ME 2251

HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER

1
 CONTENT OF SYLLABUS

Unit-I Conduction

Unit II Convection

Unit III Phase Change Heat transfer and Heat Exchanger

Unit IV Radiation

Unit V Mass Transfer

2
TEXT BOOKS:

• Sachdeva, R.C., “Fundamentals of Engineering Heat and Mass Transfer”, New

Age International, 1995.

• Incropera, F.P. and DeWitt, D.P., “Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer”,
John Wiley and Sons, 1998

REFERENCES:
• Yadav, R., “Heat and Mass Transfer” Central Publishing House, 1995.

• Ozisik, M.N., “Heat Transfer”, McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1994.

• Kothandaraman, C.P., “Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer” New Age

International, 1998.

• Yunus .A.Cengel, “Heat transfer – A practical approach”

3
UNIT I: CONDUCTION

Basic Concepts - Mechanism of Heat Transfer - Conduction,

Convection and Radiation - General Differential equation of Heat
Conduction - Fourier Law of Conduction - Cartesian and Cylindrical
Coordinates - One Dimensional Steady State Heat Conduction -
Conduction through Plane Wall, Cylinders and Spherical System-
Composite Systems - Conduction with Internal Heat Generation -
Extended Surfaces - Unsteady Heat Conduction - Lumped Analysis -
Use of Heislers Chart.

4
 Thermodynamics Vs Heat Transfer

• Thermodynamics
Thermodynamics is concerned with the amount of heat transfer as a system
undergoes a process from one equilibrium state to another, and it gives no
indication about the time taken.

• Heat Transfer
Heat is the inferior form of energy that can be transferred from one system to
another as a result of temperature difference. The science that deals with the
determination of the rates of such energy transfers is heat transfer.

Modes of Heat Transfer:

• Conduction
• Convection
• Radiation

5
Conduction :
In general, Conduction is the transfer of energy from the more energetic particles of
a substance to the adjacent less energetic ones as a result of interactions between the
particles.
Conduction is the mode of heat transfer from a region of high temperature to a
region of low temperature within a solid medium.

Convection:

Convection is the mode of heat transfer between a solid surface and the adjacent
liquid or gas that is in motion.

Radiation:

Heat transfer from one body to another without any transmitting medium is known
as radiation. It is an electromagnetic wave phenomenon.

6
Fourier law of Heat Conduction:

Heat conduction rate is proportional to the area measured normal to the direction
of heat flow and the temperature gradient in that direction.
dT
Q A
dx
dT k - Thermal conductivity of the material
Q   kA A - Area normal to heat transfer
dx
dT
- Temperature gradient
dx
Newton law of Heat Convection:

Heat transfer rate is directly proportional to area exposed for heat transfer and
temperature difference.

Q α A ∆T
h - Convective Heat transfer co-efficient
Q = h A ∆T A - Area Exposed for Convection
∆T - Temperature difference
7
Stefan Boltzmann law of Radiation:

The radiation energy emitted by a body is proportional to the fourth power of its
absolute temperature.
Q α T4
σ - Stefan Boltzmann constant
Q = σ ε A (T1 – T2 )
4 4
ε - Shape factor for the radiating surface
A - Area of t
T1 , T2 - Temperature at the surface 1 and 2

Mechanisms of Heat transfer:

• Heat conduction mechanism:
(a) By molecular interaction
(b) Drift of Free electrons

• Convection mechanism
(a) Free convection
(b) Forced convection

• Radiation
8
Electro magnetic wave phenomenon
Comparison between the various modes of Heat transfer :

Conduction Convection Radiation

Medium Between the solid Between solid & fluid Without any
medium (or) medium
Between fluid
Governing Law Fourier law Newton’s law of Stefan Boltzmann
cooling law

Driving force Temperature gradient Temperature difference Temperature

difference

Mechanism i. By molecular i. Free convection Electro magnetic

interaction wave phenomenon

ii. By drift of free ii. Forced convection

electrons

9
 Three Dimensional Heat Conduction Equation in Cartesian coordinates

Let,
dx, dy & dz - sides of the small element ABCDEFGH
in x, y & z direction respectively.
V - Volume of the element = dx dy dz
q - Heat transfer rate per unit area = Q/A
.
q - Heat generated per unit time per unit volume

Qx , Qy , Qz - Heat conducted into the element in x, y & z

direction respectively
Qx+dx , Qy+dy , Qz+dz - Heat conducted out of the element in x, y & z direction

Applying First law of Thermodynamics and Energy Balance to the element,

Energy input = Energy output
Heat input = Increase in internal energy + Work done
Net Heat Internal heat Increase in Work done by
conducted + generated per = internal energy + element per unit
into the element unit time per unit time time 10 (A)
(I) (II) (III) (IV)
 I. Net Heat conducted into the element :

Net Heat Net Heat Net Heat Net Heat

conducted into the = conducted in + conducted in + conducted in
element x -direction y-direction z -direction

Net Heat conducted of the element (ABCDEFGH) in X-direction = Qx – Qx+dx

Qx – Rate of heat into the element through the face ABCD
Qx+dx – Rate of heat out of the element through face EFGH
According to Fourier Law,
T
Qx  k x dydz
x

Q x  dx  Q x  Qx dx
x
T   T 
 k x dydz    k x dydz  dx
x x  x 

T   T 
 k x dydz  kx dxdydz
x x  x 
11
 (1)

Similarly,
Net Heat conducted of the element (ABCDEFGH) in Y -direction = Q y – Qy+dy
T  T   T  
Q y  Q y  dy   k y dxdz   k y dxdz   k y dxdz dy 
y  y y  y  
  T 
Q y  Q y dy   k y dxdzdy (2)
y  y 
Net Heat conducted of the element ABCDEFGH in Z -direction = Q z – Qz+dz
T  T   T  
Q z  Q z dz   k z dxdy   k z dxdy   k z dxdy dz 
z  z z  z  
  T 
Q z  Q z dz   kz dxdzdy (3)
z  z  12
I. Net Heat conducted into the element = (1) + (2) + (3)
  T    T    T 
 k
 x  dxdzdy   k y  dxdzdy   kz dxdzdy
x  x  y  y  z  z 
   T    T    T 
   kx   ky    kz  dxdzdy
 x  x  y  y  z  z 
II. Internal heat generated per unit time:
Q  Volumetric heat generation per unit time  Volume of the element
.
Q  q dxdzdy
III. Increase in internal energy per unit time:

IV. Work done

Work done by the element = 0 13
Values of (I),(II),(III) & (IV) in equ.(A)

Divide the above equation by “dx dy dz”

  T    T    T  . T
k
 x    k y   k
 z   q  C p
x  x  y  y  z  z  t
Considering the material is isotropic. So, k = kx = ky = kz

  2T  2T  2T  . T
 2   2 
k  q   C p
  x y 2
z  t
Divide by “k”
.
 T  T  T q C p T
2 2 2
 2  2  
x 2
y z k k t  k 
Thermal diffusivity   
.
  C 
p
 T  T  T q 1 T
2 2 2
   
x 2 y 2 z 2 k  t
14
The above equation is known as “Three Dimensional Heat conduction equation”
Case (i) : No heat sources
(Three Dimensional heat conduction equation without internal heat generation)
 2T  2T  2T 1 T
 2  2 
x 2
y  z  t
This equation is known as Fourier equation (or) Diffusion equation
Case (ii) : Steady state condition
(Three Dimensional steady state heat conduction equation with internal heat generation)
.
T T T q
2 2 2
 2  2  0
x 2
y  z k
.
q
 2T  0
k
This equation is known as Possion equation
Case (iii) : Three Dimensional steady state heat conduction equation without internal heat
generation
 2T  2T  2T
 2  2 0
x 2
y  z
15
This equation is known as Lap place equation
Case (iv) : Two dimensional steady state heat conduction equation without internal heat
generation
 2T  2T
 2 0
x 2
y

Case (v) : One dimensional steady state heat conduction equation without internal heat
generation
 2T
2
0
x

16
 ONE DIMENSIONAL HEAT CONDUCTION
Temperature Distribution and Heat transfer rate for slab or plane wall:

Temperature Distribution:
We know that,
Three dimensional heat conduction
equation is
.
 T  T  T q 1 T
2 2 2
 2  2  
x 2
y  z k  t
x=0 x=L Based on the assumption the equation
Assumption:
reduces to
• Plane wall Material having uniform thermal
 2T
conductivity 2
0
x
• Heat conduction occurs in only one On integration,
direction (i.e.) x –direction only T
 C1
x
•Heat conduction rate is uniform T  C1 x  C2
(1)
17
•With out internal heat generation
Boundary conditions: Substitute C1 and C2 value in equation (1)
(i) x=0 @ T=T1 ;
T  T1 
(ii) x=L @ T=T2 T   2  x  T1
 L 
T  C1x  C2 T  T1 
T  T1   2
(1)
x
 L 
Apply First boundary condition in equ (1)
T  T1 x
T1  C1 (0)  C2  (2)
T2  T1 L
C2  T1 The above equation is Temperature
distribution in Plane wall
Apply Second boundary condition in equ (1)
Heat transfer rate:
T2  C1 ( L)  C2
According to Fourier law
T2  C1 ( L)  T1 T
Q   kA
T  T1 x
C1  2 Rearrange and applying limit for integration
L L T2
 Qdx   kA  dT
0 T1 18
 L T2
Note:
 Qdx   kA  dT
0 T1
1. Heat flux:
On Integration: Heat transfer rate per unit area is
known as Heat flux. It is denoted by q.
QL   kAT2  T1 
Q
q
 kAT2 T 1  A
Q
L Unit : W/m2

kAT1  T2  It is also written as

Q (3)
L k T1  T2 
q
The equ.(3) gives the Heat transfer rate L
through plane wall with the thickness of
“L”

19
1. Determine the Heat transfer rate through the plane of length 6 m, height 4 m and
thickness 0.30m. The temperature of inner and outer surfaces are 100° C and 40° C.
Thermal conductivity of wall is 0.55W/mK.

