B.EL.

ED THIRD YEAR

BASIC CONCEPT IN EDCATION

(According to the latest syllabus of B.EL.Ed)

AUTHOR
RADHIKA AGARWAL
(B.EL. ED, CTET, UPTET, Pursuing M.Ed.)
Bundelkhand University, Jhansi

CO-AUTHOR
Dr. USHA AGARWAL
(B.Ed., M.Sc., M.Phil., Ph.D.)

Copyright
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system or transmitted, in any form or by any
means, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without
prior permission of the Author.

© Author

First Edition: 2020

DISTRIBUTOR-

Radhika Agarwal (Self-Published)

Dr. Usha Agarwal

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PREFACE
During the course of my graduation "beled", I was seeking for
the course knowledge. I found this journey to be stagnant for two
years after my Intermediate. Due to no proper source for content
and material, it was very difficult for me to move on. The time
was very complicated when I used to compile my notes from
hundreds of books in the library and thousands of web articles,
Sense of convolution.

One day, I decided to take this course at another level by writing

proper content and my only aim was to assist upcoming students
with good knowledge and understanding.

Hence, the journey of “beled.in” begins.

The Book “Basic Concepts in Education” takes you into the

process of knowing Education from various perspectives
(Philosophical and Sociological). After going through the books,
you will get to know various contribution by Indian and Western
Philosopher in the field of Education. Also the role of learner,
teachers and parents in establishing bond with Education.

This book will provide you great help in teaching learning

process. I also provided the previous year question paper, which
will help you in knowing the current pattern of the examination. I
hope the content will meet your requirements.

At last, any suggestions or improvements for this book will be

gratefully received and appreciated.
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I take this opportunity to express my heartfelt gratitude to the

almighty God for being able to complete this book successfully.
Then, I would like to express my heartfelt gratitude to my mentor
and my guru as well, Dr. Usha Agarwal whose valuable support
has been the ones that helped patch this work and make it full
proof success. Without her guidance and constant support, it
would not have been possible for me to complete my book.

I express my special gratitude to Dr. Pramod Kumar who has not

only transformed me from a student to an academician but has
also helped me turn a new leaf in my life. He has taken me to
the right path also in this journey. His suggestions and
instructions has served as the major contributor towards the
completion of the project. I was motivated in my difficult times,
which constituted in me to never give up. Under his guidance,
the work became masterpiece.

I would like to express my warm thank to my parents, specially

my father Mr. Ajeet Agarwal, for his shower of blessings and
support. My brother, Pushkar for his valuable suggestions, which
helped me in various phases of this task. My all family members
have given me unflinching support and concern for this work has
made it a dream come true not only for me, but also for them.
They have always supported me, trusted me and helped me
emotionally and economically as well through this journey.

Last, but not the least, I would like to thank all the people who
helped me either directly or indirectly.
Dr. Usha
Agarwal
Radhika
Agarwal
 DISCLAIMER
The information provided in this book is designed to provide
helpful information on the subject discussed. The publisher and
the author are not responsible for any damages or negative
consequences for any action, application or preparation to any
person, reading or following the information in the book.

The publisher and the author make no guarantees concerning the

level of success you may experience by following the advice
and strategies contained in this book, and you accept the risk that
results will differ for each individual. The testimonials and examples
provided in this book show exceptional results, which may not apply
to the average reader, and are not intended to represent or guarantee
that you will achieve the same or similar results.
I prepared this content from different verified sources and made
good efforts to make it error free. References are provided for
informational purposes only and do not constitute endorsement of
any website or other sources.
 1.1 PHILOSOPHY
Philosophy means love for knowledge or passion for learning. The
term has been derived from two Greek words, ‘Philos’ means love
and ‘Sophia’ means wisdom.

To love something is to desire it. So, for many Greeks, the

philosopher was the one who desired wisdom. Wisdom is not only
knowledge. One may have knowledge, but he may not be wise.
Wisdom constitutes knowledge plus its implication in all
circumstances. Thus, philosophy gives man that wisdom with the help
of which they understand the whole universe and its implication in
relation to themselves & the people around. Hence philosopher could
also be characterized as the “friend of wisdom”.
Oxford Collins Dictionary (2006) –
• Philosophy is the study or creation of theories about basic things
such as the nature of existence, knowledge, thought, or about how
people should live.
• Philosophy is a particular theory that someone has about how to live
or how to deal with a particular situation.

1.1.1 MEANING OF PHILOSOPHY

Philosophy is the tenacious attempt of reasoning men to think
through the most fundamental issues of life, to reach reasonable
conclusions on first and last things, to suggest worthwhile goals that
can command loyalty of individuals and groups. - Carlis Lamont

Philosophy in a general sense is conceived as a person’s “sum of his

fundamental beliefs and convictions”. We have some ideas
concerning physical objects, our fellow persons, the meaning of life,
death, God, right and wrong, beauty and ugliness, and the like. Of
course, these ideas are acquired in a variety of ways, and they may
be vague and confused. Philosophy is a guide for living; because the
issues it addresses are basic and pervasive, determining the course
we take in life. Hence we can say that all the aspects of human life
are influenced and governed by philosophical consideration.
Philosophers always ask these questions: Who we are? Is there a
higher existence that determines our existence? What is the
relationship between nature and human beings? What is the meaning
of life? Are our senses reliable in telling us about the truth of the
universe? How do we get to know about the world? What is the
relationship between the mind and the body? They further ask these
questions: What is happiness? What is virtue? What is the
relationship between individuals and the collective? How can we
organize a society and an economy that promote the common good?
What methods should we employ to find out the truth from false
statements? Can we ever hope to find out the truth of our existence?
Philosophy is a reflection of the above questions. Hence, philosophy
is the study of general and fundamental problems concerning matters
such as existence, knowledge, truth, beauty, law, justice, validity,
mind, and language. Moreover, philosophy is rationally thinking, of a
more or less systematic kind about the general nature of the world –
metaphysics or theory of existence, the justification of belief -
epistemology or theory of knowledge, and the conduct of life - ethics
or theory of value.
1.1.2 DEFINITIONS OF PHILOSOPHY

Philosophy is a search for comprehensive view of nature, an

attempt at a universal explanation of nature of things. - Alfred
Weber

Coleridge defined philosophy as the ‘Science of Sciences’.

Philosophy is a persistent effort of both ordinary and

persistent people to make life as intelligible and meaningful as
possible. - Branold

Dr. Ramnath Sharma states, ‘Philosophy is a philosophical

process of solving some characteristic methods, from a
characteristic attitude and arriving at characteristic conclusions
and results.’
 According to John Dewey, ‘Whenever philosophy has been
taken seriously, it has always been assumed that it signified
achieving as wisdom that would influence the conduct of life.’

“Philosophy is the science of knowledge.” -Fichte

“Philosophy is a logical enquiry into the Nature of Reality.” -Dr.

Radha Krishan

“Philosophy like science, consists of theories of insights

arrived at as a result of systematic reflection.” -Joseph A.
Leighton

“Philosophy is an increasing effort to discover the general truth

that lies behind the particular facts to discern also the reality that
lie behind appearance.” –

Raymont “Philosophy is a search for comprehensive view of

nature, an attempt at universal explanation of the nature of
things.”

-Alfred Weber “Philosophy aims at a knowledge of the

eternal nature of things.”

“Philosophy like other studies aims primarily at knowledge.” -

Russell

Aristipus (435-356 B.C): “Philosophy is the ability to feel at

ease in any society”.

Dr. Baldev upadhyaya: Methodical training or “Sadhana”.

R.W.Seller: philosophy is a persistent attempt to gain insight
into the nature of the world and of ourselves using systematic
reflections”.
From the above discussion we came to know that-
• Philosophy is the study of general principles & understanding of all
that comes in the range of human experience. Philosophy is a
systematic inquiry about the ultimate reality of the universe.
• Philosophy is a living force.
• It is a way of life.
• It is the oldest and original discipline of thought.
• It is a search for truth and reality.
• It is based on enquiring about life and existence.
• It is logical in its approach.
• It is ever-growing and developing.
• Philosophers try to see life as a whole.
• Philosophy is related to the condition of life and society.
• Philosophy is a product of time and circumstances.
• It is flexible in its approach.
• Seeks knowledge of the whole
• Science of knowledge
• It is the study of metaphysics beyond one physical world and its
relation to the physical world.
• Methods of philosophy include logic, symbolism, reflections,
science, and reason.

1.1.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF PHILOSOPHY

• It is a search for truth and reality.

• It is universal, although its methods and questions remain the same,
interpretations and applications will differ from place to place.
It is based on an inquiry about life and existence.
• It is a way of Life.
• It is an attempt to answer the ultimate question of life.
• It is a search for knowledge and wisdom.
• It is a conceptual rather than a practical activity.
• It is an explanation of the puzzling features of things.
• It is digging beyond the obvious.
• It is the search for principles that underlie phenomena.
• It is theory building from these principles.
• It is a living force.
1.1.4 FEATURES OF PHILOSOPHY
• Philosophy is systematic enquiry about the ultimate reality of the
universe.
• Philosophy is study of general principles & understanding of all that
comes in the range of human experience.
• Philosophy is a living force.
• It is a way of life.
• It is the oldest and original discipline of thought.
• It is a search for truth and reality.
• It is based on enquire about life and existence.
• It is logical in its approach.
• It is ever growing and developing.
• Philosophers try to see life as a whole.
• Philosophy is related to condition of life and society.
• Philosophy is a product of time and circumstances.
• It is flexible in its approach.
• Seeks the knowledge of whole
• Science of knowledge
• It is the study of metaphysics beyond one physical world and its
relation with the physical world.
• Methods of philosophy include logic, symbolism, reflections, science
and reason.
1.1.5 NATURE OF PHILOSOPHY
1. Philosophy is a set of views or beliefs about life and the universe,
which are often held uncritically. We refer to this meaning as the
informal sense of philosophy or “having” a philosophy. Usually when
a person says “my philosophy is,” he or she is referring to an informal
personal attitude to whatever topic is being discussed.
2. Philosophy is a process of reflecting on and criticizing our most
deeply held conceptions and beliefs. These two senses of philosophy
— “having” and “doing”— cannot be treated entirely independently of
each other, for if we did not have a philosophy in the formal, personal
sense, then we could not do philosophy in the critical, reflective
sense. Having a philosophy, however, is not sufficient for doing
philosophy. A genuine philosophical attitude is searching and critical;
it is open-minded and tolerant—willing to look at all sides of an issue
without prejudice. To philosophize is not merely to read and know
philosophy; there are skills of argumentation to be mastered,
techniques of analysis to be employed, and a body of material to be
appropriated such that we become able to think philosophically.
Philosophers are reflective and critical.
3. Philosophy is a rational attempt to look at the world as a whole.
Philosophy seeks to combine the conclusions of the various sciences
and human experience into some kind of consistent world view.
Philosophers wish to see life, not with the specialized slant of the
scientist or the businessperson or the artist, but with the overall view
of someone cognizant of life as a totality.
4. Philosophy is the logical analysis of language and the clarification
of the meaning of words and concepts. Certainly, this is one function
of philosophy. Nearly all philosophers have used methods of analysis
and have sought to clarify the meaning of terms and the use of
language. Some philosophers see this as the main task of
philosophy, and a few claims this is the only legitimate function of
philosophy.
5. Philosophy is a group of perennial problems that interest people
and for which philosophers always have sought answers. Philosophy
presses its inquiry into the deepest problems of human existence.
Some of the philosophical questions raised in the past have been
answered in a manner satisfactory to the majority of philosophers.
Many questions, however, have been answered only tentatively, and
many problems remain unsolved.
“What is truth?”
“What is the distinction between right and wrong?”
What is life and why am I here?
Why is there anything at all?
1.1.6 IMPORTANCE OF PHILOSOPHY
1. The study of Philosophy enables us to think carefully and clearly
about important issues.
2. In studying Philosophy, we learn to take a step back from our
everyday thinking and to explore the deeper, bigger question which
underpins our thought.
3. The focus in the study of Philosophy is to learn not what to believe,
but how to think.
4. Studying philosophy sharpens your analytical abilities, enabling
you to identify and evaluate the strengths and weaknesses in any
position.
5. It hones your ability to construct and articulate cogent arguments of
your own.
6. It prompts you to work across disciplinary boundaries and to think
flexibly and creatively about problems that do not present immediate
solutions.
7. Because philosophy is an activity as much a body of knowledge, it
also develops your ability to think and work independently.

