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BIO SCORE
CHAPTER 2 : CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS

SUBTOPIC : 2.1 Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells

LEARNING OUTCOMES: a) State the three principles of cell theory.
b) Explain the structures of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
c) Illustrate and compare the structures of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells (plant
and animal cells).
.
MAIN IDEAS/
EXPLANATION NOTES
KEY POINT
▪ All living things are composed of cells (All organisms are composed of one
a) State the or more cells).
three principles
of cell theory. ▪ Cells are the structural and functional unit of life.
▪ All cells come from pre-existing cells by division.

▪ Pro : before, early, primitive, first

b) Explain the ▪ Karyon : nucleus
structures of
prokaryotic ▪ Prokaryotic cell : Cell that has genetic material that is not enclosed by
and eukaryotic nuclear membrane.
cells. ▪ e.g. of prokaryotic cell: bacteria
(Circular) DNA • Is found in a single and coiled chromosome.
• Not associate with histone protein.
• Not enclosed in a nucleus (lies freely in cytoplasm).
• Located in a nucleoid region.
Plasmid • Small, double-stranded circular DNA
• Containing extra genes / provide genetic
information for certain activities of cell
Shape • Spherical (cocci)
Explanation • Rod-shaped (bacilli)
about structure • Spiral
of bacteria Glycocalyx / • Outside of / external to cell wall
Capsule • Made up of polysaccharide and protein
• Protect against immune system of host cell
Cell membrane • Membrane and other structures that surround and
protect the cytoplasm
• Main components are phospholipid bilayer and
embedded proteins
• Control the flow of materials into and out of cell

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Cell wall • Made up of peptidoglycan
• Provide structural support and maintain shape of the
bacterial cell

Cytoplasm • Semifluid (water-based) solution

• Composed of water and organic molecules
• Enclosed by plasma membrane
Fimbria (sin.); • Fine, hair-like bristles that present in multiple
Fimbriae (pl.) numbers
• Help bacterial cell in adhesion to host cell or other
bacterial cell
Pilus (sin.); • Bristle-like structures that present single or in pairs
Pili (pl.) • Longer than fimbria
• Help in adhesion to another bacterial cell during the
transfer of DNA (sex / conjugation pilus)
Flagellum (sin.); • Long fibers / structures that protrude from the
Explanation Flagella (pl.) surface of the bacteria cell
about structure • Mainly for locomotion / movement / motility
of bacteria Ribosome • Tiny particle compose of RNA and protein
• Site of protein synthesis
Mesosome • Irregular fold in plasma membrane
• Site of cellular respiration

Nucleoid region
containing DNA

Structure of bacterial cell

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KEY POINT
▪ Eu : true
▪ Karyon : nucleus
Eukaryotic cells ▪ Eukaryotic cell : Cell that has genetic material that is enclosed by nuclear
membrane.
▪ E.g. of eukaryotic cell : animal cell, plant cell

▪ Have membrane-bounded nucleus

▪ Nuclear envelope / membrane enclose the nucleus (separating its contents
from the cytoplasm)
▪ Genetic material is linear DNA that is associated with histone protein
▪ Has membrane-bounded organelles
▪ There are two classes of organelles :

1) Endomembrane system : organelles that communicate with one another via

small vesicles or membrane channels
2) Energy related organelles such as mitochondria, chloroplasts

Explanation
about structures
of eukaryotic
cells
DNA associate with histone protein

Structure of an animal cell

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Structure of a plant cell

c) Illustrate and
compare the
structures of
prokaryotic
and eukaryotic
cells (plant
and animal
cells).
Nucleoid
region
containing
Illustration of DNA
prokaryotic cell
(e.g. bacterial
cell)