Given:
Inner surface Temperature, T1 = 100° C 4m
=100+ 273 = 373 K
Outer surface Température, T2 = 40° C
=40 + 273 = 313 K

6m
Thickness (Heat transferring length), L = 0.30 m
Thermal conductivity, k = 0.55 W/mK
L
Solution:
kAT1  T2 
Heat transfer rate Q 
L
Area normal to Heat transfer , A = 6 x 4 = 24 m 2

0.55  24  (373  313)

Q
0 .3
Q  2640 W
20
2. A stainless steel plate 2cm thick is maintained at a temperature of 550 0C at one face
and 500C on the other. The thermal conductivity of stainless steel is 19.1 W/mK. Compute
the heat transfer rate per unit area through the material.

Given Data:
Thickness L = 2 cm = 0.02m
Temperatures,
T1 = 5500C
= 550+273= 823 K
T2 = 500C
= 50+273= 298 K L
Thermal Conductivity k = 19.1 W/mK

Solution:
Q k T1  T2 
Heat transfer per unit area (or) Heat flux q  
A L
19.1 (823  298)
q
0.02
Q
q  447.5 W m 2
A
21
Electrical Analogy:
Heat transfer is similar to Electrical energy transfer. Therefore, equivalent electrical
parameters are found as follows:
For Conduction Heat transfer For Convection Heat transfer
According to Fourier law,
According to Newton law,
kAT1  T2 
Q Q = h A ∆T
L
T1  T2   T T T
Q Rth Q 
L 1 RConv
Where kA hA
ΔT = T1 – T2 = Temperature difference 1
L R conv   Convection Resistance
R th   Thermal Resistance hA
kA
Similar parameters are shown in table:
Heat flow Current flow
Temperature Difference Potential Difference (Voltage)
Heat energy transferred Electrical energy transferred
Thermal Resistance Electrical Resistance 22
 Equivalent Resistance for Composite System
2. Parallel Connection:
1. Series Connection:
When the walls of two or more than
When the walls of two or more than two
two different materials connected in
different materials connected in series.
parallel.
Then, Equivalence Resistance
Then, Equivalence Resistance
1 1 1 1 1
    ...... 
Requ = R1+R2+R3+……..+Rn. Requ R1 R2 R3 Rn
1
Example : Requ 
1 1 1 1
   ...... 
Equivalent electrical circuit R1 R2 R3 Rn
Example :
T1 T2 T3 Equivalent electrical circuit
R1 R2
k1 T2
T1
Equivalence Resistance
Requ = R1+R2 k2
Equivalence Resistance
1 1 1
L1 L2 L  
R1  ; R2  Requ R1 R2 23
k1 A1 k 2 A2
3. A wall of 0.6 m thickness having thermal conductivity of 1.2 W/mK. The wall is to be
insulated with a material having an average thermal conductivity of 0.3 W/mK. Inner
and outer surface temperatures are 1000° C and 100C respectively. If heat transfer rate is
1400W/m2 calculate the thickness of insulation.

Given:
Thickness of wall, L = 0.6 m
Thermal conductivity
of wall, k1= 1.2 W/mK
Thermal conductivity of
insulation, k2 = 0.3 W/mK
Inner surface
Temperature, T1= 1000° C
= 1000 + 273 = 1273 K
Outer surface
Temperature, T3 = 10° C
= 10+ 273 = 283 K
Heat transfer per unit area, Q/A = 1400 W/m2

To find:
Thickness of insulation (L2)

24
 Equivalent electrical circuit:

T1 T2 T3

R1 R2

From HMT Data book (C. P

Kothandaraman) page no. -43 (Sixth
edition)
T overall
Q
Requ

Requ = R1+R2
L2 = 0.0621 m
L L2
R1  1 ; R2 
k1 A1 k 2 A2
Thickness of Insulation L2 =0.0621 m

25
4. The wall of a cold room is composed of three layers. The outer layer is brick 30 cm
thick. The middle layer is cork 20 cm thick, the inside layer is cement 15 cm thick. The
temperature of the outside air is 250 C and on the inside air is -200 C. The film coefficient
for outside air and brick is 55.4 W/m2 K. Film co-efficient for inside air and cement is
17W/m2K. Find the heat flow rate.
Take, k for brick = 2.5 W/mK; k for cork = 0.05 W/mK; k for cement = 0.28W/mK

Given:

Thickness of brick, L3 = 30 cm = 0.3 m

Thickness of cork, L2 = 20 cm = 0.2 m
Thickness of cement, L1= 15cm = 0.15 m
Inside air temperature, Ta = -200 C
= -20+ 273 = 253 K
Outside air temperature, Tb = 250 C
= 25+ 273 = 298 K
Film co-efficient for inner side, ha = 17W/m2K
Film co-efficient for outside, hb = 55.4 W/m2K
kbrick = k3 = 2.5 W/mK To find:
kcork = k2 = 0.05 W/mK Heat flow rate (Q/A)
kcement =k1 = 0.28 W/mK 26
Solution: 1  1 L1 L2 L3 1 
Requ       
A  ha k1 k 2 k3 hb 
From HMT Data book page No.43
Heat flow through composite wall is given by Sub. ΔT and Requ values in equ.(1)

T overall Ta  Tb
Q Q
(1) 1 1 L L L 1 
Requ   1 2  3 
A  ha k1 k 2 k3 hb 
(ΔT) overall = Ta - Tb
Q Ta  Tb

Equivalent electrical circuit A  1 L L L 1 
  1 2  3 
Ta Tb  ha k1 k 2 k3 hb 
Q 253  298
Ra R1 R2 R3 Rb 
A  1 0.05 0 .1 0 .2 1 
     
Requ  Ra  R1  R2  R3  Rb  17 0 . 294 0 . 043 3 . 45 45 

1 L L L 1 Q
Requ   1  2  3   9.5 W/m 2
ha Aa k1 A1 k 2 A2 k3 A3 hb Ab A
The negative sign indicates that the heat flows
A=Aa=A1=A2=A3=Ab from the outside Into the cold room.
27
5. A furnace wall is made up of three layers, inside layer with thermal conductivity
8.5W/mK, the middle layer with conductivity 0.25 W/mK, the outer layer with
conductivity 0.08 W/mK; The respective thickness of the inner, middle and outer layers
are 25 cm, 5cm, and 3 cm respectively. The inside and outside wall temperatures are
6000C and 500C respectively. Draw the equivalent electrical circuit for conduction of heat
through the wall and find thermal resistance, heat flow/m 2 and interface temperatures.
Given:
Thermal conductivity of inner layer, k1= 8.5 W/mK
Thermal conductivity of middle layer, k2 = 6.25 W/mK.
Thermal conductivity of outer layer, k3 = 0.08 W/mK
Inner thickness, L1= 25 cm = 0.25 m
Middle layer thickness, L2 = 5 cm =, 0.05 m
Outer layer thickness, L3 = 3 cm = 0.03 m
Inside wall temperature, T1 = 6000 C + 273 = 873 K
Outside wall temperature, T4 = 500 C + 273 = 323 K
To find:
1. Equivalent electrical circuit
2. Heat flow per m2
3. Thermal resistance
4. Interface temperatures
28
Solution:
1  L1 L2 L3 
Requ     
1.Equivalent electrical circuit: A  k1 k 2 k3 
Sub. ΔT and Requ values in equ.(1)
T1
T4 T1  T4
Q
R1 R2 R3 1  L1 L2 L3 
   