1.1.7 FUNCTIONS OF PHILOSOPHY

Philosophy mainly performs three types of functions: -

1. Normative- The word ‘Normative’ refers to the ‘norms’ or

‘standards’. So the normative functions of Philosophy mean the
setting of norms, goals, principles, standards, etc. As professor V.R.
Taneja writes “When a man is faced with the difficulties, strains, and
stresses, contradictory situations, unforeseen circumstances and
intriguing problems, philosophy enables him to consider the ‘pros’
and ‘cons’ and arrive at the correct solution.”

2. Speculative- In this function, Philosophy strikes a synthesis within

the array of facts and bits of knowledge gathered from various
sources. It leads the man from a common-sense approach to a
rational and perspective approach.

3. Critical- In this function, it classifies concepts, test hypotheses,

establishes consistency, presents the unity of outlook, and inspires
logical reasoning.

CONCLUSION
Philosophy is a philosophical process of solving some characteristic
problems through characteristic methods, from a characteristic
attitude and arriving at characteristic conclusions and results.

1.2 EDUCATION
In literary sense, education owes its origin to the two Latin words:
‘Educare’ and ‘Educere’. ‘Educare’- means ‘to nourish’, ‘to bring up’,
‘and to raise’; ‘Educere’- means ‘to bring forth’, ‘to draw out’, ‘to lead
out’. ‘Educatum’- means- ‘the act of teaching and training’.

Education as:
Acquisition of knowledge
A tool to discipline the intellect
A preparation for life
Direction
Growth
 Transmission of culture

1.2.1 DEFINITIONS OF EDUCATION

Education is training for the country and the nation. - Kautilya
By education I mean an all-round drawing out of the best in
child and man’s body, mind and spirit. - Mahatma Gandhi
Education is one that enables the individual to be a producer as
well as a good citizen. - Nehru
Human education means the training which one gets from
nature. - Panini
Education is the harmonious and progressive development of
all the innate powers and faculties of man- physical, intellectual,
and moral. - Pestalozzi
Education develops in the body and soul of the pupil all the
beauty and all the perfection he is capable of. - Plato
The highest education is that which does not merely give us
information but makes our life in harmony with all existence. -
Rabindranath Tagore
Education according to Indian tradition is not merely a means
of earning a living, nor is it only a nursery of thought or a school
for citizenship. It is an initiation into the life of spirit and training
of human souls in the pursuit of truth and the practice of virtue. -
Radhakrishnan
Education is something, which makes a man self-reliant and
self-less. - Rigveda
Education is the development of valuable personality and
spiritual individuality. - Ross
Education is the child’s development from within. - Rousseau
Education is the realization of self. - Sankaracharya
Education means bringing out the ideas of universal validity,
which are latent in the minds of every man. - Socrates
Education is complete living. - Spencer
1.2.2 NARROWER MEANING
In its narrow sense, school instruction is called education. In this
process, the elders of society strive to attain predetermined aims
during a specified time by providing pre-structured knowledge to
children through set methods of teaching. The purpose is to achieve
mental development of children entering school. To make of narrow
meaning of education more clear, the following opinions of some
other educationists are being given-
• Education is a process in which and by which knowledge, character
and behaviour of the young are shaped and moulded. - Drever
• The influence of the environment of the individual with a view to
producing a permanent change in his habits of behaviour, or thought
and attitude. - G. H. Thompson
• The culture which each generation purposefully gives to those who
are to be its successors, in order to qualify them for at least keeping
up and if possible for raising the level of improvement which has been
attained. - John Stuart Mill
• In narrow sense, education may be taken to mean any consciously
directed effort to develop and cultivate our powers. - S. S. Mackenzie
Education, in the narrower sense, is regarded as equivalent to
instruction. It consists of the “specific influences” consciously
designed in a school or in a college or in an institution to bring in the
development and growth of the child. The word school includes the
whole machinery of education from Kindergarten to the University.
The education of the child begins with his admission in the school
and ends with his departure from the University. The amount of
education received by the child is measured in terms of degrees and
diplomas awarded to him. The school represents formal education as
it imparts education directly and systematically. There is deliberate
effort on the part of the educator to inculcate certain habits, skills,
attitudes or influences in the learner, which are considered to be
essential and useful to him.
According to John Dewey: “The school exists to provide a special
environment for the formative period of human life. School is a
consciously designed institution, the sole concern of which is to
educate the child. This special environment is essential to explain our
complex society and civilization”. The influences or modes of
influences in the school are deliberately planned, chosen and
employed by the community for the welfare of the members of the
rising generation. The purpose of these influences is to modify the
behavior of the child in such a way that he may become different from
what he would have been without education. It makes possible a
better adjustment of human nature to surroundings. According to
Mackenzie, education, in the narrower sense, is conscious effort to
develop and cultivate our innate powers.
Education, in the narrow sense, is also regarded as acquisition of
knowledge. According to it education is a process by which
knowledge or information on a subject is acquired. But many sensible
educationists have criticized this view. They argue that emphasis on
the knowledge is likely to reduce all schools to mere knowledge-
shops. The acquisition of knowledge is not the only or supreme aim
of education, yet it is one of the important aims of education.
1.2.3 WIDER MEANING
In its wider sense, education is the total development of the
personality. In this sense. Education consists of all those
experiences, which affect the individual from birth till death. Thus,
education is that process by which an individual freely develops his
self-according to his nature in a free and uncontrolled environment. In
this way, education is a lifelong process of growth environment.
• Education in its widest sense includes all the influences, which at
upon an individual during his passage from cradle to the grave. -
Dumvile
• Education, in its broadest sense, is the means of the social
continuity.
John Dewey
• By education, I mean the all-round drawing out of the best in child
and man’s body, mind and soul. - M. K. Gandhi
• In the wider sense, it is a process that goes on throughout life, and
is promoted by almost every experience in life. - S. S. Mackenzie
Education in the wider sense is a life-long process. It begins with the
birth of a child and ends with his death. It is a continuous process.
Continuity is the law of life. Education is not limited to the classroom
only; it is also not limited to a particular period of life. Education is a
lifelong process and goes on from birth to death. Throughout life one
goes on learning to adjust oneself to the changing patterns of life.
Change it’s the fundamental law of human existence.
Life is a continuous process of growth and development and so
education is also a continuous process. An individual learns through
his experiences, which are acquired throughout his life.
Education is not merely a collection of some information. It is the
acquisition of experiences through life in the social and natural
environment. It includes all the knowledge and experiences, acquired
during infancy, childhood, boyhood, adolescence, youth, manhood, or
old age through any agency of education- the press, the travels, the
club, nature- formally and informally. Thus, education becomes the
sum-total of all experiences that the child receives either in the school
or outside. In this wider sense, life is education and education is life.
Whatever broadens our horizon, deepens our insight, refines our
reactions and stimulates thought and feeling, educates us.”
In other words, education is the process whereby a human being
gradually adopts himself in various ways to his physical, social, and
spiritual environments. It is the development of all those capacities in
the individual, which will enable him to control his environment and
fulfill his possibilities.
Education, in the broader sense, is the transmission of life by the
living, to the living, through the living and for living”. Education is a
means for the development of balanced all-round harmonious
development of personality. Personality includes not only body and
mind but also spirit.
From the discussion of philosophy and education, we can conclude
that the fact that the common subject of both philosophy and
education is “Man”. So, the study of man and life is more important
than the study of any other organism in the earth.
1.2.4 NATURE OF EDUCATION
Following natures of education emerge from the various definitions:
The characteristics or salient features of education can be described
as follows:
(1) Education – A lifelong process: Education is a continuous process
of development from ‘womb to the tomb’. Several thinkers feel that
education starts even before birth. E.g. Mahabharata, wherein
Abhimanyu learns the skill of breaking the ‘Chakravyuha’ in his
mothers’ womb.
(2) Education - A bipolar process: John Adams stated ‘Education is a
bipolar process in which one personality acts upon another in order to
modify the development of the other’.
It includes two fundamental poles known as a teacher and the pupil
and their interaction is education.
(3) Education – A tri-polar process: Jhon Dewey opined Education is
a tri-polar process. It involves interaction between the pupil
(educand), the teacher (educator) and the social environment (social
forces). The teacher tries to develop the personality of the pupil in the
light of the needs of society.
(4) Education – A multipolar process: Nowadays it has been realized
that education is not to be monopolized by the school or by teacher
as the disseminator of learning. Rather so many informal and non-
formal agencies provides education to the learners such as
newspaper, T.V, Radio, Club, Internet, Family etc.
(5) Education – A purposeful process: Education is a purposeful
process. Both the pupil and teacher make efforts for achieving
purpose or destination.
(6) Education – A continuous process: Education is a continuous
process. It starts when the child is born and continues up to the last
moment of death.
(7) Education – A deliberate process: the process of education is not
only conscious but also deliberate. The educator is fully aware of the
fact that he aims to develop the personality of the child along definite
lines through the modification of his behavior.
(8) Education – A psychological process: According to the
psychological perspective, the educator must understand the nature,
interests, capacities and limitations of the child.
(9) Education – A sociological process: According to the sociological
perspective the educator must interpret and develop the capacities of
the child in a social setting. A child is a social being and as such must
be educated in such a way that he becomes a useful member of the
society.
(10) Education – A process of individual development: Education is a
process of individual development that includes physical, intellectual,
aesthetic, moral, social and spiritual development of the individual.
(11) Education – A dynamic process: Education is a dynamic and
progressive process. It reconstructs a new and better social pattern
according to changing needs of time, place, and society. Thus,
education is related to time, place and social change.
(12) Education - A process of individual adjustment: Education is a
process of individual adjustment. It helps in individuals in making
adjustment with self, with parents, relatives, friends, teachers or
members of society.
(13) Education – Theoretical as well as practical process: Education
is not just theoretical but also a practical process. Theoretical and
practical knowledge of education broadens the intellectual horizon of
the child, deepens his insight, enhances his efficiency, and helps him
in solving educational problems.
(14) Education – A child-centered process: Modern education
considers the child as the ‘hero’ in its drama wherein he takes central
place on center stage. The subject matter, the teacher, and the
environment are all for him and not he for them. The child-centered
process signifies that the educator must study each child carefully
and attend the individual needs.
(15) Education – Not mere information and knowledge: A.N.
Whitehead states, ‘A merely well-informed person is the most useless
bore on earth’.
Thus, education is not synonymous with information and knowledge.
Teachers are not information mongers or walking encyclopedias.
Information and knowledge should lead to constructive thinking,
creativity, and wisdom.
(16) Education – Not mere instruction: Instruction denotes the activity
of the teacher and passivity of the child. It denotes ordering and not
motivating. Instruction includes only communication of knowledge,
skills, or attitude. The practical activity falls into oblivion in instruction.
F.W. Robertson right said, “Instruction ends in the classroom but
education ends with life”.
1.3 PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION
Philosophy of education offers a definite set of principles and
establishes a definite set of aims and objectives. Philosophy of
education may be defined as the application of the fundamental
principles of a philosophy of life to the work of education. Philosophy
and education are closely interrelated.

1.3.1 PHILOSOPHY AND EDUCATION- THEIR

INTERDEPENDENCE

Education is application of philosophy or philosophy of

education is applied philosophy.
It is the application of philosophy to study of the problems of
education that is known as philosophy of education.
According to Ross, “Philosophy and education are like the
sides of a coin, presenting different views of the same thing, and
that one is implied by the other”.
Education is the strongest instrument for the realization of
the ideals of life and a civilized attempt to bring about the
desired development of human personality.
This indicates the fact that plant of education draws its
nourishment from the soil of philosophy.
Philosophy answers all the ultimate questions of education.