Structure of a prokaryotic cell

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Plant cell

Illustration of
eukaryotic cells

Animal cell

Structure of eukaryotic cells

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Comparison
between Differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
prokaryotic and
eukaryotic cells Features
Prokaryotic cells Eukaryotic cells
/Characteristics
• Linear DNA enclosed
in nuclear
• Circular DNA lies freely
envelope/found in
in the cytoplasm.
Genetic materials double membrane-
• DNA do not associate bounded nucleus.
with histone proteins.
• DNA associate with
histone proteins.
By mitosis or meiosis or
Binary fission with no
Cell division both with spindle fibres
spindle fibres
formation
• Animal cell has no cell
wall
• Plant cell has cellulose
Cell wall Composed of peptidoglycan
cell wall
• Fungi has cell wall
made of chitin
Membrane-
Absent Present
bounded organelles
Has large size ribosomes
(80S).
Has small size
Ribosomes Small size ribosomes
ribosomes(70S)
(70S) are found in
organelles.
• Simple flagella and lack • Complex flagella with
Flagella of ‘9+2’ microtubule ‘9+2’ microtubule
arrangement arrangement
Plasmid Present in some bacteria Absent in eukaryotic cell
Cellular Site of cellular respiration is Site of cellular respiration
Respiration mesosome. is mitochondrion

Similarities :

- Both cells are surrounded by plasma membrane.

- Both cells have DNA as genetic material.
- Both cells have cytoplasm and ribosome.
- Both cells have flagella

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BIO SCORE
CHAPTER 2 : CELL STRUCTURES AND FUNCTIONS

SUBTOPIC : 2.2 Structures and functions: Cell membrane and organelles

LEARNING OUTCOMES:
a) State the structure and functions of the following organelles: nucleus, rough endoplasmic reticulum, smooth
endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi body, lysosome, ribosome, mitochondria, chloroplast and centriole.
b) Explain the structures and functions of endomembrane system which includes: nuclear
envelope , rough endoplasmic reticulum, smooth endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi body,
vesicle, vacuoles and the plasma membrane.
c) Show the structure of plasma membrane based on Fluid Mosaic Model.
d) Explain the structure of the plasma membrane and the functions of each of its components.

MAIN IDEAS/
EXPLANATION NOTES
KEY POINT

a) Show the detailed

structures of
typical plant and
animal cells and
state the
organelles
present.

Detailed structures
Animal cells seen under light compound microscope
of typical plant and
animal cells

Plant cells seen under light compound microscope

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Detailed structures
of typical plant and
animal cells
Animal cells seen under electron microscope

Plant cells seen under electron microscope

Organelles present in
plant and animal
cells

Organelles in animal cell

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Organelles present in
plant and animal
cells

Organelles in plant cell

b) Explain the Organelles :
structures and ▪ Structures that suspended within cytosol and perform specific
functions of the functions inside cell.
▪ Can be divided into membranous organelles and non-membranous
following
organelles
organelles :
nucleus, rough Membranous Non-membranous
organelles organelles
endoplasmic Nucleus Ribosome
reticulum, Chloroplast Centriole
smooth Mitochondria
endoplasmic Rough ER
reticulum, Golgi Smooth ER
body, lysosome, Golgi apparatus
Lysosome
ribosome,
mitochondria,
chloroplast and
centriole.

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Organelles Structures Functions

▪ Spherical or oval in shape • Store genetic
▪ Double membrane nuclear information /
envelope enclose the nucleus genes of a cell :
Explanation on the and separate it from cytoplasm. contain
structures and ▪ Has outer membrane that is chromatins /
functions of continuous with endoplasmic chromosomes
organelles reticulum and also has inner in nucleoplasm
membrane • Control
▪ Inner part of nucleus is production of
nucleoplasm which is RNA and
Nucleus semifluidmedium containing proteins in cell
chromatin, nucleotides, mineral • Control all
ions, enzymes and nucleolus activities of cell
▪ Surface of nuclear membrane by regulating
has nuclear pore that regulate synthesis of
theentry and exit of molecules proteins and
e.g. protein, RNA from nucleus. enzymes
▪ Nucleolus is small dense
spherical body within nucleus
that consist of RNA and protein

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▪ Consist of network of • Site of protein

membranous flattened synthesis
sacs called cisternae
▪ Membrane of ER • Modification of
separate the ER proteins
lumen @ cavity / - polypeptides
cisternal space from synthesized by
the cytosol ribosomes are
▪ Membrane of rough ER transported to ER
is continuous with the lumen
outer membrane of - inside ER lumen, the
nucleus polypeptides are
Rough ▪ There are ribosomes modified byenzymes
endoplasmic on outer surface of (add carbohydrate
reticulum the rough ER chain to the protein
Explanation on the (RER) membrane forming
structures and glycoprotein)
functions of
• Involves in
organelles
intracellular
transport of
proteins
- (the glycoprotein is
packaged inside
transport vesicle
andthe vesicle is
carried to Golgi
body)
▪ Consist of network of • Site of lipid
membranous tubules synthesis
called cisternae • Breakdown of
▪ Membrane of ER stored glycogen to
Smooth separate the ER glucose in liver
endoplasmic lumen @ cavity / • Store calcium ions
reticulum cisternal space from in sarcoplasmic
(SER) the cytosol reticulum of skeletal
▪ Lack of ribosomes on muscle
outer surface of the • Detoxify drugs and
smooth ER membrane poison in liver