A  k1 k 2 k3 
2.Heat flow through composite wall :
Q T1  T4

From HMT Data book page No.43 A  L1 L2 L3 
Heat flow through composite wall is given by    
 k1 k 2 k3 
T overall Q 873  323
Q (1) 
Requ A  0.25 0.05 0.03 
   
(ΔT) overall = T1 - T4  8.5 0.25 0.08 

Requ  R1  R2  R3 Q
 909.97 W/m 2
L1 L2 L3 A
Requ   
k1 A1 k 2 A2 k3 A3
A=A1=A2=A3 29
3) Thermal Resistance Q T1  T2

A  L1 
 
L1 L2 L3  k1 
Requ   
k1 k 2 k3 873  T2
909.97 
0.25 0.05 0.03  0.25 
Requ     
8.5 0.25 0.08  8.5 
T2=846.23 K
Requ= 0.604 K/W
Similarly T2  T3
Q
4) Interface temperatures R2
T1  T4 T1  T2 T2  T3 T3  T4
Q    T2  T3 Q T2  T3
Requ R1 R2 R3 Q 
 L2  A  L2 
   
T1  T2  k2 A   k2 
Q
R1 846.23  T3
909.97 
T1  T2  0.05 
Q  
 L1   0.25 
 
 k1 A  T3=846.23 K 30
6. Composite slab is made of three layers 15 cm, 10 cm and 12 cm thickness respectively.
The first layer is made of material with k = 1.45 W/mK, for 60% of the area and the rest
of material with k = 2.5 W/mK. The second layer is made of material with k = 12.5 W/mK
for 50% of area and rest of material with k = 18.5 W/mK. The third layer is made of
single material of k = 0.76 W/mK. The composite slab is exposed on one side to warm at
260 C and cold air at -200 C. The inside heat transfer co-efficient is 15 W/m2K. The outside
heat transfer co-efficient is 20 W/m2K. Determine heat flow rate and interface
temperatures.

Given: To find:
(i) Heat flow rate (Q)
L1 = 15 cm = 0.15 m
(ii) Interface temperatures
L2 = 10 cm = 0.1 m
L3 = 12 cm = 0.12 m Solution:
k1a = 1.45 W/mK, A1a =0 .60
k1b = 2.5 W/mK, A1b =0.40
k2a = 12.5 W/mK, A2a = 0.50
k2b = 18.5 W/mK, A2b =0.50
k3 = 0.76 W/mK
Ta = 260 C + 273 = 299 K
Tb = -200 C + 273 = 253 K 31
h = 15 W/m2K
Equivalent electrical circuit:

R1a R2a

Ra R3 Rb
R1b R2b
1.Heat transfer rate:
Equivalent of Ra1 and Ra2:
1 1 1
 
R1 R1a R1b
R1a R1b
R1 
R1a  R1b

32
Equivalent of Rb1 and Rb2:
1 1 1
 
R2 R2 a R2b

Circuit reduces to:

Ra R1 R2 R3 Rb

33
 Interface Temperatures:
L3 0.12
R3  
k3 A3 0.76  1 T T T T T T T T T T T T
Q a b  a 1  1 2  2 3  3 4  4 b
R equ Ra R1 R2 R3 Rb
R3  0.15789 K/W
1

1 Ta  T1
Rb  Q
kb Ab 1 20 Ra
299  T1
Rb  0.05 K/W 127.67 
0.066
Ta  Tb
Q T1  290.57 K
Ra  R1  R2  R3  Rb
T1  T2
Q
299  253 R1
Q
0.066  0.08  0.0064  0.15789  0.066
290.57  T2
127.67 
0.08
Q  127.67 W
T1  280.35 K

34
 T2  T3
Q
R2
280.35  T3
127.67 
0.0064

T1  279.53 K
T T
Q 3 4
R3
279.53  T4
127.67 
0.15789

T1  259.37 K

Result:
(i) Heat flow rate, Q = 127.67 W
(ii) Interface temperatures
T1 = 290.57 K
T2 = 280.35 K
T3 = 279.532 K
T4 = 259.374 K 35
General Heat Conduction equation in Cylindrical coordinates

Let,
Element of sides dr, dФ and dz in r, Ф & z direction
respectively

volume of the element dv = r dФ dr dz

q – Heat flux = Q/A

.
q - Heat generated per unit time per unit volume

Qr , QФ , Qz - Heat conducted into the element in r, Ф,& z

direction respectively
Qr+dr , Q Ф +d Ф , Qz+dz - Heat conducted out of the
element in r, Ф & z direction

36
Applying First law of Thermodynamics and Energy Balance to the element,
Energy input = Energy output
Heat input = Increase in internal energy + Work done
Net Heat Internal heat Increase in Work done by
+ = internal energy +
conducted generated per element per
into the element unit time per unit time unit time

(I) (II) (III) (IV)

I. Net Heat Net Heat Net Heat Net Heat

conducted into the = conducted in + + conducted in
conducted in
element r -direction Ф -direction z -direction

Net Heat conducted of the element in r -direction = Q r – Qr+dr

According to Fourier law,

T
Qr  k r d dz 
r
37
 
Qr  dr  Qr  Qr dr
r

 k r d dz  T   
  k r d dz  T 
 dr
r r  r 

Qr  Qr  dr  k r d dz  T   k r d dz  T   
 k r d dz  T  
 dr 
r  r r  r  

T T   T 
 k r d dz   k r d dz   k r d dz   dr
r r r  r 

  T 
Qr  Qr  dr   k r d dz   dr
r  r 

  2T T 
 k dr d dz r. 2  .1
 r r 

  2T T 1 
Qr  Qr  dr  k r dr d dz   . 
 r 2 r r 
 38
Net Heat conducted of the element in Ф-direction = QФ – QФ +d Ф
According to Fourier law,

Q   k dr dz  T
r

Q  d  Q  Q rd
r
 T 
  k dr dz  T 

  k dr dz   r d
r r  r 
T  T   T  
Q  Q  d   k  dr dz    k dr dz   k  dr dz  r  rd 
r  r r   
 T 
 k  dr dz  T  k dr dz  T 

 k  dr dz   rd 
r r r  r 
  T 
Q  Q  d  k  dr dz  rd 
r  r 
 2T 
1 
Q  Q  d  k   rdr dzd
 r 2  2 
  39
Similarly,
Net Heat conducted of the element in z -direction =Q z – Qz+dz

T  T   T  
Qz  Qz  dz  k  r dφ dφ   k rd  dr   k  rd  dr   dz 
z  z z  z  

 2T
Qz  Qz  dz  krd  drdz
z 2
I. Net Heat conducted into the element = (1) + (2) + (3)

  2T T 1   2T  2T
1  
 k r dr d dz   .   k  rdr dzd  krd  drdz
 r 2 r r   r 2  2   z 2
 
II. Internal heat generated per unit time:
Q  Volumetric heat generation per unit time  Volume of the element
.
Qq rd drdz 
40
III. Increase in internal energy per unit time:

T
 m Cp
t

T
 ρrdφdrdz C p
t
IV. Work done
Work done by the element = 0

Values of (I),(II),(III) & (IV) in equ.(A)

  2T T 1   2T  2T .
1   T
k r dr d dz   .   k  rdr dzd  krd  drdz  q (rd drdz )   (rd drdz )C p
 r 2 r r   r 2  2   z 2 t
 
Divide by "k r dr dφ dz"
.
  2T T 1   1  2T   2T q C p T
  .    
 r 2 r r   2 2  2 k k t 41
 r   z
 .
  2T T 1   1  2T   2T q C p T
  .    
 r 2 r r   2 2  2 k k t
 r   z

 k 
Thermal diffusivity   
  C 
p

.
2
 T 1 T 2 2
1  T  T q 1 T
 . .   
r 2 r r 2
r  2 z 2 k  t

The above equation is known as “Three Dimensional Heat conduction equation in

cylindrical coordinates”

42
 Temperature Distribution and Heat transfer rate for Hollow Cylinder
Let,
r1-Inner radius of Hollow cylinder
r2- Outer radius of Hollow cylinder
T1 -Inner temperature
T2 -Outer temperature
k – thermal conductivity
dr-elemental area of thickness
Temperature Distribution:
We know that,
Assumption:
Three dimensional heat conduction equation
in cylindrical coordinate is
• Cylinder wall Material having uniform .
2
 T 1 T 2 2
1  T  T q 1 T
thermal conductivity.  . .   
r 2 r r 2
r  2 z 2 k  t
• Heat conduction occurs in only one
direction (i.e.) r –direction only Based on the assumption the equation reduces to

•Heat conduction rate is uniform  2T 1 T

 . 0
r 2 r r
43
•With out internal heat generation
 Apply First boundary condition in equ (1)
 2T 1 T
 . 0 (2)
r 2 r r
Apply second boundary condition in equ (1)
1   T 
.  kr 0 (3)
r r  r 
Equ.(3) – Equ(2) gives
On integration,
T C1 kT2  kT1  C1 ln r2  C1 ln r1
k 
r r
kT  C1 ln r  C2 (1)