1.3.2 EXPERTS VIEW

1. John Dewey- “Philosophy may be defined as the theory of

education in its most general phase”

2. Spencer- “True education is practicable only to true philosophers”.

3. Gentile- “Education without philosophy would mean a failure to

understand the precise nature of education”.
4. Dewey- “Education is a laboratory in which philosophical
distinctions become concrete and are tested”.

5. Fichte- “The aim of education will never attain complete clearness

without philosophy”. From the given statements and views we can
easily maintain that philosophy and education are closely interrelated.

1.3.3 SCOPE OF PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION

The scope of philosophy of education is confined to the field of
education. Thus, it is a philosophy in the field of education. The scope
of the philosophy of education is concerned with the problems of
education.

These problems mainly include -

• Interpretation of human nature, the world and the universe and their
relation with man,
• Interpretation of aims and ideals of education,
• The relationship of various components of the system of education,
• Relationship of education and various areas of national life
[economic system, political order, social progress, cultural
reconstructions, etc.],
• Educational values,
• Theory of knowledge and its relationship to education.

The above-mentioned problems constitute the scope of the

philosophy of education and explain its nature. Thus, the scope of the
philosophy of education includes the following.
a] Aims and Ideals of Education Philosophy

Education critically evaluate the different aims and ideals of

education. These aims and ideals have been prorogated by various
philosophers in different times. They are character building, man-
making, harmonious human development, preparation for adult life, -
development of citizenship, -utilization of leisure, training for civic life,
training for international living, achieving social and national
integration, -scientific and technological development, education for
all, equalizing educational opportunities, strengthening democratic
political order and human source development. These and other aims
of education presented by educational thinkers in different times and
climes are scrutinized and evaluated. Thus, the philosophy of
education critically evaluates different aims and ideals of education to
arrive at.

b] Interpretation of Human Nature

A philosophical picture of human nature is a result of the synthesis of

the facts borrowed from all human science with the values discussed
in different normative, sciences. The philosophical picture, therefore,
is broader as compared to the picture of man drawn by biology,
sociology, psychology, economics and anthropology, and other
human science.

c) Educational Values
Value is typically a philosophical subject since it is more abstract,
integral, and universal. Philosophy-of education not only critically
evaluates the values but also systematizes them in a hierarchy.
Educational values are' determined by philosophical values.
Educational values propagated by different philosophers have been
derived from their own world, view, and their outlook on the purpose
of human life. Therefore, a scrutiny of the world views, outlook, and
beliefs is the specific function of philosophy and it is necessary for the
philosophical treatment of the values.

d] Theory of Knowledge

Education is related to knowledge. It is determined by the source,

limits, criteria, and means of knowledge. The discussion of all these
falls within the jurisdiction of epistemology, one of the branches of
philosophy, therefore, an important area of the functioning of the
philosophy of education is related to the theory of knowledge.

1.3.4 FUNCTIONS OF PHILOSOPHY OF

EDUCATION
Philosophy of education performs various functions. The area
discussed below:

a] Determining the aims of education

Philosophy of education provides original ideas regarding all aspects

of education, particularly educational aims. It is said that educational
philosophy gives different views, but this situation is not harmful,
rather it helps in providing education according to the need of society.
The difference in view of the philosophy of education reflects the
multiplicity and diversities of human life. Philosophy of education
guides the process of education by suggesting suitable aims from the
diversities of life and selecting the means accordingly.

b] Harmonizing old and new traditions in the field of education

the process of social development the old traditions become
outdated for the people.
They are replaced by new traditions. But this process of replacement
is not always smooth. It is faced with lots of opposition from certain
orthodox sections of the society. At the same time, it must be kept in
mind that every 'old' is not outdated and every 'new' is not perfect,
therefore, there is a need of co-coordinating the two to maintain the
harmony between both. This function can be performed by the
philosophy of education.
c] Providing the educational planners, administrators, and
educators with the progressive vision to achieve educational
development: -

Spencer has rightly pointed out that only a true philosopher can give
a practical shape to education. Philosophy of education provides the
educational planners, administrators, and educators with the right
vision which guides them to attain the educational goals efficiently.

d] Preparing the young generation to face the challenges of

modern time: -

Social commentators have given many labels to the present period of

history for some it is the information age and for others, it is
postmodernity, later modernity, high modernity, or even the age of
uncertainty. One more addition to this list may be that 'present age is
an age of Globalization as a phenomenon arrived on the economic
scene in 1990 in India. This watchword has had its implications in the
social-political, economic fabric of the country of which education is a
part. Philosophy of education is a guiding, steering, and liberating
force that helps young people and society at large to face the
challenges of modern time.

1.4 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PHILOSOPHY &

EDUCATION
Philosophy and education are closely inter-related and inter-
dependent. Philosophy points out the ways and education follow it.
Without philosophy education would be a blind effort and without
education, philosophy would be crippled.

In the word of Ross, “philosophy and education are two side of same
coin; the former is the contemplative side while the latter is the active
side. Education is the process and philosophy are the product. All
educational problems are questions of philosophy. In other word we
can say that the application of philosophical principle in the field of
education to solve various educational issues is regarded as
educational philosophy. In fact, educational philosophy is that
philosophy which provide answer to the educational issues of why to
educate (aim), whom to educate (child), who to educate (teacher),
where to educate (school), what to educate (curriculum), how to
educate (methods), when to educate (motivation) and so on.

Further, “a sound philosophy of education is based on an adequate

philosophy of life”. Philosophy and education are reconstructive; they
give to and take from each other in ebb and flow of thought and
action; they are means to one another, and ends. Thus, it is the
application of general philosophical positions to educational problems
is known as philosophy of education.
The following are a few viewpoints that establish the
relationship between philosophy and education:

View of John Dewey: John Dewey endorses the viewpoint of

Ross when he says, “Philosophy is the theory of education in its
most general phase”.

Fichte’s view: “The art of education will never attain complete

clearness without philosophy”.
 Spencer’s view: “True education is practicable to true
philosophers”.

Gentile’s view: “Education without philosophy would mean a

failure to understand the precise nature of education”.

John Adams: Education is the dynamic side of philosophy.

T.P. Nunn: Education aims are correlative to ideals of life.

Dewey: Education is the laboratory in which philosophical

direction become concrete and tested.

We may define educational philosophy thus; it is the application of

philosophical principle in the educational practices which direct the
process of education towards the aims of human life. In short,
educational philosophy relates philosophy of life through the medium
of education.

1.5 DEPENDENCE OF EDUCATION ON

PHILOSOPHY

Philosophy determines the real destination towards which

education has to go:
Philosophy has always inspired educational theory as well as
practice. It determines the real destination towards which education
has to go. In the words of Dewey: “Education is a laboratory in which
philosophic distinctions become concrete, and are tested”.
Philosophy is wisdom; education transmits that wisdom from one
generation to the other. Philosophy represents a system of thought;
education embraces that thought in the content of instruction.
Philosophy embodies a way of life; education is the preparation for
life. Philosophy is the knowledge obtained by natural reason;
education is the development of that reason and other powers of
mind.

Philosophy determines the various aspects of education:

All the problems of education are the problems of philosophy. That is
why, Gentile says, “Education without philosophy would mean a
failure to understand the precise nature of education “. It is because
philosophy determines both the aim of life and the aim of education.
Every aspect of education has a philosophical base. There is no
aspect of education – aims, curriculum, methods, textbooks,
discipline, teacher, etc. which is not influenced and determined by
philosophy. Height and breadth of education are probed by
philosophy. It is the philosophy that provides aims to education and
these aims determine the curriculum, the methods of teaching, the
textbooks, the role of the teacher, and the school discipline.

It helps to construct the curriculum according to the needs of the

individual and society.

J.S.Ross remarks, “From every angle of the educational problems

comes the demand for philosophical basis of life and education.

Great Philosophers have been great educationists also: Great

Philosophers have been great educationists in the East as well in the
West. We can find the clearest examples of the dependence of
education on philosophy in the lives and teachings of all the great
philosophers from Yajnavalka down to Gandhi in the East and from
Socrates down to John Dewey in the West. Philosophers like Gandhi,
Tagore, Radhakrishnan, Aurobindo Gosh, Plato, Socrates, Locke,
Comenius, Rousseau, Froebel, and Dewey have been great
educators. They reflected their philosophical views in their
educational schemes. Socrates has given the world his “Socratic
method” (Method of questioning & cross-questioning) of teaching;
Plato, the Republic, the first educational classic.

Rousseau, the great French philosopher, held that education should

“follow nature”. John Dewey of America took keen interest in solving
the educational problems of his country. Gandhi ji is the father of
Basic Education. In the words of Ross “If a further agreement is
needed to establish the fundamental dependence of education on
philosophy, it may be found in the fact that on the whole great
philosophers have been great educationists”.

1.6 DEPENDENCE OF PHILOSOPHY ON

EDUCATION

Education is the dynamic side of philosophy: Education can be

defined as the strongest instrument for the achievement of the ideals
of life and civilized attempt to bring about the balanced and proper
development of human personality. The plant of education draws its
nourishment from
the soil of philosophy.

In the words of Adams: “Education is the dynamic side of philosophy.

It is the active aspect of philosophical belief, the practical means of
realizing the ideals of life”. Philosophy is the theory of education while
education is practical thereof.

Education is the best means for the propagation of philosophy.

Education cannot even be imagined without philosophical principles
likewise philosophical principles are lifeless without the help of
education. Example- the introduction of the 10+2+3 system of
education and craft education is the consequence of philosophical
views. Thus, philosophy equips us with thoughts and these thoughts
are put into practice by education.

Education is the means to achieve the goal: Philosophy deals with

ends and education is the means to achieve those ends. Philosophy
gives ideals, values, and principles; education works out those ideals,
values, and principles. In the words of Herbert, “Education has no
time to make holiday till all the philosophical questions are once for all
cleared up”.

1.7 WHAT IS EDUCATIONAL PHILOSOPHY?

A philosophy of education is a statement (or set of statements) that
identifies and clarifies the beliefs, values and understandings of an
individual or group with respect to education. Defined in this sense, it
may be thought of as a more-or-less organized body of knowledge
and opinion on education, both as it is conceptualized and as it is
practiced.

A philosophy of this sort is critical in defining and directing the

purposes, objectives and focus of a school.

It should also serve to inspire and direct educational planning,

programs and processes in any given setting.
A philosophy of education may influence what subjects or topics are
taught, how they are taught, and perhaps more importantly, the
supporting beliefs and values that are taught, both implicitly and
explicitly, within and around the core curriculum.