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▪ Consist of a group of ▪ Modify, packaging

flattened membranous and sorting of
Explanation on the sacs called cisternae protein
structures and ▪ Each cisterna has lumen - Products of ER
functions of ▪ Has two sides : cis face are modified
organelles and trans face during their
▪ Cis face is usually transit from cis
located near the ER and face to trans
receive transport face of Golgi
vesicles from ER body
▪ Trans face bud off - Trans face
transport vesicles package the
containing specific modified
products to be carried to products in
Golgi
other locations inside cell transport
apparatus
or to plasma membrane vesicles and
/body
for secretion sort the
vesicles to be
transported out
of Golgi body
▪ Forms lysosome
▪ Synthesis of cell
wall components
e.g. vesicles
containing pectin
from Golgi body of
plant cells which
then incorporated
with cellulose
into cell walls.

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KEY POINT
▪ Spherical in shape • Involve in
▪ Single-membrane intracellular food
bounded organelle digestion
Lysosome ▪ Produced by (phagocytosis)
Golgi apparatus
▪ Contains • Involve in
hydrolytic autophagy
enzymes (digestion of old
@ worn out
organelles)
Explanation on the
structures and • Involve in autolysis
functions of (digestion of old @
organelles damaged cells
results in apoptosis

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▪ Not bounded • Site of protein

bymembrane synthesis
▪ Are complexes made of - most of the proteins
ribosomal RNA made byfree
(rRNA)and protein ribosomes function
▪ Consist of two subunits within cytosol
: large subunit - bound ribosomes
Ribosome andsmall subunit make proteins that
▪ Can be found as free are inserted into
ribosomes membranes, for
(suspended in packaging within
cytosol) and bound organelle e.g.
ribosomes (attach to lysosome or
rough ER) secretory proteins

Protein Synthesis

▪ Rod-shaped • Site of cellular

▪ Double membrane- respiration /
bounded organelle energy @ ATP
▪ Highly folded inner production
membrane forming
cristae (highly folded to
increase the surface area
of inner membrane thus
Mitochondria increasing the efficiency
of energy / ATP
production).
▪ Intermembrane space is
the narrow region between
outer and inner membranes
▪ Mitochondrial matrix
containing enzymes, DNA
and ribosomes is enclosed
by the inner membrane.

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▪ Double membrane- ▪ Site for

bounded organelle photosynthesis
▪ Outer and inner
membrane is separated
by very narrow
intermembrane space
▪ Inside chloroplast is
another membranous
Chloroplast system in the form of
flattened, interconnected
sacs called thylakoids
▪ Stack of thylakoids are
called granum
▪ Thylakoid membrane
contain photosynthetic
pigments e.g.
chlorophyll
▪ Fluid outside thylakoid is
stroma which contain
enzymes, DNA and
ribosomes

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▪ In animal cells, ▪ May help to

microtubules grow out organize the
from centrosome (region spindle fibers
that is located near the during mitosis and
nucleus) meiosis in animal
▪ Within the centrosome of cells
Centriole animal cells, is a pair of
centrioles
▪ Each centriole is
composed of nine sets of
triplet microtubules
arrange in a ring

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b) The structures and
Endomembrane System:
functions of
endomembrane • Components of endomembrane system includes the nuclear envelope,
system endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosome, various kinds of
vesicles, vacuoles and plasma membrane.
• The system carries out variety of tasks in the cell, including synthesis of
proteins, transport of proteins into membranes and organelles or out
of the cell, metabolism and movement of lipids and detoxification of
poisons.
• The membranes of this system are related either through direct physical
continuity or by formation of vesicles (membranous sacs).