Boundary conditions:
Substituting C1 Value in equ.(2)
(i) r = r1 @ T=T1
(ii) r = r2 @ T=T2

44
Substitute C1 and C2 value in equation (1) Heat transfer rate:
From Fourier law of conduction

we know that,
dT
Divide the above equation by “k” Q   kA
dr
Area of a cylinder A = 2πrL
dT
Q   k 2rL 
dr
dr
Q   k 2L dT
r
On integration,

dr
r2 T
Q    k 2L   dT
2

r r1
T 1

Qln r r   k 2LT T
r2 T2
1 1

45
Qln r2  ln r1    k 2LT2  T1  From Equ.(4) and (5)
 r2  Temperature Difference T  T1  T2
Q ln   k 2LT1  T2 
 r1  1  r2 
Thermal Resistance R ln 
2kL  r1 
2kLT1  T2 
Q
 r2 
ln 
 r1 

Electrical Analogy:
T1  T2
Q (4)
1  r2 
ln 
2kL  r1 

T (5)
Q
R 46
7. A hollow cylinder 5 cm inner radius and 10 cm outer radius has inner surface
temperature of 2000 C and outer surface temperature of 1000 C. If the thermal
conductivity is 70 W/mK, find heat transfer per unit length.
Given: 2kLT1  T2 
Q
Inner radius, rl = 5 cm= 0.05 m r 
Outer radius, r2 = 10 cm = 0.1 m ln 2 
 r1 
Inner surface temperature,
T I = 200 + 273 = 473 K Q 2k T1  T2 

Outer surface temperature, L r 
ln 2 
T2 = 100 + 273 = 373 K
 r1 
Thermal conductivity, k = 70 W/mK
Solution: Q 2  70473  373
HMT data book page no.43 
L  0.1 
ln 
Heat transfer through hollow cylinder is T  0.05 
given by Q
R
where T  T1  T2 Q
 63453.04 W/m
L
1 r 
R ln 2 
2kL  r1  47
 From Data book pg.no:43
Heat Transfer Through Coaxial cylinders:
T overall
Q
Requ
Toverall  Ta  Tb
Requ  Rconv1  R1  R2  Rconv 2

Ta  Tb
Q
1  1 lnr2 r1  lnr3 r2  1 
  
2L  ha r1 k1 k2 hb r3 
Also,
Q  UAT overall

U – Overall Heat transfer coefficient

Q  U i Ai T overall  U o Ao T overall

Ui, Uo – Overall Heat transfer coefficient

based on Inside and Outside area

48
8. A pipe carrying steam at 230°C has an internal diameter of 12 cm and the pipe
thickness is 7.5 mm. The conductivity of the pipe material is 49 W/mK the convective
heat transfer coefficient on the inside is 85 W/m2K. The pipe is insulated by two layers of
insulation one of 5 cm thickness of conductivity 0.15 W/mK and over it another 5 cm
thickness of conductivity 0.48 W/mK. The outside is exposed to air at 35°C with a
convection coefficient of 18 W/m2K. Determine the heat loss for 5 m length. Also
determine the interface temperatures and the overall heat transfer coefficient based on
inside and outside areas.
Given: Solution:
Temperature of steam inside the pipeT ∞1=2300C
Internal diameter of the steam pipe d1=12cm=0.12m
Thickness of the pipe = 7.5 mm=0.0075m
Conductivity of the pipe material = 49 W/mK
Outside convective heat transfer coefficient =85W/m 2K
Thickness of first insulation layer = 5cm=0.05m
Conductivity of first insulation layer = 0.15W/mK
Thickness of second insulation layer = 5cm=0.05m
Conductivity of first insulation layer = 0.48 W/mK
Outside air temperature T ∞2=350C
Outside convective heat transfer coefficient = 18W/m 2K
Length of the pipe = 5m
49
Equivalent Electrical circuit:

T overall
Q
Requ

T1  T 2
Q
1  1 ln r2 r1  ln r3 r2  ln r4 r3  1 
    
2L  h1r1 k1 k2 k3 h2 r4 
235  35

1  1 ln0.0675 0.06 ln0.1175 0.0675 ln0.1675 0.1175 1 
   
2  5 85  0.06 49 0.15 0.48 18  0.1675

195

0.158

Q  1234.06 W
50
Interface Temperatures:
FindingT1:
T T
Q  1 1
1
2h1r1 L

Finding T2:
T1  T2
Q
1 r 
ln 2 
2k1 L  r1 

222.3  T2
1234.06 
1  0.0675 
ln  
2  49  5  0.06 

51
Finding T3:
T2  T3
Q
1 r 
ln  3 
2k 2 L  r2 

222.2  T3
1234.06 
1  0.1175 
ln 
2  0.15  5  0.0675 

Finding T4:
T3  T4
Q
1 r 
ln 4 
2k3 L  r3 

77.04  T4
1234.06 
1  0.1675 
ln 
2  0.48  5  0.1175 

52
9. A composite cylinder is made of 6 mm thick layers each of two materials of thermal
conductivities of 30 W/m°C and 45 W/m°C. The inside is exposed to a fluid at 500°C with
a convection coefficient of 40 W/m2 °C and the outside is exposed to air at 35°C with a
convection coefficient of 25 W/m2K. There is a contact resistance of 1 × 10–3 m2 °C/W
between the layers. Determine the heat loss for a length of 2 m and the surface
temperatures. Inside dia = 20 mm

Solution: Equivalent Electrical circuit:

Adding the contact resistances, contact resistance

has to be for the area encountered.
The area = 2π × 0.016 × 2 m2

53
 T1  T 2
Q
Rc1  R1  Rcontact  R2  Rc 2

Q = 1327 W
Overall heat transfer coefficient:

Based on inside area hi= Q/ΔT Ai

1327

(500  35)(2  0.01 2)

hi = 22.7 W/m2K
54
Based on outside area h0= Q/ΔT Ao Finding T2:
T1  T2
1327 Q
 1 r 
(500  35)(2  0.022  2) ln 2 
2k1 L  r1 

h0= 16.52 W/m2K 236  T

1327  2
 0.016 
Interface Temperatures : ln 
 0.01 
FindingT1: 2  30  2

T1  T1
Q
1 Finding T21
2h1r1 L
500  T1
1327 
 1 
 
 2  0.01 40  2 
1327

55
 Finding T3 :

227.75  T
1327  3
  0.022  
 ln 
  0.016 
 2  45  2 
 
 

56
 Temperature Distribution and Heat transfer rate for Hollow Sphere
Let,
rl -hollow sphere of inner radius
r2- outer radius
T1- inner temperature
T2 outer temperature
k – thermal conductivity
dr-elemental area of thickness
We know that,
Three dimensional heat conduction equation
Assumption: in cylindrical coordinate is
• Sphere wall Material having uniform .
1   2 T  1   2T  1  T  q 1  T 
thermal conductivity r   2 2  2   2  sin      
r r  r  r sin     r sin   
2
  k   t 

• Heat conduction occurs in only one

direction (i.e.) r –direction only Based on the assumption the equation reduces
to
•Heat conduction rate is uniform 1   2 T 
r 0
r 2 r  r 
•With out internal heat generation 57
 Applying Second boundary condition in
1   2 T  Equ(A)
r 0
r 2 r  r  (C)

On Integration, Equ (B)-Equ(C)

Apply C1value in Equ (B)

(A)

Boundary Conditions:
(i) r = r1, T = T1
(ii) r = r2, T = T2 Apply C1 and C2value in Equ (A)
Applying first boundary condition in
Equ(A)
(B)

58
 Heat transfer rate:

we know that,
dT
Q   kA
dr
Area of a cylinder A = 4πr2

Q   k 4r 2 
dT
dr
dr
Q 2
  k 4 dT
r
On integration,
This above equation is the required r2dr T
Q  2  4k  dT
2

temperature distribution equation for

r r T
hollow sphere 1 1

r2
 1
Q     4k T T
T 2

 r r 1
1

59
 Electrical Analogy:
r2
 1
Q     4k T T T1  T2
T
Q (4)
2

 r r 1
1

1  r2  r1 
 1 1 4k  r1r2 
Q      4k T2  T1 
 r2 r1 
T
 r  r1 
Q (5)
Q 2  4k T2  T1  R

 r1r2 
 4k T2  T1  Comparing Equ.(4) and (5)
Q
 r2  r1 
 rr  Temperature Difference T  T1  T2
 12 
Thermal Resistance 1  r2  r1 
T1  T2 R  
Q 4k  r1r2 
1  r2  r1 
4k  r1r2 

60
10. A spherical vessel of internal diameter 0.3 m and thickness of 20mm is made of steel
with conductivity of 40 W/mk. The vessel is insulated with two layers of 60 mm thickness
of conductivity 0.05 and 0.15 W/mK. The inside surface is at -196 0C. The outside is
exposed to air at 300C with convection coefficient of 35 W/m2K. There is a contact
resistance of 1x103 m2 0C/W between the two insulations. Determine the heat gain
and also the surface temperatures and the overall heat transfer coefficient based on the
outside surface area of the metallic vessel.
Given:
Spherical vessel
Internal diameter = 0.3 m
Thickness = 20mm
Thermal conductivity of steel = 40 W/mK
Insulation layer thickness =60 mm
Thermal conductivity of
Insulation layer 1 = 0.05 W/mK
Thermal conductivity of
Insulation layer 2 = 0.15 W/mK
Inside surface temperature = -1960C
Outside temperature = 300C
Convection co-efficient = 35W/m2k
Contact resistance = 1 x10-3W/m2 0C 61
Solution:

Equivalent Electrical circuit:

(Note:
Here the inside surface temperature is specified. Hence there is no convective resistance
on the inside.)