1.7.1 OBJECTIVES OF STUDYING EDUCATIONAL

PHILOSOPHY
Philosophy deals with the most basic issues faced by human beings.
The content of philosophy is better seen as asking questions rather
than providing answers. It can even be said that philosophy is the
study of questions.
1. To find out the solution for various educational issues.
2. The purpose of studying educational philosophy is to make
education according to the need-based life and society.
3. To determine the aim of human life, aim of survival.
4. To produce better citizen by fostering democratic attitude in
behavior.
5. To make teaching learning process more effective and attractive
according to the need, interest and ability of child.
6. To discern the different philosophies and choose any one of them
to lead a fruitful life in the society.
7. To expand our knowledge and experiences and implement them in
the educational practices.
8. To bring out all round personality development in child and prepare
him to stand\ on his own feet.
9. To make education flexible in order to achieve the goals of a
country-national integration, international understanding and
globalization.
10. To develop education as a powerful instrument to bring about
social, cultural, political and economic change in society.
1.7.2 SCOPE OF EDUCATIONAL PHILOSOPHY
The scope of educational philosophy is the study of all those aspects
or schools of philosophy, which are important from the educational
point of view. Thus, it is philosophy in the field of education. The
scope of philosophy of education is concerned with the problems of
education.
These problems mainly include –
• Interpretation of human nature, the world and the universe and their
relation with man,
• Interpretation of aims and ideals of education,
• The relationship of various components of the system of education,
• Relationship of education and various areas of national life
[economic system, political order, social progress, cultural
reconstructions etc.],
• Educational values,
• Theory of knowledge and its relationship to education.
The above-mentioned problems constitute the scope of philosophy of
education and explain its nature. Thus, the scope of philosophy of
education includes following.
(a) Aims and Ideals of Education Philosophy: Education critically
evaluates the different aims and ideals of education. These aims and
ideals have been prorogated by various philosophers in different
times. They are character building, man making, harmonious human
development, preparation for adult life, -development of citizenship, -
utilization of leisure, training for civic life, training for international
living, achieving social and national integration, -scientific and
technological development, education for all, equalizing educational
opportunities, strengthening democratic political order and human
source development.
These and other aims of education presented by educational thinkers
in different times and climes are scrutinized and evaluated. An
educator is helpless in arriving at the aims of education if he/she
lacks the knowledge of related circumstances and problems. Thus,
philosophy of education critically evaluates different aims and ideals
of education to arrive at.
(b) Interpretation of Human Nature: - A philosophical picture of
human nature is a result of the synthesis of the facts borrowed from
all the human science with the values discussed in different
normative sciences. The philosophical picture, therefore, is broader
as compared to the picture of man drawn by biology, sociology,
psychology, economics and anthropology and other human science.
(c) Educational Values: - Value is typically a philosophical subject
since it is more abstract, integral and universal. Philosophy-of
education not only critically evaluates the values but also
systematizes them in a hierarchy. Educational values are’ determined
by philosophical values. Educational values propagated by different
philosophers have been derived from their own world, view and their
outlook on the purpose of human life. Therefore, a scrutiny of the
world views, outlook, and beliefs is the specific function of philosophy
and it is necessary for the philosophical treatment of the values.
(d) Theory of Knowledge: - Education is related to knowledge. It is
determined by the source, limits, criteria and means of knowledge.
The discussion of all these falls within the jurisdiction of epistemology,
one of the branches of philosophy, therefore, an important area of the
functioning of philosophy of education is related to theory of
knowledge.
(e) Relationship of education and various area of national life
and various components of the system of education: - One of the
most important contributions of the philosophy of education to the
cause of education is the provision of criteria for deciding the
relationship of state and education, economic system and education,
curriculum, school organization and management, discipline, teacher-
pupil relationship, methods of teaching, textbooks etc. These
problems have led to the evaluation of different philosophies of
education. The criteria of judgment everywhere are determined by
philosophy; therefore, philosophy of education provides the criteria for
critical evaluation and judgment in these fields.
1.7.3 FUNCTION OF EDUCATIONAL PHILOSOPHY
Philosophy of education performs various functions. These are
discussed below:
A] Determining the aspects of education:

Aims of education

Philosophy of education provides original ideas regarding all

aspects of education particularly educational aims, method of
teaching, curriculum, teacher, students etc. It is said that
educational philosophy gives different views, but this situation is
not harmful, rather it helps in providing education according to
the need of society. The difference in view of philosophy of
education reflects the multiplicity and diversities of human life.(
e.g.- Self –expression is the aim of education under naturalism,
where as it is self-realization in idealism and social efficiency in
pragmatism) Philosophy of education guides the process of
education by suggesting suitable aims from the diversities of life
and selecting the means accordingly.

Curriculum

With the help of educational philosophy, a teacher comes to

know why naturalism gives emphasis to science subjects and
why idealism gives importance to religious subjects. Thus, it
helps curriculum designer to construct curriculum according to
the need, ability and interest of the child.

Methods of teaching
Educational philosophy is very much helpful to adopt suitable
methods of teaching and make classroom teaching more
effective and attractive. We get the knowledge of different
methods of teaching, i.e. ‘Learning by doing’ in naturalism,
‘lecture method’ in idealism and ‘experimental method’ in
pragmatism. With the help of educational philosophy, we able to
choose the suitable methods of teaching according to the nature
of the subject and school environment.

Discipline

Concept of discipline changes with the changes in the outlook of

life. In other word, discipline reflects the philosophy of life.
Idealism advocates street discipline and self-control whereas
naturalism emphasis freedom and natural discipline, and
pragmatism stressed social discipline.

These disciplines are known from the study of different

educational philosophies. Hence, the knowledge of educational
philosophy is essential to follow a desirable discipline.

Teacher & Student

It is the educational philosophy which determines the role and

quality of teacher as well as the student in diversified society.
With the help of educational philosophy, we get knowledge
pertaining to the role of the teacher as well as student in the
school and relationship with each other. Students get secondary
importance in idealism whereas they get primary importance in
 naturalism. Similarly, there is a close relationship between the
teacher and students in pragmatism and idealism whereas it is
limited in naturalism.

Administration

The knowledge of what kind of school administration we should

adopt is determined by educational philosophy. Educational
philosophy helps to establish a school in democratic or
totalitarian system. Now days we are following democratic
principle for administering the educational institution. This is
based on educational philosophy.
B] Harmonizing old and new traditions in the field of education-
In the process of social development, the old traditions become
outdated for the people. They are replaced by the new traditions. But
this process of replacement is not always smooth.
It is faced with lots of opposition from certain orthodox sections of the
society. At the same time, it must be kept in mind that every ‘old’ is
not outdated and every ‘new’ is not perfect Therefore, there is a need
of co-coordinating the two in order to maintain the harmony between
both. This function can be performed by philosophy of education.
(e.g., the crises of Indian culture –Indian and Anglican, i.e. East and
West) It tells us how the cultural tradition of the country is to be
maintained.
C] Providing the educational planners, administrators and
educators with the progressive vision to achieve educational
development: -
Spencer has rightly pointed that only a true philosopher can give a
practical shape to education. Philosophy of education provides the
educational planners, administrators and educators with the right
vision which guides them to attain the educational goals efficiently. It
is very much useful to educational practitioner for his work and its
place in the general scheme of life.
Educational philosophy helps teacher, administrator or students to
interpret his professional experiences with that of acquired theoretical
knowledge and vice versa. The function of educational philosophy is
to help the individual to fit the square peg in the square hole and
round knot in the round hole. It helps him to grasp a conceptual
framework on educational principles and practices.
It further helps one to change or modify one’s activities to attained
desired end or goal.
D] Preparing the young generation to face the challenges of the
modern time: -
Society is not static; it changes its value, tradition, custom, culture
etc. from time to time. Social commentators have given many labels
to the present period of history for some it is the information age and
for others it is post modernity, later modernity, high modernity or even
the age of uncertainty. One more addition to this list may be that
‘present age is an age of Globalization as a phenomenon arrived on
the economic scene in the 1990 in India. This watchword has had its
implications in the social political, economic fabric of the country of
which education is a part.
Philosophy of education is a guiding, steering and liberating force that
helps young people to and society at large to face the challenges of
the modern time. It helps the individual to understand the relationship
between his goal and day to day routine work and develop critical
attitude towards life in diverse society.
 1.8 SOCIOLOGICAL BASIS OF EDUCATION
Education takes place in an (any) society constituted of individuals. It
is a social process and has a social function as well as relevance. A
school is created by the society and the society is shaped and
moulded by the school. Thus, education is both a cause and a
product of society. It originates in the society and it must fulfill the
needs and aspirations of the society. There is thus an intimate
relationship between education and society and modern education
has two-fold functions- It must help in individual development as well
as social progress. An individual can only develop in the right
direction in a social environment when substantiated by education as
it helps to solve the multifarious social problems.
Sociology has come from two words Societas and Logos meaning
“society” and “science” respectively. Hence the scientific study of
society is commonly known as sociology. Society is more than a mere
assemblage of individuals. It involves interaction and interrelation
between individuals and groups. Society exists only in the articulate
consciousness of human beings.

On the other hand, the individual depends upon society for his
existence and self-development. It is a society that acts as the
selective agent and determines which of the possibilities will be
allowed to develop through interaction with social groups and
situations the original tendencies are modified, coordinated and
shaped into an individual is influenced by social direction.
Sociology aims at explaining the inter-personal and group
relationships. It explains occupational, religious or social groups, the
nation or the state. It studies various social changes that are taking
place within group life and analyses such processes of interaction as
competition, conflict, co-operation, accommodation and assimilation.
It examines social change and social control, analyses the concepts
of civilization and culture, and deals with such social problems as
crime juvenile delinquency, poverty and other social evils with a view
to their solution.

1.8.1 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY

Emile Durkheim, the French sociologist, for the first time felt the need
of sociological approach to Education. He considered education “to
be something essentially social in character, in its origin and its
functions.” He emphasized that education is not a static phenomenon
but a dynamic and ever-changing process. Every society with its own
changing socio-cultural needs will require an education to meet those
needs. Since needs, change continuously therefore education must
also change. The needs of different societies differ therefore
education should be dynamic. Thus, Educational sociology is a
branch of sociology, which is confronted with the problems of
relationship between society and education. It makes an effort to
achieve the aims of sociology through educational process, which is
nothing but an interaction between the individual and the society.

The knowledge of social interaction is one of the most important

elements for social progress. Thus, the development of the
individuality is dependent on the reaction of the individual to his social
environment. Hence, we can say “by educational sociology we mean
the science which describes and explains institutions, social groups
and social processes, and social relationships in which or through
which the individual gains and organizes his experiences.” John
Dewey emphasized the importance of the socialization of the
individual for education. He considered that through the participation
of the individual in social process the complete development of
education takes place. The school is a social institution, which
purifies the society, progress it and makes the individual conversant
with society.

1.8.2 SCOPE OF EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY

The scope of educational sociology is very vast. It takes into account
the various social forces and agencies like the school, the home, the
religious organization, the playgroups. It also studies the different
processes of social interaction such as conflict, cooperation,
competition etc. It also induces such topics as the role of the press,
the T.V., the radio and the cinema as aids to social interaction. The
other themes include social change and social control. It deals with
the impact of sociology on the aims of education, the curricula, the
school organization and the mythology of teaching.

However, for the central personality development of the learner some

specific social problems are also included in the scope of educational
sociology. These are: the importance of teacher in the society, the
relationship between the teacher and the taught, the behaviour of a
student in a group, the influence of social life on the school, the
teacher and the student, the relationship between the school and
other social agencies, the relationship between the society and the
curriculum.

1.8.3 IMPACT OF EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY ON

EDUCATION
Educational sociology plays a vital role on the modern educational
theories and practices, the aims of education, the principles of
curriculum construction, the methods of teaching, the school
organization and administration.

Meaning of Education - Education is not mere schooling or

instruction imposed by the elders on the younger ones. It is
equivalent to the development of character or personality by means
of the social life of education institutions. The social life includes all
kinds of out-of-class activities. Man acquires experience throughout
his life. This acquisition of experience is education. This process of
acquiring experience is a social process and it is related to and
influenced by social factors. Education is thus a social process and its
function is not only to preserve the social heritage but also to enrich
it. Learning is the result of social interaction and social motivation.
Education helps to develop this social self so that an individual may
become an effective and useful member of the society. Education is a
process of directed learning. Education sociology focuses upon the
social forces through which the individual gains experience.

Aims of Education - Educational sociology has an indirect impact on

the aims and objectives of education. Educational sociologists think
that education is a social process and it should be directed to social
welfare. With this view the determination of the objectives of
education is highly needed. The sociologists attach equal importance
to the individual and social aspects of education. The aim of modern
education is individual development as well as social advancement.
Education enables an individual to make his life better both as an
individual and as a member of his society.

Education now emphasizes total development of an individual –

intellectual, social, moral, aesthetic, cultural, physical development.
Education should bring about a change not only in the amount of
knowledge gained but in abilities to do, to acquire habits, skills,
interests and attitudes which characterize a person who is society
accepted, personally well-adjusted and socially responsible. Thus,
educational sociology emphasizes the social aims of education.