The endomembrane system

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c) Show the
structure of
plasma
membrane based
on Fluid Mosaic

▪ Fluid Mosaic model is proposed by Singer and Nicolson *Most of lipids and
d) Explain the
▪ Fluid because phospholipids and proteins are able to move some proteins can
structure of laterally /side by side in the phospholipids bilayer move laterally.
plasma ▪ Mosaic because arrangement of different proteins partially or fully
membrane and embedded or attached to the phospholipids bilayer Very rarely, lipids
functions of each may flip-flop across
ofits components membrane,
Model. switching from one
phospholipid layer
to the other.

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▪ Two main components of plasma membrane are phospholipids and

proteins

▪ Phospholipids are amphipathic molecules that means have both

hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions
- hydrophilic head
- hydrophobic tail

▪ Importance of hydrophobic regions in plasma membrane :

- allow the cell membrane to be selectively permeable
- allow movement of lipid soluble molecules
- reduce loss of water from inside cell
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▪ Cholesterol are found in plasma membrane of animal cells between the
tails of phospholipids

Explanation on the
structure of plasma
membrane and
functions of each of
its components
▪ Function of cholesterol is to regulate fluidity of membrane under the
influence of temperature
- reducing fluidity of membrane / membrane less fluid at warm
/higher temperature
- membrane more fluid at lower temperature

▪ Two types of membrane proteins :

- intrinsic @ integral protein (either fully or partially
embeddedin phospholipids bilayer)
- peripheral @ extrinsic protein (attach to
phospholipidsbilayer)

Functions of protein membranes

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▪ Carbohydrate chains attach to protein forming glycoprotein

(e.g. variation in carbohydrate chain of glycoproteins on the
surface of RBC contribute to the 4 human blood types A, B,
AB and O)
Explanation on the ▪ Carbohydrate chains attach to lipid forming glycolipid
structure of plasma
membrane and ▪ Importance of membrane carbohydrates in cell-cell
functions of each of recognition :
its components - sorting of cells into tissues and organs in animal embryo
- basis for rejection of foreign @ non-self tissue by
immunesystem (e.g. MHC marker)
- enable cell recognize other cell by binding to molecules
containing carbohydrates on extracellular surface of plasma
membrane

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BIOLOGY SCORE
CHAPTER 2: CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS
SUB TOPIC : 2.3 Cells are grouped into tissues
LEARNING OUTCOMES : (a) Describe animal tissues and plant tissues.
(b) Explain the following types of cells and tissues:
i. animal cells & tissues
Epithelial cells (simple squamous, simple cuboidal, simple columnar,
stratified squamous), nerve cell (motor neuron), muscle cells (smooth, striated and
cardiac muscle), and connective tissues (compact bone, hyaline cartilage and
blood)
ii. plant cells & tissues:
Meristem, parenchyma, collenchyma, sclerenchyma, xylem and phloem.

MAIN IDEAS/
EXPLANATION NOTES
KEY POINT
A tissue consists of a group closely associated similar cells in structure that carry out
specific functions.

Animal tissues:
Four basic types according to their function and structure:
➢ Epithelial tissues
➢ Nervous tissues
➢ Muscle tissues
➢ Connective tissues

Plant tissues:
a) Describe Divided into two main types:
animal tissues ➢ Meristematic tissue
and plant
tissues. ➢ Permanent tissue
• Ground tissue
- Parenchyma
- Collenchyma
- Sclerenchyma
• Vascular tissue
- Xylem (vessel elements and tracheid)
- Phloem (Sieve tube element, companion cell)
• Dermal tissue

All plant cells derived from meristematic cell. Some of the cells reserved as
meristematic tissue and some undergo differentiation as permanent specialized
cells.

b) Explain the B. Epithelial Tissues

following types
of cells and ▪ Characteristics:
tissues: • Consists of cells arranged in continuous sheets, in single or multiple layer.
animal cells & • Closely packed and held tightly together by many cell junctions.
tissues • Has little intercellular space.
• Avascular (without blood vessels).
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• Has a free surface.
Epithelial cells • Some have microvilli (intestine) and cilia (trachea).
(simple • Rest on basement membrane.
squamous, • Covers a body surface (epidermis).
simple • Line inner body cavity, tubes and blood vessels.
cuboidal, • Cover the thoracic and abdominal organ.
simple
• Also found in gland.
columnar,
stratified
▪ General functions:
squamous),
nerve cell • Secretion
(motor neuron), • Absorption
muscle cells • Protect external and internal body surfaces from microbes, chemical,
(smooth, • dehydration and friction.
striated and
cardiac muscle), ▪ Classification:
and connective • Based on shape and number of cell layers.
tissues
(compact bone,
hyaline
cartilage and
blood); and

ii. plant cells &

tissues:

A. Epithelial
Tissues

Basement membrane

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Types of epithelial tissues

Type Structure Distribution Function

• A single
• Air sacs of
layer of
lungs
flattened
• Glomerular
cells with
capsule of
disc-shaped
Simple Kidney
central
squamous • Lines of heart
nuclei. •
• Blood vessels
Allow passage of materials by
diffusion and filtration
where protection is not
important.
• Single layer • Kidney tubule • Secretion of hormones or
of cube- • Ovary surface saliva. (salivary & thyroid
shaped & testes gland.)
cells. • Ducts and • Absorption (reabsorption of
• Large & secretory molecules by proximal
spherical portions of convoluted tubule in kidney.)
Simple central small gland
cuboidal nuclei.
• Thicker than
simple
squamous.

• Single layer • Gallbladder • Secretion of enzymes, mucus

of • Duct of gland and other substances.
rectangular • Lines the • Ciliated type propels mucus
/ tall cells. gastrointestinal or reproductive cells by
• Nuclei tract ciliary action
(round or • Uterine tube • Absorbing nutrients.
oval) near • Bronchi.
Simple base of
columnar cells.
• Goblet cells
& cells with
microvilli &
cilia.

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Types Structure Distribution Function

• Several layers • Outer skin • Protects underlying tissues in
cells & • Anus areas subjected to abrasion.
regenerates • Vagina • New cells formed to replace
rapidly. • linings of the cell that are sloughed off.
• Cuboidal to mouth
columnar • esophagus.
Stratified shape in deep
squamous layers.
• Squamous
cells form the
apical layer.

B. Nervous tissues

▪ Made up of neurons and neuroglia (supporting cells).

▪ Neurons consist of:
- dendrite
- cell body
- axon

▪ Axon
• Single extension of cytoplasm.
• Function: conducts impulse away from the cell body.

▪ Dendrite
• Highly branched extensions.
• Function: conduct signals toward the cell body.
B. Nervous
▪ Node of Ranvier
tissues
• Small uncovered parts of axon between the myelin
sheath.
• Function: Site for accelerating impulse transmission.

▪ Myelin sheath
• Layer of fatty material (surround the axons).
• Produce by Schwann cell.
• Function: Protects axons and provide
electrical insulation.

▪ Neuroglia
• Supports and nourish the neurons.
• Example: Schwann cell

▪ Distribution: Brain, spinal cord and nerves.

▪ Function: to transmit impulse.
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C. Muscle Tissues

▪ Structures:
• Muscles are responsible for all types of body movement
• Composed of muscle fibers (cell)

▪ Types:
• Skeletal Muscle
• Smooth Muscle
• Cardiac Muscle

▪ Skeletal Muscle
• Consists of several bundles of muscle fibers (cell)
C. Muscle • Muscle fibers consist of myofibrils
Tissues • Most are attached by tendons to bone.
• Muscle fibers (cell): striated (banding), cylindrical and long, multinucleated,
sarcolemma (plasma membrane)
• Myofibril: Bundle of myofilaments – Actin (thin filament) and Myosin (thick
filament)

▪ Smooth Muscle
• Lack striation
• Spindle-shaped cells
• Single nucleus
• Involuntary control
• Functions: Propel substances of objects (foodstuff) along internal passageways
• Location: Wall of internal organs (digestive tract) or hollow organs
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▪ Cardiac Muscle
• Has striations
• Single nucleus
• Branched and interconnected
• Joined to another muscle cell at an intercalated disc.
• Involuntary control
• Function: As it contracted, it propels blood into the circulation
• Location: the walls of heart

Skeletal Muscle Smooth Muscle Cardiac Muscle

Tubular shape Spindle shape Elongate shape

Striated Non-striated Striated
Multinucleated Uninucleated Uninucleated
No intercalated disc No intercalated disc Has intercalated disc
Voluntary control Involuntary control Involuntary control
No branch No branch Branched
Attached to tendons of Wall of digestive tract Wall of heart
bone

D. Connective D. Connective Tissues

Tissues
▪ Animal tissue that functions mainly to bind and support other tissues, having a
sparse population of cells scattered through an extracellular matrix.