62
The negative sign indicates the heat flow from outside to inside

63
Overall heat transfer coefficient based on the
Finding T4 :
outside area of the vessel

Q = UA ΔT

76.6 = U × 4π × 0.172 × (– 196 – 30)

U = 0.932 W/m2 K.

Interface temperatures:

Finding T3 :
Finding T4’

64
2. A steel tube with 5cm ID, 7.6cm OD and k = 15 W/m0C is covered with an insulative
covering of thickness 2cm and k = 0.2 W/m°C. A hot gas at 330°C with h = 400 W/m 20Cflows
inside the tube. The outer surface of the insulation is exposed to cooler air at 30°C with
h = 60W/m2 0C. Calculate the heat loss from the tube to the air for 10m of the tube and the
temperature drops resulting from the thermal resistances of the hot gas flow, the steel tube, the
insulation layer and the outside air.

65
Critical Radius of Insulation:
The radius of insulation for which the heat transfer
is maximum is called critical radius of insulation
and the corresponding thickness is called critical
thickness.
Consider a cylinder having thermal conductivity
k. Let r1 and ro inner and outer radii of insulation.

Ti  T
Q
 ro 
ln 
 r 
 1 
2kL

Considering, h be the outside heat transfer co-

efficient
Ti  T
Q
 ro 
ln 
 r 
 1   1
2kL Ao h
Ao  2ro L 66
 Ti  T Critical radius for cylinder
Q
 ro  k
ln
r   rc 
 1  1 h
2kL 2ro Lh
To find the critical radius of insulation,
differentiate Q with respect to r0 and equate it to
zero
 1 1 
0  Ti  T 
 2kLr  

dQ  2hLr02 
 0

dr0 1  r0  1
ln   
2kL  
 r1  2hLr0

Since Ti -T∞ ≠ 0
1 1
 0
2kLr0 2hLr02

k
r0   rC
h 67
11. A wire of 6 mm diameter with 2 mm thick insulation (K = 0.11 W/mK). If the
convective heat transfer co-efficient between the insulating surface and air is 25 W/m 2K,
find the critical thickness of insulation and also find the percentage of change in the heat
transfer rate if the critical radius is used.

Given:
d1 = 6 mm
r1= 3 mm = 0.003 m
r2 = r 1 + 2 = 3 + 2
Critical thickness, tc = rc - r1
= 5 mm
= 4.4 x 10-3 -
= 0.005 m
0.003
k=0.11 W/mK
= 1.4 mm
Critical thickness, tc = x 10-3 m
hb = 25 W/m2K
To find: 2. Percentage of increase in heat flow by
1. Critical thickness using critical radius
2. % of change in heat transfer Q2  Q1
  100
Solution: Q1
From eqn. no. (1.50) Where,
Q1 - Heat transfer through the wire at ro=r2
1. Critical radius: Q2 - Heat transfer through the wire at ro = rc
68
Heat transfer through an insulated wire is
given by at r0=r2

Percentage of increase in heat flow by using

critical radius

Heat transfer through an insulated wire is

given by at r0=rc

69
ONE DIMENSIONAL STEADY STATE HEAT CONDUCTION WITH INTERNAL
HEAT GENERATION:

Three Dimensional Heat conduction equation:

.
 T  T  T q 1 T
2 2 2
 2  2  
x 2
y z k  t
For One dimensional steady state with internal heat
generation condition the above equation reduces to
.
 T
2
q
 0
x 2
k
In many practical cases, there is a heat generation within the system.
Typical examples are,
1. Electric coils
2. Resistance heater
3. Nuclear reactor
4. Combustion of fuel in the fuel bed of boiler furnaces.
70
Plane wall with internal heat generation:
From Data book pg.no.47
Temp. at mid plane or axis
.
q 2
T0  Tw  L
2k
Temp. at distance x from mid plane,
.
q 2
Tx  T0  x
2k
Temperature distribution

Tx  T0
Tw  T0
 x
L
2
 
For Outside convection
.

Wall temperature T  T  qL
w 
h
Heat flow at plane x from centre,
.
qx  q x 71
12. An electric current is passed through a plane wall of thickness 150mm which
generates heat at the rate of 50,000 W/m3. The convective heat transfer co-efficient
between wall and ambient air is 65 W/m2K, ambient air temperature is 28°C and the
thermal conductivity of the wall material is 22 W/mK. Calculate
1. Surface temperature
2. Maximum temperature in the wall.

Given: Solution:
Thickness,2L = 150 mm = 0.150 m Surface temperature:
L= 0.15/2 m .

Heat generation, q = 50,000 W/m3 qL

Tw  T 
Convective heat transfer h
co-efficient, h = 65 W/m2K 50000  0.15 2 
Tw  301 
Ambient air temperature, T∞= 28° C 65
=28 + 273 = 301 K Tw  358.6 K
Thermal conductivity, k = 22 W/mK
Maximum temperature
To find: Maximum temperature occurs at mid plane
1. Surface temperature .
2. Maximum temperature in the wall. q 2
T0  Tw  L
2k
72
 .
q 2
Tmax  T0  Tw  L
2k

 358.6 
50000 0.15 2

2

2  22

73
13.An electric current is passed through a composite wall made up of two layers. First
layer is steel of 10 cm thickness and second layer is brass of 8 cm thickness. The outer
surface temperature of steel and brass are maintained at 120 0 C and 650 C respectively.
Assuming that the contact between two slab is perfect and the heat generation is
1,65,000W/m3
Determine:
1. Heat flux through the outer surface of brass slab
2. Interface temperature.
Take k for steel is 45 W/mK. K for brass is 80W/mK.
Given:
Thickness of steel, LI = 10 cm = 0.10 m
Thickness of brass, L2 = 8 cm = 0.08 m
Surface temperature of steel, T1 = 1200 C
=120+ 273 = 393 K
Outer surface temperature of brass, T3 = 650 C
=65+ 273 = 338 K
Heat generation, = 1,65,000 W/m3
Thermal conductivity of steel k 1 = 45 W/mK
Thermal
To find: conductivity of brass k2 = 80 W/mK
I) Heat flux through the surface of the brass
74
slab
Solution:
Let
q1- Heat flux through the surface of the steel slab.
q2 - Heat flux through the surface of the brass slab.

75
Heat transfer through steel, is given by

76
HEAT TRANSFER WITH EXTENDED SURFACES (FINS):
Convection is to be heat transferred between a fluid and a surface. In such cases the heat
flow depends on three factors namely
(i) Area of the surface
(ii) Temperature difference and
(iii) Convective heat transfer coefficient
Different Types of Fins:
(a) Longitudinal Fin of Rectangular Profile (c) Longitudinal Fin of Trapezoidal Profile

(d) Longitudinal Fin of Parabolic Profile

b) Cylindrical Tube with Fins of Rectangular
Profile

77
(e) Cylindrical Tube with Radial g) Cylindrical Pin Fin
Commonly there are three types
Fin of Rectangular Profile:
of fin:
1. Infinitely long fin
2. Short fin (end is insulated)
3. Short fin (end is not insulated)
(h) Truncated Conical
Spine
(f) Cylindrical Tube with
Radial Fin of Truncated
Conical Profile

(i) Parabolic Spine.

78
Temperature distribution and Heat dissipation in fin

A steady state conditions, heat balance equation for that

element is as follows.