1.9 SOCIOLOGICAL CONCEPT OF EDUCATION

Centre of thoughts of sociologists is society. They look and
understand humans in the context and perspective of its society.
They consider education as the means of development of individuals
and society.

They have expressed the following views for process of education—

1. Education is a Social Process—sociologists have clarified that

when there is social interaction between two or more people, then
they get influenced by each other’s language, thought process and
behavior. This process is called learning and when this is done with
certain predefined objectives, then it is called education. We know
that humans are innate with some qualities, in the social and natural
environments, these qualities grow and as a result, his behavior
changes. For example, system of sound pronunciation is there by
birth, but with this system he learns language of those, in the
company of which he lives and exchanges thoughts. Entire civilization
and culture of humans is the result of social process only. This is also
true that after development of work and knowledge organs, he
independently observes, examines, meditates and concentrates and
learns thus. But for this, required work and knowledge organs,
language and thought processes are developed in the social
environment only. In the absence, neither we can learn language nor
can we learn to think.

Children learn about objects, language and activities by being in

society only. Sociologists have clarified that education is the means of
fulfillment of social goals and objectives. Society has the ambitions
and education of same nature, the way it is built up. Education is
related with past, present and future, all three. With this, knowledge
of past, fulfillment of present and future building is done. Education is
social process from this perspective also.

2. Education is a Continuous Process—second fact as expressed

by sociologists is that, education keeps on happening in the society.
Soon after birth, human being starts receiving education and keeps
going on till his last. If we see in detail, then member of society
(individual) peril, but system of education keeps moving forward
generations after generations. It never takes rest. Hence, continuity is
it’s another characteristic.

3. Education is a Bi-polar Process- as per sociologists, in the

process of education when side effects and another gets affected.
Hence, it is clear that education is a bi-polar process. As per them,
education has two poles-one which affects (teacher) and another
which gets affected (student). American academician john Dewey
also accepts it-one psychological and another social.
By psychological, he means the interest, inclination and ability of the
learner and by social organ, they mean its social environment. But as
per our experience, not only social environment but natural
environment also affects the process of learning. In the context of
planned education, teachers, objectives of education, academic
discussions and method of education too are influential element.
Learning and teaching all these things are called situation. It would be
proper to say that process of education happens between situations
of learner and teacher.

4. Education is the process of Development—innate human

behavior is like animals. With education, his behavior is modified and
refined. If we look into detail then we find that humans keep this
experience safe with the medium of language and hands it over to
next generation. Coming generation moves even ahead with this
knowledge and adds its own knowledge and experience. This is how,
development of any society’s civilization and culture takes place. It is
not possible in the absence of education.

Education is the process of development. We should understand one

thing here that every creature of the world learns to move, eat and
speak by living and emulating within its own species. Consider life of
animals and birds. Soon after their birth, they start to learn the ways
of eating, moving and flying like their species, but this act of theirs is
confined only to the synergy with environment for self-defense
mechanism, but in case of humans, education not only teaches them
to have synergy with environment, but also develops their ability to
develop conducive environment as suitable for them. By education,
there is a constant change in the lifestyle, eating & thoughts and in
the methods and tools of making an easy and comfortable life for
humans. Another name for this development is education. Thus, it is
clear that human education is the process of development, not of
animals.

5. Education is a Dynamic Process—with the help of education,

humans keep developing its civilization and culture. For this
development, one generation hands over its knowledge and skillsets
to another. For this transfer, each society plans for social academic
education. Hence, objectives, syllabus and method of education are
defined for any particular period. But as society keeps changing,
education keeps accepting those changes and moves forward. Thus,
its objective, syllabus, and method of education keep changing as per
requirement. This is its dynamism. Had education not been dynamic,
we would not have developed and grown.

Some academicians have defined education on the basis of above

facts only.

In the words of Indian thinker Bhairav Nath Jha— Education is

a process, a social function carried on and by the society for its
own sake.

—B.N. Jha Famous academic Sociologist Ottoway has

defined education as following by incorporating both nature and
function of education.

The whole process of education is the interaction between

individuals and social groups, with certain ends in view for the
development of the individual —A.K.C. Ottoway.

As per academic sociologists, humans bring in appropriate

changes in society with education only.
 T. Raymond has defined education by keeping across this view
point education is the process of development, which consists of
a passage of human being from infancy to maturity, the process
by which he adapts himself gradually in various ways to his
physical, social and spiritual environment. —T. Raymond

1.9.1 FUNCTIONS OF EDUCATION

According to Payne, from the point of view of educational sociology

the functions of education are mainly three

(a) transmission of social and cultural heritage,

(b) development of new social patterns, and
(c) creative and constructive role. Education is to help in transmitting
the cultural heritage with the help of such agencies as the school, the
home, the religious organization, the radio, the T. V., the cinema, the
press and the playgroup. But education is not only to transmit the
past cultural heritage but also to develop new social patterns in such
areas as health, leisure, vocation, home-life etc. Thus, from the
sociological point of view, education be regarded as a conservative
force, a creative force and a critical force.

CURRICULUM CONSTRUCTION

The impact of educational sociology on the principles of curriculum

construction cannot be ignored. In ancient age the child was regarded
as an adult. The adults used to frame the curriculum and imposed it
on the young learners. This curriculum was the brainchild of the
adults. The child, his interests and inclinations were not taken into
consideration. But in the modern age all these traditional views of
curriculum construction have been rejected as unscientific.
The curriculum is now in conformity with the general aims of
education and it must help in the total development of the child. In the
modern sense the curriculum is not mere a bundle of subjects but
includes all types of activities in the school, which provide diverse
experiences to the child. It is now the sum total of the experiences
gathered by the child through social interactions in the school. The
modern curriculum thus emphasizes the social need of education.

ACTIVITY PRINCIPLE IN EDUCATION

Nothing can be taught; everything is to be learned is the main idea of
present-day education. The children are no longer passive recipients
of knowledge they are now active participants in the learning process.
This means that every useful productive work has learning value.
Thus work-based education helps in the social development of the
child. It prepares an individual to face the social reality. It helps in the
process of socialization of the child and bringing social cohesion and
solidarity.

SCHOOL
In modern education the school is regarded as a society in miniature.
The students learn through constant social interactions in the school.
John Dewey says: “School is a purified, simplified and better-
balanced society.” The school is an effective vehicle for socialization
of the child. Thus, schools are an important social agency or
institution, which performs various social functions and
responsibilities.

THE SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT

The school administration has now been democratized. The students
are now allowed to participate in school administration and shoulder
various administrative responsibilities. The school self-government is
now an accepted educational principle and practice. This is no doubt
the result of sociological principle in education.

THE TEACHER
In modern education the teacher is regarded as a friend, philosopher
and guide. He must prepare himself for this noble work. To fulfill this
responsibility the teacher must possess suitable personality.

HUMAN RELATIONS
Education thinks that the work of education cannot be carried on
properly without reference to human relations. Human relations are
also developed among students in the school society. These human
relations determine the course of education. For this purpose, now
sociometric technique is applied in education. With the help of
sociometric technique, the group dynamics in school can be
ascertained.
 METHODS OF TEACHING
The methods of teaching are also influenced by educational
sociology. The teacher has to adopt some method or technique to
establish a relationship between the objectives and the materials of
instruction. The educational sociologist, according to Payne, judges
the effectiveness of teaching method and technique in the light of
three principles:
The method of teaching is effective only in so far as the skills
and knowledge acquired in the classroom are made by the
individual in his adjustment to social situations.
The method of teaching must place primary emphasis on social
behavior outside the classroom.
The method of teaching must seek to utilize the social forces
operative in the social life to develop the capacity for social
adjustment.

CONCLUSION
Thus, it is evident that every aspect of education such as aims,
functions, materials of instructions, and methods of teaching is greatly
influenced by social factors. Modern education aims at total
development. Here lies the need for the sociological foundation of
education.

1.10 KNOWLEDGE AND INFORMATION

It is easy to get confused about information and knowledge. People
often use the terms interchangeably, without knowing the fact that
there are slight and subtle differences between information a00nd
knowledge. These two are important concepts of knowledge
management system, wherein the former means processed data
about someone or something, while the latter refers to useful
information gained through learning and experience.

When the data collected is filtered, it turns out as information. Of the

filtered information, the useful material, that is relevant to the subject,
is called the knowledge. So, take a look at the given article which
might help you to understand the terms further.

Definition of Knowledge
Knowledge means the familiarity and awareness of a person, place,
events, ideas, issues, ways of doing things or anything else, which is
gathered through learning, perceiving or discovering. It is the state of
knowing something with cognizance through the understanding of
concepts, study and experience.
In a nutshell, knowledge connotes the confident theoretical or
practical understanding of an entity along with the capability of using
it for a specific purpose. Combination of information, experience and
intuition leads to knowledge which has the potential to draw
inferences and develop insights, based on our experience and thus it
can assist in decision making and taking actions.
Characteristics of Knowledge
Here are an important characteristic of knowledge:
Knowledge is accurate as it conveys the true situation.
It is available in time to make the most appropriate and correct
decisions.
It is portrayed in common, easy to understand formats.
It provides all the necessary data.
Meaningful and useful for the decision-making process.
Involves communication and reception Information
It reduces uncertainties and estimates to take action
Example of Knowledge
If you apply this information to gain further knowledge, we could say
that:
4, 8, 16 and 24 are the first four answers in the 4 x table
(because the 4 x table starts at three and goes up in threes the 5
x table must start at five and go up in fives)
A tiger is not a household pet as it is not on the list, and it lives in
the wild forest.
The tallest student is 186.3cm.

Definition of Information
The term ‘information’ is described as the structured, organized and
processed data, presented within context, which makes it relevant
and useful to the person who wants it. Data means raw facts and
figures concerning people, places, or any other thing, which is
expressed in the form of numbers, letters or symbols.
Information is the data which is transformed and classified into an
intelligible form, which can be used in the process of decision making.
In short, when data turn out to be meaningful after conversion, it is
known as information. It is something that informs, in essence, it
gives an answer to a particular question.
The main characteristics of information are accuracy, relevance,
completeness and availability. It can be communicated in the form of
content of a message or through observation and can be obtained
from various sources such as newspaper, television, internet, people,
books, and so on.
Characteristics of Information
Here, are important characteristics of the Information:
The main characteristics of information are accuracy,
completeness, relevance, and availability
Information is said to be facts provided or learned about
someone or something
No defined connection between ideas
Its availability to the right person at the right time
Enhance learning
Example of information
Look at the examples given for data:
4,8,12,16
Dog, cat, cow, cockatoo
161.2, 175.3, 166.4, 164.7, 169.3
Only when we assign a context or meaning that's when the data
become information. It all becomes meaningful when you are told:
4, 8, 12 and 16 are the first four answers in the 4 x table
Dog, cat, cow is a list of household pets
165, 175.2, 186.3, 164.3, 169.3 are the height of 14-year old
students.
Key Differences between Information and
Knowledge
The points given below are important, so far as the difference
between information and knowledge is concerned:
1. Information denotes the organized data about someone or
something obtained from various sources such as newspaper,
internet, television, discussions, etc. Knowledge refers to the
awareness or understanding on the subject acquired from
education or experience of a person.
2. Information is nothing but the refined form of data, which is
helpful to understand the meaning. On the other hand,
knowledge is the relevant and objective information that helps in
drawing conclusions.
3. Data compiled in the meaningful context provides information.
Conversely, when information is combined with experience and
intuition, it results in knowledge.
4. Processing improves the representation, thus ensures easy
interpretation of the information. As against this, processing
results in increased consciousness, thus enhances subject
knowledge.
5. Information brings on comprehension of the facts and figures.
Unlike, knowledge which leads to the understanding of the
subject.
6. The transfer of information is easy through different means, i.e.
verbal or non-verbal signals. Conversely, the transfer of
knowledge is a bit difficult, because it requires learning on the
part of the receiver.
7. Information can be reproduced in low cost. However, exactly
similar reproduction of knowledge is not possible because it is
based on experiential or individual values, perceptions, etc.
8. Information alone is not sufficient to make generalization or
predictions about someone or something. On the contrary,
knowledge has the ability to predict or make inferences.
9. Every information is not necessarily a knowledge, but all
knowledge is an information.
Conclusion
To sum up, we can say that, information are the building blocks, but
knowledge is the building. Processing of data results in information,
which when further manipulated or processed becomes knowledge.

