, Q, dV is analogous to
R is (dx
analogous to the quantity The quantityis
thermal conduction resistance
kA kA called 4
MMM
(Rjh)cond. i.e.,

(Rah cond. dr kA Fig. 1.7.

The reciprocal of the thermal resistance is called thermal
conductance.
lt
may be noted that rulesfor combining electrical resistances in series and paralle
equally well to thermmal resistances.
The of he:
concept of thermal resistance is quite helpful while making calculations for flow O
Example 1.l. Calculate the rate of heat transfer per unit area through a copper
thick, whose one face is maintained at 350°C and the other face at
50°C. Take themu eo
of copper as 370 W/m°C.
Solution. Temperature difference, dt (=t,-t)= (50-350)
Thickness of copper plate, L = 45 mm = 0.045 m
Thermal conductivity of copper. k = 370 W/m°C
 Chapter :1: Basic Concepts 17
Rate of heat-transfer per unit area, q:
Copper
From Fourier's law plate
= - kA =- kA 2 -4) (-350C)
dr L

(Eqn. 1.1)
Or.
A dr
(50 C)
350)
-

370 x 0 -
0.045 L
( 45 mm)
2.466 x 10 W/m2 or
Fig. 1.8.
2.466 MW/m (Ans.)
Example 1.2. A plane wall is 150 mm thick and its wall area is 4.5 m?. If its conductivity is
9.35 W/m°C and surface temperatures are steady at 150°C and 45°C, determine
) Heat flow across the plane wall;
() Temperature gradient in the flow direction.
Solution. Thickness of the plane wall,
L = 150 mm
= O.15 m

Area of the wall, A = 4.5 m

Temperature difference, dt =
i,- = 45- 150 =- 105°C
Thermal conductivity of wall material,
k = 9.35 W/m°C

) Heat flow across the plane wall, Q:

As per Fourier's law,

Q -kA=- kA )
dx
- 9.35 x 4.5 x (-105 =29452.5 W
0.15
dt
(i) Temperature gradient,
From Fourier's law, we have
- 29452.5 - 700° C/m
dx kA 9.35x 4.5

Example 1.3. The following data relate to an oven:

Thickness of side wall of the oven = 82.5 mm
Thermal conductivity of wall insulation = 0.044 Wm°C
175°C
Temperature on inside
of the wall
Energy dissipated by the electrical coil
within the oven = 40.5 W
that temperature on the
heat flow, so
emine the area of wall surface, perpendicular to
other side of the wall does not exceed 75°C.
175°C; 1, =
75°C: Q= 40.5W
0.0825 m; k= 0.044 W/m°C; t,
=
Solution. Given: x= 82.5 mm =

Area of the wall surface, A :

ASSuming one-dimentional steady state heat conduction,
 18 Heat and Mass Transfer

Rate of electrical energy dissipation in the oven.

across the wall
Rate of heat transfer (conduction)
-

kA - 4 ) - kA ( -1,)
i.e. = kA = X
dx
0.044 A (175 - 75)
Or 40.5
0.0825
40.5 x 0.0825 = 0.759 m
of A
0.044 (175 75)

1.3. HEAT TRANSFER BY CONVECTIONN

The rate equation for the convective heat transfer (regardless of particular nature) ha.
surface and an adjacent fluid is prescribed by Newton's law ofcooling (Refer Fig. 1.9) e

Q = hA (,-1)
transfer,
where, Rate of conductive heat
A = Area exposed to heat transfer,
= Surface temperature,
F l u i d temperature, and
h = Co-efficient of convective heat transfer.
The units of h are,
= W or W/m°C
=
h or W/m2°c
A t, ' ) m2oC
or, W/m?K
The coefficient of convective heat transfer h' (also known as film heat transfer coefficient) m
be defined as "the amount of heat transmittedfor a unit temperature difference between the fluid an
unit area of surface in unit time."
The value of h' depends on the following Free stream
factors Fluid
(i) Thermodynamic and transport flow
properties (e.g. viscosity, density, Surface
specific heat etc.). s A
(ii) Nature of fluid flow. TIIININTINTITNTITITITTITIITIITITTTITINTTITNITITITIT
(ti) Geometry of the surface. (a) Physical configuration
(iv) Prevailing thermal conditions.
Since h' depends upon several factors, it wwww
is difficult to frame a single equation to
satisfy
all the variations, however, by dimensional
analysis an equation for the purpose can be (6) Equivalent circuit
obtained. Fig. 1.9. Convective heat-transfer
The mechanisms of convection in which phase changes are involved lead to the importanyfield

ofboiling and condensation. Refer Fig. 1.9 (b). The quantity Q= /hA)" .Eqn (1.6)
called convection thermal resistance (1/hA)
[(Rhcony ] to heat flow.
Example 14. A hot plate Imx 1.5 m is
maintained at 300°C. Air at 20°C blows over ine
f the convective heat transfer
coefficient is
P'
20W/m2°C, calculate the rate of heat iranser.