Heat conducted Heat conducted Heat convected

=
into the element out of the element + to the element

Qx  Qx  dx  Qconv (1)

Where,
 dT 
Q   kA 
 dx 

Qx  dx  Qx  Qx dx
x
 dT    dT 
  kA     kA dx
 dx  x  dx 
 dT  d 2T
Qx  dx   kA   kA 2 dx
 dx  dx 79
   T  T
Substitute Qx and Qx+dx Value in equ (1) d dT

dx dx
d 2 d 2T
2
 2
dx dx

(2)

Equation (2) shows that the temperature is a

function of x and m. It is a second order, linear
differential equation. Its general solution is

(3)

This is the Required temperature distribution

for fin 80
Case (i): Infinitely long fin Substituting C2 = 0 value in equation (4)

Boundary conditions
(i) T = Tb at x = 0;
(ii) T = T∞ at x = ∞ :
Substituting CI and C2 value in equation (3)
(3)

Apply first boundary condition in equ. (3)

Where,
(4) T b - Base temperature, K
T∞ - Surrounding temperature, K
T - Intermediate temperature, K
x - Distance, m
81
Heat dissipation:
Heat dissipation through the fin is
obtained by integrating the heat lost by
convection over the entire fin surface.
We know that

82
Case (ii): Fin with insulated end (Short fin) Equ (3)
The fin has a finite length and the tip of
fin is insulated.
Boundary conditions Applying the second boundary condition,
i.e., at x= 0, T = Tb Equ (3)
(i)
(ii
)
w.k.t, Temperature Distribution for uniform
cross section
(3)

Apply first boundary condition in equ (3)

Substituting C2 value in equation(4)

(4)
83
 Multiplying the numerator and denominator by
emL in first term and e-mL in second term on
RHS

Substituting C1 and C2 value in equation (3)

e x  e x
cosh x  84
2
In terms of hyperbolic function it can be
written as

(4) Substitute dT/dx value in equ(5)

Equ (4) represents Temperature distribution

of fin with insulated end At x = 0,
Heat dissipation:
Heat transferred,

(5)

From equ (4)

85
Differentiating with respect to ‘x’
Case (iii): Fins with Convection off the End Apply first boundary condition in equ (3)

Heat conducted to the end is convected away

to the surrounding fluid
Apply Second boundary condition in equ (3)
Boundary conditions
(i)

(ii)

(or)

w.k.t, Temperature distribution

(3)

86
For rectangular section:

87
Fin efficiency

The efficiency of a fin is defined as the ratio of actual heat transferred fin to the
maximum possible heat transferred by the fin.
Q fin
 fin 
Qmax
Fin effectiveness

It is defined as the ratio of heat transfer with fin to heat transfer without fin.

Qwith fin
Fin Effectiveness  
Qwithout fin
Note:
Adding the fin is suggested when the effectiveness of the fin is greater than two.

88
14. Find the heat loss from a rod of 3 mm in diameter and infinitely Long when its base is
maintained at 140° C. The conductivity of the material is 150 W/mK and heat transfer
co-efficient on the surface of the rod is 300 W/m2K. The temperature of the air
surrounding the rod is 15° C.
Given:  
Fin diameter, d = 3 mm = 3 x 10-3 m Area A 
4
d2 
4
3  10 
3 2

Base temperature, Tb = 1400 C

=140+ 273 = 413 K
Surrounding Temperature, T∞= 150 C
Perimeter P  d    3  10
3
=15+ 273 = 288 K
Thermal conductivity, k = 150 W/mK P  9.42  10 3 m
Heat transfer co-efficient, h = 300 W/m2K
To find: Q  413  288 300  9.42  10 3  150  7.06  10 6
Heat loss (Q)
Q=6.838 W
Solution:
The rod is infinitely long. So, the heat loss is given
by
Q  Tb  T  hPkA
[Refer HMT data book page no.49 (Sixth edition)] 89
15. A Long rod 5 cm diameter its base is connected to a furnace wall at 150° C, while tile
end is projecting into tile room at 20° C. The temperature of tile rod at distance of 20 cm
apart from its base is 60° C Tile conductivity of the material is 200 W/mK. Determine
convective heat transfer co-efficient.
Given:
Diameter of the rod, d = 5 cm = 5 x 10-2 m
Base temperature, Tb = 150° C + 273 = 423 K
Surrounding Temperature, T∞= 20°C + 273 = 293 K
Distance, x = 20 cm = 0.2 m
Intermediate temperature,T = 60° C + 273 = 333 K
Thermal conductivity, k = 200 W/mK
To find:
Heat transfer co-efficient, h
Solution:
For long fin temperature distribution

[From HMT data book page no.49}

90
 [From HMT data book
page no.49]

A = 1.96 x 10-3 m2

91
16. One end of the long solid rod of 50 mm diameter is inserted into a furnace with the
other end is projecting the atmosphere at 25° C Once the steady state is reached, the
temperature of the rod is measured at two points 20 cm apart are found to be 150°C and
100° C The convective heat transfer co-efficient between the rod and the surrounding air
is 30 W/m2K. Calculate the thermal conductivity of the rod material.

Given:
Diameter of the rod, d = 50 mm = 0.050 m
Atmospheric temperature, T∞= 25°C
=25+ 273 = 298 K
Distance, x = 20 cm = 0.20 m
Base temperature, Tb = 150° C
=150 + 273 = 423 K
Intermediate temperature, T = 100° C
=100 + 273 = 373 K Solution:
Heat transfer co-efficient, h = 30 W/m2K. Since the rod is long, it is treated as long fin. So,
temperature distribution
To find : [From HMT data book
page no.49]
Thermal conductivity of the rod

92
 
Area A d2
4

 0.052
4
A  1.96  10 3 m 2

k =369.7 W/mK

Perimeter P  d    0.050
P  0.157m
93
17.An aluminium alloy fin of 7 mm thick and 50 mm long protrudes from a wall, which is
maintained at 1200 C The ambient air temperature is 22° C. The heat transfer coefficient
and conductivity of the fin material are 140 W/m2K and 55 W/mK respectively.
Determine
1. Temperature at the end of the fin.
2. Temperature at the middle of the fin.
3. Total heat dissipated by the fin.
Given: Solution:
Thickness, t = 7 mm = 0.007 m Since the length of the fin is 50 mm, it is
Length, L = 50 mm = 0.050 m treated as short fin. Assume end is insulated.
Base temperature, Tb = 120° C + 273 = 393 K
Ambient temperature, T∞ = 22° + 273 = 295 K We know that,
Temperature distribution
Heat transfer co-efficient, h = 140 W/m2K.
Thermal conductivity, k = 55 W/mK.

To find :
I. Temperature at the end of the fin. (From HMT data book page no. 49J
2. Temperature at the middle of the fin
3. Total heat dissipated by the fin

94
i) Temperature at the end of the fin
Put x = L

T  T 1

Tb  T cos h 26.9  0.050

T  T 1

Tb  T 2.05

T  295 1

393  295 2.05
T  295  47.8
T  342.8 K
Temperature at the end of the fin Tx=L=342.8K

A= 0.00035 m2 95
ii) Temperature at the middle of the fin iii) Total heat dissipated

Put x = L/2

[From HMT data book page no. 49]

Temperature at the middle of the fin

Tx=L/2 = 354.04 K 96
18. A rectangular aluminium fins of 0.5 mm square and 12 mm long are attached on a
plane plate which is maintained at 80° C. Surrounding air temperature is 22° C.
Calculate the number of fins required to generate 35 x 10 -3 W of heat. Take k = 165
W/mK and h = 10 W/m2 K. Assume no heat loss from the tip of the fin.

97
19. Ten thin brass fins (k = 100 W/mK), 0.75 mm thick are placed axially on a 1m long
and 60 mm diameter engine cylinder which is surrounded by 27 oC. The fins are
extended 1.5cm from the cylinder surface and the heat transfer co-efficient between
cylinder and atmospheric air is 15W/m2 K. Calculate the rate of heat transfer and the
temperature at the end of fins when the cylinder surface is at 160 0 C.

Given:
Number of fins = 10
Thermal conductivity, k = 100 W/mK
Thickness of the fin, t = 0.75 mm = 0.75 x 10 -3 m
Length of engine cylinder, Lcy = 1 m
Diameter of the cylinder, d = 60 mm = 0.060 m
Atmosphere temperature, T∞= 270 C + 273 = 300 K
Length of the fin, Lf= 1.5 cm = 1.5 x 10-2 m
Heat transfer co-efficient, h = 15 W/m2K.
Cylinder surface temperature
or
Base temperature, Tb = 1600 C + 273 = 433 K

98
To find:
1. Rate of heat transfer Q
2. Temperature at the end of the fin

Solution:
Length of the fin is 1.5 cm. So, this is short
fin. Assuming that the fin end is insulated.