Suppose a person possess plethora of information about a particular

subject, but this does not mean that he/she can make a judgement or
draw inferences on the basis of the available information because to
make a sound judgement, one should have ample experience and
familiarity with the subject, which is possible through knowledge.

1.11 BASIC ASSUMPTIONS ABOUT HUMAN

NATURE

Human nature refers to the characteristics of mankind. This

means ways of thinking, feeling and acting which humans have
naturally.

What these characteristics are, what causes them and how fixed
human nature is, are good questions. They among the oldest and
most important questions in western philosophy. These questions
affect ethics, politics and theology. Human nature is a source of
advice on how to live well, but it also puts limits and obstacles on
living a good life.

The complex implications of such questions are also dealt with in art
and literature, while the humanities inquire into human nature, and
what it means to be human.

1.11.1 General View of Human Nature

The dictionary meaning of the phrase "Human Nature" is "the general
characteristics and feelings shared by all people." It is a quality or
group of qualities which belongs to ail and only humans. It explains
the kind of being we are. We are for example, two footed and
featherless. But 'featherless biped' does not explain our social
characteristics. We are also all both animals and rational beings.
Rational animals might explain the social features they have while
other kinds of beings, such as angels, do not have. Moreover, it is to
be accepted that man is the most important artifact of nature. He is
active, creative, imaginative and innovative being. He is master of
music and best projector of dream. He manifests the highest emotion
and joy of life. He also reflects the feeling of 'love' and represents the
unique capability of 'image-making.' There is a belief that all-natural
kinds have essences.

Acceptance of this position is compatible with many views about the

specific qualities that constitute human nature. For this, man is to be
understood primarily from the standpoint of the uniqueness of the
rational faculty that he possesses. What is unique in man is his 'spirit',
but primary emphasis lies in the capacity for thought and reason. ^ In
addition to rationality, philosophers have said that the self-interest is
part of our nature. We are envious and fearful. But we are also
benevolent, sociable, and supportive of others. We are able to speak
and to laugh and desirous of immortality too.

Again, only human being has selves and are persons. The basic
requirement for being a self is that a person (or a self) be an object to
itself. A self must be able to conceive of itself and to look at itself as it
looks at objects. It must be self-conscious. We know what it means to
say that such things as books, stones, tables and atoms are objects.
We also believe that they are not aware of their existence. They are
not conscious of themselves or of other objects; they are not
objecting to themselves. They have no desires, fears or regrets. They
also do not remember the past or anticipate the future. They are
simply objecting but not objects to themselves. The self emerges in
the human organism in the social context in which a number of
human beings cooperate with each other. In addition to social
behavior in which there is cooperation, there must be a language in
order for the human organism to socialize. The self becomes aware
of itself to be an object to itself and thereby also a subject.

1.11.2 Man’s Original Nature

Human nature is a subject of great complexity debated by
philosophers. Education is also a topic that is constantly debated.
This concept is entwined with Judeo-Christian beliefs of human
nature and provides an explanation as to why people are the way
they are. Theories of human nature are constantly examined by
philosophers to provide a set of guidelines on how we live our lives
and specifically, how we should educate children. What is the relation
between human nature and education? Theories on human nature
are the driving force of educational philosophy. Educational
philosophy attempts to define human nature and how to teach it. Are
children born as pieces of unmolded wax awaiting an artist’s hand to
transform them in to masterpieces? Perhaps they are born corrupt, as
all humankind is born into “original sin.” (O’Neill 192).

Philosopher’s different theories and interpretations influence

contemporary educational policies and what is considered “best
practices.” Studies on human nature dictate how children are taught,
how they learn and how schools are organized. The purpose of
education and learning philosophy is to have a model of teaching and
learning that is cohesive. However, we know that in matters of
children and education, no one size fits all. There are a few children
who have a high aptitude for intelligence and many who have an
average aptitude for intelligence.

The concept of nature means that people are who they are,
regardless of their environment. We are who we are and no one can
influence or change that. The finality of this idea is quite dismal. Are
children born with predisposed intelligences or is intelligence based
strictly on external influences? The dichotomy of “original sin” and
“blank white sheets,” are not mutually exclusive, nor are they without
controversy. Learning may be a little of both. These two contradictory
theories have influenced ancient and contemporary pedagogy.
Learning theories that aim to explain the original nature of man are
essential to pedagogical training because teachers need to know how
children learn and what their capabilities are.

According to John Dewey, “the mind is as continuous with the

materials within which it ingests and operates as is the stomach with
the materials that it ingests. We must know how children learn, their
learning styles and what their capabilities are, in order to set them on
a path for success. A teacher may have a class of academically gifted
students. The way in which the teacher instructs them, the types of
higher order thinking questions that the teacher asks them and the
types of activities that are developed will be completely different from
a class of students of average intelligence. As evidenced by
kindergarten gifted and talented classes, some geniuses may be born
and others are made.

1.11.3 Study of Human Nature

1. To understand why people behave in a particular way. Every
individual behaves differently. E.g.: some are optimistic whereas
some are pessimistic

2. To understand individuals' differences.

No two people in an identical situation behave in the same way.
Helps us to deal with individuals accordingly

3. To understand various internal processes

Studying different human beings
Helps people to understand the internal processes of a human
being.
4. To understand why people work
Some people work for money and some for satisfying
themselves
Learning human nature teaches how to motivate people and
fulfil their potentialities

5. To study the changes in the organization

Helps us to bring a desired and voluntary change in the
organization and also in individuals.

6. Help organizations and individuals in a mutually accepted in the

expected direction. Understand people and provide them with job

1.12 SOCIAL NATURE OF HUMANS

Human beings are social animals and more precisely small group
animals. They need intimacy and to be with others. The idea of our
social nature is the basis of all contemporary dynamic
psychotherapies. The shortening of therapies is possible precisely
because rapport and the therapeutic alliance can be established
immediately owing to pre-existing human interrelatedness. Whenever
two or more individuals are together there is a shared unconscious
field to which they belong and of which by definition (because it is
unconscious) they are not aware. In fact, one can say that the social
unconscious precedes the emergence of the individual
consciousness.
1.12.1 BASIC ASSUMPTIONS
The basic three assumptions include; human beings are religious by
nature, human beings are social by nature, and human beings are
conflictual by nature.

Human Beings are Religious by Nature.

Human Beings are Social by Nature

Human Beings are Conflictual by Nature.

*****
Sheet For Students
 UNIT 02 – KNOWLEDGE
Meaning of Knowledge
Derivative Meaning: 'Epistemology' comes from the Greek word’s
'episteme' meaning Knowledge and logos meaning discourse or
science. – Epistemology is one of the branches of philosophy, which
is concerned with the theory of knowledge. It solves two fundamental
problems of knowledge– the origin of knowledge and validation of
knowledge

Concept of Knowledge
Knowledge includes the fact or condition of knowing which is gained
through experience or association. Further, knowledge is understood
in terms of enlightenment. The Indian philosophy believes it as
breaking the veil of ignorance.

Definitions of Knowledge

Plato has examined three definitions of knowledge which are as

under: – Knowledge is perception or sensation; – Knowledge is
true belief; – Knowledge is true belief accompanied by a rational
ground. – Plato finally called knowledge as ‘Justified truth’.

Dewey denotes knowledge as ‘inference from truth’.

The National Curriculum Framework (2005), while placing the

experience of the knower at center, also defined knowledge.
According to it, “Knowledge can be conceived as experience
organized through language into patterns of thought (or
structures of concepts), thus creating meaning, which in turn
helps us to understand the world we live in. It can also be
conceived of as patterns of activity, or physical dexterity with
thought, contributing to acting in the world, and the creating and
making of things. Human beings over a time have evolved many
bodies of knowledge, which include a repertoire of ways of
thinking, of feeling and of doing things, and constructing more
knowledge (P.25).

According to the most widely accepted definition, – knowledge is

justified true belief. – It is a kind of belief is supported by the fact
that both knowledge and belief can have the same objects and
that what is true of someone who believes something to be the
case is also true, among other things, of one who knows it. – For
example, the sun rises in the east is the knowledge or true belief
that is supported by the fact which is arrived at through daily
observations for millions of years by people.
Meaning and concept of knowledge
Knowledge stands for: -
facts information and skills acquired by a person through
experience or education.
theoretical or practical understanding of a subject.
awareness or familiarity gained by experience of a fact or
situation.

Let us compare knowledge with wisdom.

Knowledge is the accumulation of facts and information. Wisdom is a
synthesis of knowledge and experiences into insights. Wisdom
deepens one’s relationships and the meaning of life. Education is a
means of discovering new things which we do not know and hence it
increases our knowledge.

So, knowledge is a meaningful structure of facts into some

relationships. We can define knowledge as
the fact of knowing
information or what is already known
the whole of what can be learned or found out.

Terms' knowledge, information, and wisdom are interrelated to each

other. We can further define knowledge as
assured belief
information
enlightenment
practical skill and acquaintance.

As used by teachers and educators the term ‘concept of knowledge’

refers to the information that teacher teaches and students are
expected to learn in a given subject or content area.

Knowledge is related to the facts, concepts, theories, and principles

that are taught. It is not related to skills such as reading, writing, or
researching that students learn in academic courses.
Importance of Knowledge
Knowledge is a powerful and important part of life.
A famous Sanskrit verse says that ‘an educated person is
honored everywhere’.
Knowledge has equipped man with limitless power. With
knowledge, man can dominate over beings who are much
stronger than him in strength.
Knowledge has helped humans and prompted the progress of
our civilization.
Knowledge accounts for the success of the people. The more
knowledgeable you are, the more advantage you have over
other people.
The power of knowledge should not be used for a destructive
purpose.

Characteristics of knowledge (In Points)

Knowledge is like wealth, the more he gets, the more he
craves.
Knowledge never decays.
Knowledge once gained casts a light beyond its immediate
boundaries.
Information is the source of knowledge.
The word knowledge implies three things – truth, proof,
conviction
Facts and values are the basis of the structures of knowledge.
Knowledge is boundless
It exists to be imparted.

Characteristics
The main characteristics of knowledge can be summarized as follows
-

Knowledge is a shared product: Knowledge is generated by

many and used by many more. It is not the possession of a few.
There is no qualification to generate and use knowledge. It is
open to use. People of all generations, geographical regions,
creed, castes, and classes have generated knowledge. You
must have heard of folk knowledge, tribal knowledge, knowledge
generated by rural people, kings, and priests and this
demonstrates that the generation and use of knowledge is
universal.

Knowledge is cumulative in nature: Knowledge grows and

builds on what already exists. Knowledge does not emerge in
isolation. Any new knowledge is the development or modification
of the existing knowledge. When we were students, we learnt
from our textbooks that there are six continents in the world.
Now students learn that there are seven continents in the world.

No knowledge is final: There is always a possibility of

knowledge getting modified. Some theories will be put forward,
and someone else may challenge the same and show that the
alternative is true. We had believed that the shape of the earth is
flat, and later it was proved to be spherical.

Knowledge develops perspectives: Let us say that you are

trying to know more about a ‘Dalit’ community. As you proceed in
your efforts, you realize that you need to study them from a
different perspective. Let us say, you want to understand them
from a social perspective, and knowing more about them will
prompt you to study them from an economic perspective. You
will proceed with that and it will open up some more
perspectives. Hence, knowledge does not only make you know,
but also allows and makes you know from different angles. This
is the most advantageous aspect of knowledge. If a student
gains knowledge about Gandhi and his work, he is not just
gathering facts about Gandhi’s work, he is also forming some
perspectives based on knowledge.