▪ Functions:
• Provide support, strength and flexibility.
• Transport of material.
• Store energy.
• Defend body against pathogens.

1. Compact 1. Compact Bones

Bones • Consists of Haversian System or Osteon.
• Forms the external layer of all bones.
• Matrix:
• Hard and rigid with collagen fibers.
• Contains water and impregnated with calcium carbonate and calcium
phosphate.

• Each Haversian system consist of:

• Lamella: Irregular cylinder with layer of matrix.
• Haversian Canal: Contain artery, vein, lymph and nerve fibers.
• Lacunae: Contains osteocytes.
• Canaliculi: contain cytoplasmic strands.
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• connect to lacunae to each other and to a central canal.
• transport material to and from blood vessels in the Haversian Canal.
• Central canal/ Haversian Canal: serves as a passageway for blood vessels
and nerves.
• Volkmann’s Canal: connect the Haversian canals to each other.

• Bones cell:
• Osteoblasts (Bone forming cell): Deposit a matrix of collagen.
• Osteocytes: Non-dividing and inactive bone cells.
• Osteoclasts: Reabsorb the matrix.
•
• Functions of compact bones:
• Skeleton give a body shape and support.
• Protect internal organs.
• Attached to skeletal muscles
for movement.
- Blood cell production (bone marrow).
• Reservoir for calcium
and phosphorus.

Volkmann’s canal

Structure of compact bone

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2. Hyaline
Cartilage

Structure of hyaline cartilage

2. Hyaline Cartilage
• Extracellular Matrix:
• Collagenous fiber embedded in chondroitin sulphate
• Hyaline Cartilage Cells:
• Chondroblast: immature cells
• Secrete matrix: chondroitin sulphate and collagen
• Chondrocytes: mature cells
• Maintaining the matrix
• Located in lacunae
• Distribution:
• Nose, ears and caps on the ends of some bones.

• Function of hyaline cartilage:

• Provides smooth surfaces for movement at joints, as well as flexibility and
support
• Supporting trachea and bronchial tube
• Acting as shock absorbers between vertebrates

3. Blood 3. Blood
• Extracellular Matrix:
• Plasma (water, salts and dissolved proteins)

• Cells
• Erythrocytes
• Leukocytes
• Platelets

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KEY POINT
A. Erythrocytes: red blood cells
• Biconcave disc-shape
• Lack of nuclei
• Thinner in the center than at its edge
• Contain haemoglobin, enzyme and inorganic ions
• Function: Transport oxygen, carbon
dioxide, nutrients and waste

B. Leukocytes: white blood cells

• Larger than erythrocytes
• Spherical in shape
• Have nucleus and organelles
• Two types:
• Granulocytes: Granular cytoplasm and
lobed nuclei
• Agranulocytes: Clear cytoplasm and
nuclei not lobed

• Function: Responsible for antibody production and other specific defense

against pathogens
• Lymphocyte B: Produce antibody
• Neutrophils and Monocytes: Engulf foreign substances

Platelets
• Fragments of cells broken off from large cells in the bone marrow
• No nuclei
• Function:
• Blood clotting
• Repair gaps in the wall of blood vessel

Blood cells organization

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MAIN IDEAS/
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KEY POINT
▪ Meristem Tissue: Undifferentiated embryonic tissue in the active growth regions of
ii. plant cells & plants
tissues:
▪ Location: Shoot tips and Root tips
1. Meristem
tissues ▪ Structure:
- Cells are small and isodiametric
- Have large nucleus
- Have dense cytoplasm and few organelles
- Closely packed
- Have thin primary cell wall
- Cell actively dividing

▪ Function: Differentiate to form specialized function

▪ Types and Function:

Types Functions
Apical meristem - Elongate shoots and roots.
- Produce primary plant body.
Lateral meristem - Add thickness to woody plants (increase girth).
- Produce secondary plant body.