[From HMT data book page no. 49]

where
P - Perimeter = 2 x Length of the cylinder
= 2 x 1 = 2m

A = Area Length of the cylinder x

Thickness
= 1 x 0.75 x 10-3
99
=0.75 x 10-3 m2
Heat transfer from unfinned surface due to
convection is

100
101
20.Circumferential rectangular fin of 140 mm wide, and 5 mm thick are fitted on a 200
mm diameter tube. The fin base temperature is 170° C and the ambient temperature is
25°C Estimate fin efficiency and heat loss per fin.
Take Thermal conductivity, k = 220 W/mK
Heat transfer co-efficient, h = 140 W/m2K
Given: Solution:
Wide, L= 140 mm = 0.140 m A rectangular fin is long and wide. So,
Thickness, t = 5 mm = 0.005 m heat loss is calculated by using fin
Diameter, d = 200 mm; r = 100 mm = 0.1 m efficiency curves.
Fin base temperature, Tb = 1700 C + 273 = 443 K
Ambient Temperature, T∞ = 250 C + 273 = 298 K [From HMT data book page no.50
Thermal conductivity, k = 220 W/mK. (Sixth edition)}
Heat transfer co-efficient, h = 140 W/m2K.

To find:
Corrected length, Lc = L + t/2
1. Fin efficiency
2. Heat loss, Q = 0.140 +(0.005/2)
= 0.1425 m

r2c = rl + Lc =0.100 +0.1425

= 0.2425 m 102
As = 2 π[r2C2- r12] By using these values, we can find fin
= 2π [(0.2425)2 - (0.100)2] efficiency, η from graph.
= 0.30650 m2
Fin efficiency, η = 28 %
Am = t [r2C - rl] = 0.005 [(0.2425)-(0.100)]
Am = 7.125 x 10-4 m2 Heat transfer, Q = η As h [Tb - T∞]

Q = 0.28 x 0.30650 x 140 x [443 - 298]

Q= 1742.99 W

Result:
I. Fin efficiency, η = 28 %
2. Heat loss, Q = 1742.99 W

103
21. A circumferential rectangular profile fin on a pipe of 50 mm outer diameter is 3mm
thick and 20 mm long. Thermal conductivity is 45W/mK. Convection coefficient is 100
W/m2K. Base temperature is 1200C and the surrounding air temperature is 350C.
Determine:
(i) Heat flow rate per fin
(ii) Fin efficiency
(iii)Fin effectiveness

Area

A d2
4

104
Q=25.9W

105
TRANSIENT HEAT CONDUCTION (OR) UNSTEADY STATE CONDUCTION

Transient heat conduction can be divided in to

(i) Periodic heat flow
(ii) Non periodic heat flow

(iii) Periodic heat flow:

In periodic heat flow, the temperature varies on a regular basis.

Examples: Cylinder of an IC engine,

Surface of earth during a period of24 hours.

(ii) Non periodic heat flow:

In non periodic heat flow, the temperature at any point within the system varies
non-linearly with time.

Example: Heating of an ingot in a furnace, cooling of bars.

106
Lumped heat Analysis [Negligible internal resistance):
The process in which the internal resistance is assumed as negligible in comparison
with its surface resistance is known as Newtonian heating or cooling process.
In a Newtonian heating or cooling process the temperature is considered to be
uniform at a given time, Such an analysis is called lumped parameter analysis.

Condition for Lumped Heat Analysis:

Biot Number < 0.1
Biot Number:
The ratio of internal conduction resistance to the surface convection resistance is
known as Biot number.

Internal conduction resistance

Biot Number 
Surface convection resistance
hL c
Bi 
k
where ,
k - Thermal conductivity, W/mK
h - Heat transfer co-efficient, W/m2K
Lc - Characteristic length or Significant length
107
Lc = Volume/Surface area
For slab:
Characteristic length, Lc=L/2 (L - Thickness of the slab)

For cylinder:
Characteristic length, Lc =R/2 (R-Radius of cylinder)

For sphere:
Characteristic length, Lc =R/3 (R-Radius of cylinder)

For Cube:
Characteristic length, Lc=L/6 (L - Thickness of the cube)

Biot Number Value Type of problem

(i) Bi < 0.1 Lumped heat analysis

(ii) 0.1<Bi<100 Infinite body

(iii) Bi ∞ Semi-infinite body

108
Temperature Distribution:

T - T  hA s τ 
 exp - 
T0 - T  cVρ 

T - T
 exp- Bi, Fo 
T0 - T

109
22. A 50 x 50 cm2 aluminium slab of 6 mm thick is at 400° C initially and it is suddenly
immersed in water. So its surface temperature is lowered to 50°C. Determine the time
required for the slab to reach 120° C. Take heat transfer co-efficient, h = 100 W/m 2K
Solution:
Given:
The given problem is unsteady state heat
Dimensions = 50 x 50 cm2
transfer.
= 50 x 50 x 10-4 m2
Check Biot number value for Lumped
Thickness, L = 6 mm
parameter analysis or not
= 6 x 10-3 m
Initial temperature, To = 4000 C From data book pg.no 57
= 673 K hL c
Bi 
Final temperature, T∞ = 500 C k
= 323 K For slab:
Intermediate temperature, Characteristic length, Lc=L/2
T = 1200 C + 273 Lc = (6*10-3/2)
= 393 K
= 3*10-3m
Heat transfer co-efficient, h = 100 W/m2K
hL c 100  3  103
To find: Bi  
k 204.2
Time (t) required to reach 1200 C
Bi = 1.46 x 10-3
110
Bi < 0.1
Biot number value is less than 0.1. So, this is
lumped heat analysis type problem.

For lumped parameter system,

T - T  hA s τ 
 exp - 
T0 - T  cVρ 
[From HMT data book page no.57 (Sixth
edition)}

t = 117.1 sec

Result:
Time required for the slab to reach 1200 C is 117.1 sec.
111
23. A steel ball (specific heat = 0.46 kJ/kg K and thermal conductivity = 35 W/mK)
having 5 cm diameter and initially at a uniform temperature of 450° C is suddenly placed
in a control environment in which the temperature is maintained at 100° C. Calculate
the time required for the ball to attained a temperature of 150 0C.Take h = 10 W/m2K

Given: Solution:
Specific heat, Cp = 0.46 kJ/kg K The given problem is unsteady state heat
= 460 J/kg K transfer.
Thermal conductivity, k = 35 W/mK
Diameter of the sphere, D = 5 cm= 0.05 m Check Biot number value for Lumped
Radius of the sphere, R = 0.025 m parameter analysis or not
Initial temperature, To = 4500 C + 273
From data book pg.no 57
= 723 K
Final temperature, T∞= 1000 C + 273 = 373 K hL c
Bi 
Intermediate temperature, T = 1500 C + 273 k
= 423 K For sphere:
Heat transfer co-efficient, h = 10 W/m2K Characteristic length, Lc=R/3
To find:
Time required for the ball to reach 1500 C (R-Radius of the-3sphere)
Lc = (25*10 /3)
= 8.33 x 10-3 m 112
 hL c 10  8.33  103
Bi  
k 35

Bi = 2.38 x 10-3
t = 5840.54 s
Bi < 0.1
Biot number value is less than 0.1. So, this is
lumped heat analysis type problem. Result:
Time required for the ball to reach 1500 C is
For lumped parameter system, 5840.54s.
T - T  hA s τ 
 exp - 
T0 - T  cVρ 
[From HMT data book page no.57 (Sixth
edition)}

113
SEMI- INFINITE SOLID:
A solid which extends itself infinitely in all directions of space is known as
infinite solid. If an Infinite solid is split in the middle by plane, each half is known as
semi-infinite solid.

Condition for Semi-infinite body:

Biot Number = ∞

Types condition given in problems:

1.Surface temperature suddenly changed and maintained constant

2. The body is suddenly exposed to constant heat flux
3.Body suddenly exposed to convective condition with constant fluid temperature

114
24. A large concrete high way initially at a temperature of 70 0 C and stream water is
directed on the high way so that the surface temperature is suddenly lowered to 40 0C.
Determine the time required to reach 550C at a depth of 4 cm from the surface.
Given:
Solution:
Initial temperature Ti = 700C
In this problem heat transfer co-efficient h is
= 70+273 = 343K not given.
Final temperature T0 = 400C So, take h=∞
= 40+273 = 313K
Intermediate temp Tx = 550C From data book,
= 55+273 = 328K For concrete
Depth x= 4cm = 0.04m Thermal conductivity k = 1.2790 W/mK
Thermal diffusivity α = k /ρCp
To find:
Biot Number (Bi) = hLc/k
Time (t) required to reach 55 C
0
Bi = ∞

Therefore, the given problem is semi-infinite

problem

115
 erf Z   0.5
From Data book pg.no.58
Z  0.48 (From HMT Data book pg.no.59)
For Semi-infinite solid,
Tx  T0  x  x
 erf   Z
Ti  T0  2  t  2 t
Tx  T0
 erf Z  0.04
Ti  T0 0.48 
x 2 0.49  106  t
where , Z 
2 t
0.042
0.48 
2