Knowledge is acquired through sense organs: Rose is red in

colour, Lata Mangeshkar sings well, masala dosa is tasty, and
jasmine has a good fragrance. How do we gain this knowledge?
It is through our senses.

Knowledge is transferable from person- to- person: We have

already learnt about explicit knowledge. Knowledge can be
passed on to others through records and oral traditions. You
must have heard of the ‘Shruthi’ or ‘Vedas’ in the Indian context,
which were transferred through generations in the oral tradition.
Knowledge is meant to be transferred.

Knowledge is based on different sources: Knowledge is

based on different sources, since it has explicit characteristics.
You must have heard arguments where people say, ‘I am sure of
what I am saying, because it is mentioned in the holy books’,
etc. Knowledge is based on sources like books, media,
dictionary, formal institutions, etc. Sense perception, inference,
verbal testimony (scriptures and valid literature of the past), and
sometimes even intuition is believed to be the sources of
knowledge.

Knowledge will not perish like other resources: Knowledge is

compared with fixed deposits, which no other person can claim.
Anything can be robbed or taken away from a person, but not
knowledge (Sanskrit phrase ‘prcchanna guptam dhanam’).
Though foreigners invaded India, they could not take our
knowledge of arts, science, and spiritualism. It remained with us.
Knowledge is an asset; it is valuable when compared with
physical or financial assets.

Cognitive and analytical ability is necessary to acquire

knowledge: Knowledge cannot be accumulated automatically.
One needs to make efforts to earn it. This requires some amount
of cognitive and analytical ability. One needs to recognise,
comprehend, perceive, analyse, reason, synthesise, and apply,
and these cognitive operations are required in getting
acquainted with knowledge.

Knowledge can be a process or a product: While climbing a

mountain, drawing a picture, or building a house, one will be
constantly in the process of doing it and at the same time,
acquiring knowledge. Every point in the process of acquisition of
knowledge, one can experience the product of knowledge. In the
process of drawing a picture, one may realize that holding a
pencil in a particular way makes drawing better. This is the point
where he/she can identify the product of knowledge though they
are in the process.
 Types of Knowledge based on the Source of
Knowledge
Knowledge, (for example fact, description, or information), is
awareness or understanding of something. Knowledge can be gained
through experience or learning, perceiving, or discovering something.
It practical or theoretical understanding of a particular subject.

There has always been a debate about what are the different types of
knowledge. This debate can last for centuries because knowledge is
philosophical and everyone has a different opinion about what
knowledge is. Read this article further and learn about the different
types of knowledge existing out there.

Posteriori knowledge:

The term “posteriori” is a Latin term which means “from which

comes after”. Therefore, posteriori knowledge refers to “what
comes after experience”. In simple words, posteriori knowledge
is a knowledge which is derived from practical experiences. The
term “Posteriori” is applied to information which is developed
with direct observations unlike mathematics or logical processes
which don’t require empirical evidence.

Prior knowledge:

The term “priori” is a Latin term which means “from before”.

Unlike posteriori knowledge, a priori knowledge is deduced from
first principles. Therefore a priori knowledge is the assumptions
that come before all the arguments, analysis or assessment.
For example, if you know that there are 10 boys and 15 girls in a
classroom, this priori knowledge will help you to select a team of
2 boys and 2 girls from the class. A priori knowledge is
commonly used in areas like logical thinking, mathematics,
physics, and thought experiments. In the science field, scientific
theories are developed and proved using priori evidence.

Dispersed knowledge:

Dispersed knowledge has no reliable source of truth. It is a

condition where information about a matter is divided amongst
many sources. Let’s understand this type of knowledge with an
Indian old folktale in which a few blind people describe an
elephant by touching the different part of the animal, thus, reach
significantly different conclusions.

This type of knowledge commonly exists in the financial market

because of its fast-moving nature. Different people concerned
with a company have different knowledge about the company.

For example, a banker may know about the financial condition of

the company, whereas an insider may have knowledge about
the company’s recent deals and a customer of the company may
notice the decline in the company’s service. Therefore,
dispersed knowledge can create uncertainty among investors
about the company.

Domain knowledge:
This type of knowledge is related to a specific field. The term
“domain” is used for a particular area and domain knowledge is
ability, information, or understanding about a specific field,
subject, profession, topic, or activity. This term is mostly used to
describe an expert’s expertise in a particular area.

The term “domain knowledge” can’t be used for subjects like

mathematics and physics, because these subjects have
applicability in a wide variety of problems. Therefore, domain
knowledge has significance within that particular area and it is
useless outside. For example, expertise in a software language
or skills involved in running fast.

Empirical knowledge:

This type of knowledge is attained from qualitative or

quantitative observations, experiments, or measurements. The
term empirical is derived from the Greek word “Empeiria”. The
meaning of “Empeiria” is experience in the Greek language.
Empirical information can be used to verify the truth or to prove
the falsity of an argument.

Encoded knowledge:
Encoded knowledge also called collective explicit knowledge.
This type of knowledge is conveyed by symbols and signs, like
books, documents, manuals, notes, and codes of practice. This
knowledge is helpful to produce an incorporated and predictable
pattern of output and behavior in an organization.
Explicit knowledge:

Explicit knowledge also referred to as expressive knowledge.

This type of knowledge can be easily expressed, organized, and
verbalized. It is put into words in a natural language like English,
German, French, etc. Therefore, it is easy to access and
transmit to others. The information obtained from documents,
encyclopedia, how-to-videos, or procedures is the best example
of explicit knowledge.

Known unknowns:

Known unknowns’ type of knowledge is that type of knowledge

that you know but you don’t know yet. This type of knowledge is
very beneficial for someone because having the awareness that
you don’t know something allows researching and enhancing.

The things that one doesn’t know help one to make effective
decisions because such things represent uncertainties and risks.
For example, an investment made on the purchase of stocks of
a company with the knowledge that it may lead to
disappointment in the future.

When scientists discover a new plant and don’t know if it has

water on it or not is another example of known unknowns.
However, there are certain things that one doesn’t know even
exist. This type of knowledge is named as “known unknowns”.
This type of knowledge is difficult to include in decision making.
Meta knowledge:

This type of knowledge is knowledge about knowledge. Meta-

knowledge is used to define things like tags, taxonomies,
models, which are helpful to describe knowledge.

Quite a lot of academic areas like the study of books,

epistemology, bibliography, or the philosophy of knowledge, are
considered as meta knowledge. Meta-knowledge is a
fundamental instrument for fields like knowledge engineering,
knowledge management etc. Example of meta knowledge is
planning, modeling, learning, and tagging of domain knowledge.

Procedural knowledge:

Procedural knowledge is being aware of how to do something.

This type of knowledge is difficult to convey, because of its job-
dependent nature. in the legal system, procedural knowledge is
considered as the intellectual property of a company and it can
be acquired after the company is procured.

Procedural knowledge involves more senses, such as practical

experience, practice at solving problems, etc. Procedural
knowledge is different from descriptive knowledge because
everyone has a different procedure to do a similar task and
descriptive knowledge is obtained by doing.
Propositional knowledge:

Propositional knowledge is also known as descriptive,

declarative, or constative knowledge. This type of knowledge
can be represented in a natural or formal language such as
mathematics or propositional logic. For instance, a rose is a
flower, Moon is sub-planet of earth, a+b>b+c.

Situated knowledge:

Situated knowledge comes from a viewpoint. It reflects a

context. This type of knowledge can be used to explain the
difficulty of analyzing history or culture being an outsider. For
instance, American researcher can form a theory about Indians
but it can be different from how Indians view themselves.

Tacit knowledge:

This type of knowledge is difficult to articulate, explain or attain,

such as mastering to play a musical instrument or solving
puzzles. It is also associated with unique experiences which
allows selective people to achieve mastery in a particular art.

Emotional intelligence is the best example of tacit knowledge

because it comes naturally to some people to use emotions to
achieve results. Other than that intuition, strategy, problem-
solving, and decision making are kind of tacit knowledge. Some
people are naturally good at them.

Nature of Knowledge

Abstract nature of Knowledge: Knowledge is shared

understanding; be it justified truth or agreement between two
ideas. This attributes to the abstract nature of knowledge.

Social nature of Knowledge: Knowledge is socially shared

understanding, as it is developed through the collective pursuit
of the community members of the society. Individuals acquire a
great deal of knowledge from their own experience;
simultaneously they build up the knowledge through association
with fellow humans. Therefore, the knowledge is acquired and
built up only in society, and its roots lies in the social activities of
man.

Knowledge is Cumulative: It is cumulative in nature because

it is socially preserved and transmitted from one generation to
the future generations. It is continuous to grow and develop in
generations with the help of new understanding of reality,
knowledge of the reality

– Knowledge is Both Limited and Limitless: The cumulative

character of knowledge also informs us both limit and limitless
nature of knowledge. At any particular stage in the development
of humanity, knowledge comes up against limits set by the
limited character of available experience and by the existing
means in obtaining knowledge. In other words, the known is
always bounded by the unknown but not the unknowable.

Knowledge is always on Probation – Knowledge meets our

daily requirements – Means to reach the truth Nature of
Knowledge.
 Plato’s Theory of Knowledge
The most significant part of Plato’s philosophy is his theory of
knowledge which lies at the basis of his theory of Ideas. Plato’s
theory of knowledge is a more refined form of the theory of
knowledge of Socrates. Socrates used the method of dialogue in
explaining and discovering the ultimate truth of life. Plato accepted
this method.

His procedure is known as ‘dialectic method’, which is a process of

forming ideas (concepts) of the lowest class character, gradually
rising to higher and more general and more comprehensive classes,
so that, ultimately, a single idea is reached through which all other
ideas can be explained, thus discovering a unifying principle behind
all ideas to make the world of our experience a comprehensive
whole.
Plato opens his discussion on knowledge by telling us first what
knowledge and truth are not. He thus refutes the false theories of
knowledge that prevailed at his time. The first such false theory is that
‘knowledge is perception.’

Four Grades of Knowledge

In ‘Republic’ Plato speaks of four grades of knowledge corresponding
to four knowing abilities of human mind.

These are:

The first two levels make the level of opinion or belief (perception).
The second two levels are super-sensible levels of reason.

(1) The lowest grade of knowledge is connected with our imagination.

It deals with illusion and dream images of particular things and
beings, e.g., the so-called knowledge of the image or copy of
particular ‘man’—this or that man. This level of knowledge is not at all
‘knowledge’ in the true sense.

(2) The next higher level of knowledge consists in perceptual belief

and opinion, e.g., knowledge of a particular man. This we get through
perception. Individual man is the copy of the Idea ‘man’. Here the
object of knowledge is copy of concepts.

According to Plato neither of these two levels are knowledge proper.

(3) The next higher level of knowledge consists in knowledge of

numbers and figures as is found in Mathematics and Geometry. Here
the knowing ability is understanding or intellect. Which is inferior to
reason according to Plato? This knowledge, though rational, is based
on some self-evident principles that intellect cannot justify
categorically but takes them for granted hypothetically.

(4) The highest level of knowledge is based on Pure Reason. Here

we have
knowledge of the Ideas or Forms e.g., the knowledge of ‘man’ in
general, or the Idea or Form ‘Man’. This knowledge is infallible, and is
of Reality.
 Methods of acquiring knowledge
Philosophers and educationists have bought out specific methods of
acquiring knowledge. Thus, there are different ways of knowing
knowledge.

1. From the Indian point of view, knowledge is named as Vidya. It

involves facts about reality as well as cognitive changes.

2. Knowledge, as defined by Oxford dictionary, is

What is known in a particular field?
Awareness gained by experience of fact or situation
The theoretical and practical understanding of a subject.

Religious Interpretations: - Various religions have

interpreted knowledge differently

Hindu Scriptures presents two kinds of knowledge: -

(A) Paroksh Gyan: - It is second-hand knowledge obtained

from books, hearing lectures etc.
(B) Aproksha Gyan: - It is knowledge obtained by direct
experiences.