Types of meristematic tissues

Parenchyma Collenchyma Sclerenchyma

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MAIN IDEAS/
EXPLANATION NOTES
KEY POINT
Structure Parenchyma Collenchyma Sclerenchyma
2. Ground • Isodiametric • Polygonal & • Polygonal &
tissues Shape elongated elongated

• Thin and flexible • Thick primary wall • Tough and thick

primary wall with uneven secondary wall
- contain cellulose, thickening at the impregnated with
hemicellulose and corners of the walls lignin
pectin • Not lignified • Lignified cell wall
Cell wall • Not lignified • Pits are present in
• Cell wall contain
• No secondary wall cellulose, the walls
hemicellulose and
pectin
• No secondary wall
• Cells are loosely • Cells are tightly • Cells are tightly
packed together packed with little or packed with no
Cell
with no intercellular air intercellular air
Arrange-
many large spaces spaces
ment
intercellular air
spaces
• Living at maturity • Living at maturity • Dead at maturity
• Lack living
protoplasts when
they mature

• Two types:
A. Fiber
• Long and slender
• Group together in
strands
• Tapering ends
• Very tiny cavity in
Living/ the center of the
dead at cell
maturity
B. Sclereid
• Shorter than fiber
• Irregular in shape
• Thick wall
• Lignified
secondary wall

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MAIN IDEAS/
EXPLANATION NOTES
KEY POINT
Parenchyma Collenchyma Sclerenchyma
• Cortex of stem • Outer regions of Fiber:
• Cortex of roots cortex • Below the epidermis
• Mesophyll • Below the epidermis of stem or roots
• Pulp of fruit of leaves, petioles and • Around vascular
Distribution

• Endosperm of seed soft stems of dicot bundle

plant
• Leaf veins Sclereid:
• Young stem • Stem, leaves and seeds
• Fruits (pears and
guava)

• Photosynthesis. • Supporting tissue: Fiber

• Gaseous exchange provide the • Acts as supporting
and buoyancy for herbaceous plant tissue.
aquatic plants with mechanical
(Intercellular air strength and Sclereid
spaces). flexibility. • Protective tissue:
Function

• Packing tissues • Photosynthesis: some gives strength and

(around vascular collenchyma contain support to the plant
tissues). chloroplast structure or organ.
• Food storage
• Secretion (sugary
nectar, hormones,
enzymes and tannins).

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3. Vascular ▪ Involves in transport of materials around the plant body.

Tissue
▪ Two types:
- Xylem: Vessel elements and tracheid
- Phloem: Sieve tube and companion cell

Types Structure Function

• Secondary wall: lignin
• Ends open and connect to one
Vessel another to form long pipes
Transport water
element • Dead cells with hollow lumen
and dissolved
• More water can flow with less
minerals from
friction
the roots to the
• Thick lignified
Xylem leaves
• Lumen: small and hollow when
mature
• Tapering end wall
Tracheid
• Lots of pits: allow water to move
to another tracheid also
surrounding living cells

Types Structure Function

• Consist of sieve elements Transport
(sieve cells) joined together to organic material
form a long tube. (photosynthesis)
• End walls are perforated from one part of
Sieve tube forming sieve plates with sieve the plant to
pores. another.
• Cells are alive, with thin
cellulose walls and protoplasm.
Phloem
• Located beside the sieve tube. Provide ATP for
• Have a nucleus, dense active transport
cytoplasm with small vacuoles. during
Companion • Metabolically active (have transportation of
cell mitochondria and ribosomes). organic
• Linked to sieve elements by material.
numerous plasmodesmata.

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Xylem
Vessel element Tracheid

Phloem

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BIO SCORE
CHAPTER 2: CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
SUBTOPIC : 2.4 Cell Transport
LEARNING OUTCOMES : (a) Overview the various transport mechanisms across the membrane.
(b) Explain the various transport mechanism across the membrane
(i) Passive transport: Simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion and osmosis.
(ii) Active transport: Sodium-potassium pump and
(iii) Bulk transport: endocytosis and exocytosis

MAIN IDEAS/
EXPLANATION NOTES
KEY POINT
▪ Process to move substances across the cell membrane (plasma membrane)
Transport are essential to the life of the cell.
Across ▪ Example: Gaseous exchange
Membrane ▪ Plasma membrane regulates the passage of molecules into and out of the cell.
- Enable a cell to control substances and how much of each enters or leaves
the cell
- It allows the cell to maintain a difference between its internal environment
and extracellular fluid.
- It supplies the cell with nutrients, removes wastes and maintains volume
and pH.
▪ Plasma membrane is selectively permeable.
- Only allow some material to pass.
- Inhibits passage of other materials.

▪ Diffusion of solute across membrane.

Passive ▪ From high concentration region to low concentration region/down
transport concentration gradient until equilibrium is achieved.
▪ Does not require energy/ ATP.