328  313 4  0.49  106  t

 erf Z 
343  313
t  3535.8 sec
0.5  erf Z 
Result:
Time required to reach 550C = 3535.8 sec
116
25. A large block of steel is initially at a temperature of 35 0 C. The surface temperature is
suddenly raised and maintained at 2500C. Calculate the temperature at a depth of 2.5 cm
after a time of 30 sec. The thermal diffusivity and thermal conductivity of steel are 1.4 x
10-5m2/s and 45W/mK respectively.
Given: Solution:

Initial temperature Ti = 350C In this problem heat transfer co-efficient h is

= 35+273 = 308K not given.
So, take h=∞
Final temperature T0 = 2500C
= 250+273 =523K From data book,
Depth x= 4cm = 0.04m
Time t= 30s Biot Number (Bi) = hLc/k
Thermal diffusivity α = 1.4 x 10-5m2/s Bi = ∞
Thermal conductivity k =45 W/mK
Therefore, the given problem is semi-infinite
To find: problem

Intermediate temperature Tx
117
 From Data book pg.no.58 erf 0.609  .6116
(From HMT Data book pg.no.59)
For Semi-infinite solid,
Tx  T0 Tx  T0
 erf 
 x 
  erf Z 
Ti  T0  2  t  Ti  T0
Tx  T0
 erf Z  Tx  T0
Ti  T0  0.6116
Ti  T0
x
where , Z 
2 t
Tx  523
0.025  0.6116
Z  0.609 308  523
5
2 1.4  10  30 Tx  391.5 K

Tx  T0 Result:
 erf 0.609  Temperature at a depth of 2.5cm after 30sec is
Ti  T0
391.5K

118
 26.A semi-infinite slab of aluminium is exposed to a constant heat flux at the surface of
0.25 MW/m2. Initial temperature of the slab is 250 C. Calculate the surface temperature
after 10 minutes and also find the temperature at a distance of 30 cm from the surface
after 10 minutes.
Given: Solution:

Heat flux q0= 0.25 MW/m2 In this problem heat transfer co-efficient h is
= 0.25 x106 W/m2 not given.
Initial temperature Ti = 250C So, take h=∞
= 25+273 = 298K
From data book,
Distance x= 30 cm = 0.03m
Time t= 10 min Thermal diffusivity α = 84.18 x 10-6 m2/s
= 600 sec Thermal conductivity k =204.2 W/mK

To find: Biot Number (Bi) = hLc/k

Bi = ∞
(i) Surface temp (To) after 10 min
(ii) Temp. (Tx) at a distance of 30cm from Therefore, the given problem is semi-infinite
the surface after 10 min and constant heat flux problem
119
(i)Surface temperature (To) after 10min: 0.3
From Data book pg.no.58 Dimensionless distance 
For Semi-infinite solid of constant heat 2 84.14  10 6  600
flux,
0 .5 Dimensionless distance 
T0  q   t 
2  
Ti k    hx
0.5 Curve 
T0  0.25  106   84.14  106  600  k
 2    
298  204.2    
Curve   Because h value is ∞
T0 = k From the chart For dimensionless
distance of ( ) and curve of ∞
(ii) Temperature at a distance 30cm from
the surface
Tx  T
From Data book pg.no.61 
For Semi-infinite solid of constant heat Ti  T
flux,
Tx  T

X axis = Dimensionless distance Ti  T
x
Dimensionless distance 
2 t 120
Txt  Ti  0.3 
 1  erf 
T  Ti  
2 84.14  10  600 
6

  0 .3 
 exp   1  erf    
6
  2 84.46  10  600  

121
Transient Heat flow in an Infinite body:

A solid which extends itself infinitely in all directions of space is known as infinite
solid.

Condition of Infinite body:

Biot number value lies between 0.1 to 100
(i.e) 0.1<Bi<100

Heisler chart:
This chart is used for finding the temperature distribution and heat flux of infinite
body .

122
27.A slab of Aluminium 10cm thick is originally at a temperature of 500 0C. It is suddenly
immersed in a liquid at 1000C resulting in a heat transfer co-efficient of 1200W/m2K.
Determine the temperature at the centre line and the surface 1 minute after the
immersion. Also calculate the total thermal energy removed per unit area of the slab
during this period. The properties of aluminium for the given conditions are:
α=8.4x10-5 m2/s k=215W/mK
ρ=2700kg/m3 C=0.9 kJ/kgK
Given:
Thickness L=10cm =0.1m Solution:
Initial temperature Ti = 350C
Bi= h Lc /k
= 35+273 = 308K

Final temperature T0 = 2500C Lc=L/2

= 250+273 = 523K Lc = 0.1/2
Heat transfer co-efficient h= 1200W/m2k =0.05m

To find: Bi =(1200 x 0.05)/215

= 0.279
(i)Temperature at the center line after 1 min Bi value between 0.1 and 100.
(ii)Temperature at the surface
(iii)Total thermal energy removed per unit area Therefore, It is infinite body. 123
(i) Center temperature after 1 minute: From the graph
From data book pg.no.65 (sixth edition)
Corresponding temperature distribution
X axis = Fourier number for Fourier number(2.016) and curve
(0.279) value
t
Fourier Number 
L2c
L .1 Tx  T
Lc    0.05m  0.64
2 2 To  T

8.4  105  60
FourierNumber  Tx  373
(0.05) 2  0.64
773  373
 2.016
Tx = 629 K
hLc
Curve 
k
1200  0.05
Curve 
215
 0.279 124
 (ii) Temperature at the surface: (iii) Total thermal energy removed (or)
Total heat energy removed:
At surface, x= Lc From data book page. no 66
X=0.05m
X axis = Fourier number =h2αt/k2
From data book page. no 66
(1200) 2  8.4  105  60
X axis = Biot number 
( 215) 2

Biot number = 0.279(already calculated) X axis = 0.157

Curve= x/Lc
= 0.05/0.05 =1 Curve =h Lc/k

Tx  T 1200  0.05
 0.88 
( 215) 2
To  T
Curve = 0.279
Tx  373
 0.88
629  373 From the graph

Tx  598.28 K Q/Q0 = 0.34

125
From data book pg.no 63

Q0 = m Cp L (Ti-T∞)

Q0 = 2700 x 0.9 x 103 x 0.1 (773-373)

= 97.2 x 106 J/m2

Q/Q0 =0.34

Q= 0.34 Q0
=0.34 x 97.2 x 106
= 33.04 x 106 J/m2

Total thermal energy removed per unit area = Q =33.64 x 10 6 J/m2

Result:
(i)Temperature at the centre line T0 = 629K
(ii) Temperature at the surface Tx = 598.28K
(iii) Total thermal energy removed per unit area Q = 33.04 x 10 6 J/m2 126
28. A long steel cylinder 12 cm diameter and initially at 200C is placed into furnace at
8200C with h=140 W/m2k. Calculate the time required for the axis temperature to reach
8000C. Also calculate the corresponding temperature at a radius of 5.4 cm at that time.
Physical properties of steel are k=21W/mK, α=6.11x10-6 m2/s

Given: To find:
Diameter of the cylinder D=12cm =0.12m
Radius R= 0.12/2 =0.06m (i)Time (t) required for the axis temp. to reach
Initial temperature Ti = 200C 8000C
= 20+273 = 293K (ii)Corresponding temperature (Tr) at a radius
of 5.4cm
Final temperature T∞ = 8200C Solution:
= 820+273 = 1093K
Heat transfer co-efficient h= 140W/m2k Check the Biot number
Centre line temperature T0 = 8000C Bi = hLc/k
= 800 + 273 =1073 K For cylinder Lc= R/2
Intermediate radius r = 5.4 cm = 5.4x10-2 m =0.06/2
Thermal diffusivity α=6.11x10-6 m2/s = 0.03
Thermal conductivity k =21 W/mK Biot number = (140 x 0.03)/21
=0.2
0.1<Bi<100. So, it is infinite solid 127
 5  0.06 
2
(i) Time (t) required for the axis temp.
t
to reach 8000C: 6.11  106

Refer HMT data book pg.no.68

t= 2945.9 sec
Curve = h R/k
(ii) Corresponding temp. at a radius of 5.4cm
=(140 x .06)/21
=0.4 Refer HMT data book pg.no.69

T0  T
Y axis  Curve = r/R
Ti  T
= 0.054/0.06
1073  1093 = 0.9

293  1093

Y axis = 0.025 X axis = hR/k

= (140 x 0.06)/21
= 0.4
X axis = αt/R2 = 5
From graph
5  0.06 2
t
6.11  106 Y axis = 0.84 128
 Tr  T
Yaxis   0.84
T0  T

Tr  1093
 0.84
1073  1093

Tr = 1076.2K

Result:

(i) Time (t) required for the axis temp. to reach 8000C = 2945.9 sec
(ii) Temperature at a radius of 5.4cm = 1076.2 K

129