▪ 3 types:
- simple diffusion
- facilitated diffusion
- osmosis

▪ Diffusion of solute directly through phospholipid bilayer to move across a

Simple diffusion plasma membrane.
▪ Example of solutes/molecules are lipid soluble molecule, oxygen gas, carbon
dioxide.

▪ Carrier-assisted diffusion of molecules across a cell membrane through

Facilitated specific channels from a region of higher concentration to lower
diffusion concentration.
▪ Help/aid by carrier protein and channel proteins
▪ The process is driven by concentration gradient
▪ Does not require energy/ ATP

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▪ Example of molecules are glucose, fructose, amino acids, some vitamins, urea
▪ Carrier protein:
- bind to molecule and change their shape to move specific molecules in or
out of the cell
- example: glucose
▪ Channel protein:
- have a tunnel that allow movement of ions or charge molecules to move
in or out of the cell
- example: sodium ion or chloride ion

Simple diffusion Facilitated diffusion

Comparison Differences
between Through the transport protein (carrier
simple diffusion Through the phospholipid bilayer or channel protein)
and
facilitated Happens to the small and non-polar Happens to large and polar particles
diffusion particles
Similarities
Movement of molecules occur down the concentration gradient
Not require energy

• The movement / diffusion of water across a selectively permeable

Osmosis
membrane from area of higher water potential (hypotonic) to area
of lower water potential (hypertonic) until equilibrium (isotonic) is
reached.
▪ Water potential: ψ (psi)

Concept of ▪ Water potential is free energy / potential energy of water.

water potential ▪ The tendency of water molecules to enter or leave from the solution by
osmosis.
▪ Unit of water potential is kilopascal (kPa)
▪ Components of water potential:
- solute potential
- pressure potential
▪ Formula of water potential:
Ψ = Ψs + Ψp
Water potential = solute potential + pressure potential

▪ Solute potential
- A measure of the change in water potential of the system due to the
presence of solute molecules.
- Usually negative value.

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▪ Pressure potential
- The component of water potential due to the hydrostatic pressure that
is exerted on water in a cell.
- Usually positive value.

▪ What happen to animal cell and plant cell in different tonicity of solution?

▪ The movement of molecules / ions from a region of lower concentration

Active transport
region to a region of higher concentration region// against concentration
gradient
▪ Require energy in the form of ATP
▪ Require transport / carrier / pump protein
▪ Example is Sodium-potassium pump

▪ Concentration of sodium ions (Na+) is higher outside of the cell; meanwhile

Sodium-
concentration of potassium (K+) ions is higher inside of the cell.
potassium pump
▪ For each cycle, Sodium- potassium pump transport THREE intracellular Na+
out of the cell and TWO extracellular K+ into the cell.
▪ Involve phosphorylation; the addition of phosphate group; which cause the
changes in conformation of protein.

▪ 3 intracellular Na+ bind to specific site on carrier / pump protein

Mechanisms /
▪ The binding stimulates phosphorylation of carrier protein by ATP
steps in sodium
▪ The phosphorylation causes the protein to change its conformation
potassium pump
▪ Causing expel of Na+ to the outside of cell.
▪ 2 extracellular K+ bind to specific site on carrier protein
▪ The binding triggers release of phosphate group from carrier protein
▪ Loss of phosphate restore original conformation of carrier protein
▪ K+ is released into the cell
▪ The cycle is repeated.

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Sodium-Potassium Pump

▪ Transport materials that are too large

Bulk transport
▪ Materials are transported across membrane via vesicles

▪ Types:
1. Endocytosis: Cellular uptake of biological molecules and particulate
matter via formation of vesicles from the plasma membrane.
2. Exocytosis: The cellular secretion of biological molecules by the fusion
of vesicles containing them with the plasma membrane.

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Endocytosis
▪ Types of Endocytosis: Phagocytosis and Pinocytosis

Pinocytosis
Liquids or dissolved materials are
taken in via a small vesicle
Uptake of small liquid droplet
Eg: Taking in of dissolved solutes
by absorptive cells in kidney and
intestines
Phagocytosis
Large solid particles, such as food ad
bacteria are brought inside the cell
by invagination (an infolding of the
cell membrane)
Uptake of large solid particle
Eg: Engulfing bacteria by the
macrophage

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