According to Quran Knowledge comes from God and

various habits encourage the acquisition of knowledge.
According to Christianity Knowledge is one of the seven
gifts of the Holy Spirit.
Some methods of knowledge acquisition are given below: -

Let us now have an explanation of them one by one: -

Appeal to authority: -
Comes from authority or specialist in a particular field of
knowledge.
For example, scientists, philosophers, professor,
economists etc.
Teachers are accepted as an authority and great source of
knowledge by learners.

Appeal to Tradition: -
We depend on our traditions for the solution of many
problems we might face in our life.
 So, we have accepted various traditions of our forefathers
or our culture.
Everything that we have accepted from our traditions might
not always be valid.
Over the period of time, people have rejected those wrong
traditions which were once valid.
Therefore, we should always evaluate the knowledge
acquired from traditions before accepting it.

Appeal to Senses
Knowledge is drawn through five senses.
The more the senses are involved in process of acquiring
knowledge, more comprehensive would be the knowledge
acquired.

Inductive and Deductive methods: -

The inductive method starts with particular examples. Here
learner tries to arrive at a certain conclusion. This may lead
to the formulation of a law, generalization or principle.
In deductive method learner starts with a generalization or
rule, then he comes to particular examples.
So, we can say that knowledge is gathered both by
inductive and deductive methods.

Appeal to experiences:
Knowledge can also be gathered by experiences.
Our personal experiences or experiences of other people
are the most familiar and fundamental sources of
knowledge.
We learn many things from our day to life and what goes
around us.

Intuition: -
The knowledge gained out of intuition is spontaneous and
sudden.
Senses and minds are not involved during intuition.
Anyone can experience it at different points of time.
 Concentration and meditation: -
Concentration is a mental activity where the person
concentrating focuses his mental energy on aids like a
candle flame, idea. breathing, mantras etc.
In meditation person meditating concentrates for a longer
period of time. Both of them are foundations of attaining
knowledge.
While meditating or concentrating a person can make
inferences. He can even make a link of facts of knowledge
to something meaningful.

Observation and related processes: -

Four sub-processes of attaining knowledge are
observation, explanation, prediction and control.
Observation can be internal or external. It can even be a
scientific observation.
An explanation is the elaboration of facts of knowledge in a
logical manner.
Prediction is a process related to cause and effect. In this
process, results are predicted. One needs to understand
about causes and their effects.
Control is the process in which results are filtered out by
exercising control on certain factors.

Problem Solving: -
Here the solution of the problem being solved becomes the part
of knowledge. So, problem-solving is also an effective tool to
acquire knowledge.

BODY OF KNOWLEDGE
A body of knowledge (BOK or BoK) is the complete set of
concepts, terms and activities that make up a professional domain, as
defined by the relevant learned society or professional association. It
is a type of knowledge representation by any knowledge organization.
Several definitions of BOK have been developed.
What Is Body of Knowledge?
Body of knowledge (BOK) refers to the core teachings and skills
required to work in a particular field or industry. The body of
knowledge (BOK) is usually defined by professional associations or
societies. Members of the profession outline what is needed to do
their jobs and that forms the foundation for the curriculum of most
professional programs or designations. People seeking to enter the
profession must display their mastery of the body of knowledge in
order to receive accreditation that enables them to practice these
skills. Candidates usually demonstrate their mastery of the body of
knowledge by passing rigorous examinations. These exams can be a
single session or the accreditation can be done level by level,
requiring a person to practice at a particular level for a set amount of
time before challenging the next level.
How Do Children Construct Knowledge?
Childhood formula is by far the most intimate and priced possession
of a person. It does not matter who you are, where you live, or what
background you come from; every person has a childhood history.
The growing up formula which we carry into adulthood, are the
necessary ingredients that fashion our behaviour towards our social
community. Sometimes, we wish we could turn back the clock to our
childhood days whence we were excited to learn and try almost
everything at least once. We sought experience and adventure to
help us construct knowledge about our environment.

How do children construct knowledge or how do we as kids learn to

become smart, independent and free? Here are 5 pointers. Although
these approaches are related to children, it does not mean they do
not apply to us as adults. These are the real approaches which the
child in us has taken to become the man that we are now. So why
abandon and forget about it? We are what we are individual
champions, free and independent because of the knowledge we have
constructed as a child.

What are these 5 approaches?

Organization
Children scribble on pages to display evidence of their
construction of writing. They make a mess but to them the clutter
is the only way they can see the world around them and make
sense of the relationship between things, and things with people.
When a room is messy, there is work to be done and the
learning process takes place.

Repetition
They repeat their experiences, constructing dynamic
interactions between individuals, the physical and social
 environment. When they repeat a task like bouncing a ball, they
create a relationship between materials and their motor
functions. They sing a favourite tune repetitiously (so do we).

Social and Experiment

They try to make sense of relationships, experiences, ideas
and objects by socializing and experimenting on these idea and
objects. So do we? We make connections, create our own
community and seek experience on our social environment to
drive our ideas through.

Adjustment
Children learn to ‘adjust’ the model they have constructed by
comparing with their findings, asking questions and discovering
answers, using new information they have collected from
experimentation and socialization.

Repeat and Solve

Children are great problem solvers. They are willing to repeat
the experiences and solve real problems to educate their
thinking and reality of the world.

The most important for kids is that as they construct

knowledge, they enjoy and can focus on the process, the means
of which are merely materials and experiences from the
environment. Even if they have adults to care for them, the fact
remains, they grow up on their own, the environment is only
an aid to their development. The environment cannot create or
modify a child’s potential; the effort has to come from within.

UNIVERSAL AND LOCAL KNOWLEDGE

Local Knowledge
Information or knowledge limited to a state or community or to a fixed
area is called local knowledge. It is the knowledge that people in a
given community has developed over time and continues to develop.
Local knowledge is practical common sense based on teachings and
experiences passed on from generation-to-generation. Local
knowledge is also known as traditional knowledge or indigenous
knowledge.

Local knowledge covers the knowledge of environment such as snow,

ice, weather, resources, etc. It is divided into 3 kinds as common
knowledge, shared knowledge, and specialized knowledge.
1. Common knowledge is held by most people in a community. For
example, how to cook the local staple food.
2. Shared knowledge is shared by many people, but not by all
community members.
For example, villagers who raise livestock will know more about basic
animal husbandry than those without livestock.
3. Specialized knowledge is held by only few people, who might have
special training or apprenticeship. For example, only few villagers
become healers, midwives or blacksmiths.
This type of knowledge is related to age, gender, occupation, division
of labour within family, community, socio-economic status,
experience, environment, etc. This has significant implications for
research and development work.
Characteristics of Local Knowledge
Local knowledge is -
• Based on individual and community experiences,
• Tested over centuries, and
• Based on local culture and environment.
• It includes community practices, institutions, relationship, and
rituals;
• It is dynamic and changing;
• It is a collection of facts, concepts, beliefs, and perceptions that
people have about the environment around them;
• It applies to knowledge possessed by rural, urban, migrants, etc.
• It is based on tribal, original inhabitants, and experiences of elder
generations;
• It is observed, experimented, and experienced by people;
• It reflects people’s behaviours, and the ability of problem solving in a
specific situation;
• It includes processes whereby knowledge is generated, stored,
applied, and transmitted to others;
• It is holistic, and cannot be compartmentalized. It is rooted in the
spiritual healing, culture, and language of the people, and is a way of
life; and
• It is dynamic and constantly changing as it adapts to a changing
environment.
Universal Knowledge
Knowledge accepted by all the people of the world and is common to
all is referred to as universal knowledge.
Universal knowledge is a new approach, and is called as meta-
science. It provides developmental answers to all questions. It
extends to surrounding factors and influence of time. It refers to
cumulative and complex bodies of knowledge, know-how, practices,
based on science that are accepted and developed by people with
extended research, inventions, experiences, and interactions with the
natural environment. This universal knowledge streams from nowhere
but it is within the being-ness that this pure untouched knowledge
arises in its clearest form. For example, clouds bring rain and burning
fuel provides energy.
Characteristics of Universal Knowledge
• It is related to knowledge and thought;
• It changes behaviour among human beings;
• It grows with time;
• It is a collection of facts and phenomena; and
• It helps to understand the originality of existence.
There are a few differences between local
knowledge and universal knowledge.
Local knowledge
1. Is related to local region
2. Has different opinions
3. Is document- based?
4. Is based on local knowledge experience, environment, and rituals.
5. Does not change the behaviour of human beings
Universal knowledge
1. Is the same for all
2. Has a single opinion
3. Is truth-based
4. Is based on knowledge and thought
5. Changes the behaviour among human beings

KNOWLEDGE AS CONSTRUCTION AND

ACQUISITION OF LEARNING EXPERIENCES
The humanistic school of psychology believes that learning is a
process of construction of knowledge by linking new ideas to existing
ones. Such process enables children to make meaning of the world
around them. The connection between existing and new knowledge
can be facilitated by providing supportive environment to children.
The teachers provide appropriate material support and help to
organize various activities which constitute learning experiences. For
example, if children are shown a set of visuals and pictures of various
occupations combined with discussions, they can formulate general
ideas about them.
The interactions and visual representations will help them construct
ideas about different occupations like teaching, medical profession,
industrial, trade practices for urban students. Students from a rural
background can think of agricultural practices, handicrafts, weaving,
pottery, carpentry, dairy farming and others. Learners construct and
reconstruct ideas based on these experiences and thus learning
progresses as they acquire new knowledge.

For example, initial knowledge about a particular occupation, let us

say health and medical practices, will lead to expansion in the
knowledge domain by accommodating new ideas about other
occupations. The learners need to be engaged in meaningful
activities and interactions that construct mental images of the
different occupations and their relationship with human life. Gaining
new knowledge also has a social aspect.

Knowledge construction can occur in a group situation, especially if

the task is complex. Group learning or collaborative learning
facilitates knowledge construction by sharing diverse ideas, multiple
views. The children construct knowledge individually as well as in
groups. Children at the elementary level can be given a group project
on the role of a village post office.
 Relationship between Curriculum, Syllabus and
Textbooks
Have you ever wondered why so often textbooks are mistaken for
syllabus?

Perhaps this is because of the close relation between syllabus and

Textbooks. You will agree that it is through the textbooks that the
syllabus acquires concrete shape to achieve the objectives defined in
the syllabus. In many parts of the world, language education courses
are designed following a syllabus-driven approach that is the syllabus
determines what kind of materials will be adopted and in what ways
they will be exploited for the classroom teaching.

In a certain educational context, the syllabus even determines how

materials should be designed in the first place. Therefore, the
materials are not seen as an alternative to the syllabus, but an
instrument among others used to fulfill the goals of the syllabus.
Materials, whether commercially developed or homemade, are an
important element within the curriculum. While the syllabus defines
the goals and objectives, the linguistic and experiential content,
instructional materials can put flesh on the bones of these
specifications.

After pondering deeply, you must have judged and come to the
conclusion that curriculum, syllabus and textbooks are interlinked. It
has been made clear that the syllabus is the concrete form of
curriculum and textbooks are developed under the syllabus. All
aspects, of curriculum and syllabus, are incorporated textbooks. In
other words, what is mentioned in the curriculum is reflected in the
syllabus and the textbooks is the reflection of the syllabus. Syllabus
by itself cannot be transacted in the classroom. That is the reason
why there is demand and need for textbooks. The textbook is a final
and concrete tool for an infraction with the learners.

The more planned the textbook is easier is the task of the teacher in
making his/her learner transacts the content. Since the textbooks is a
potent tool in the hands of a teacher, it must match the mental ages
of the learners. The needs and interest of the pupil must also be
taken into consideration while developing materials of textbooks.
Lessons is the textbook should be linked with the prior experiences of
the learners on the basis of which the learners construct knowledge.
Suitable vocabulary, structures, sufficient exercises for practice,
innovative activities, appealing illustrations are the basis concepts of
a textbook. Simply language and style of presentation also matter a
lot.

CURRICULUM AND SYLLABUS

When it comes to education, the two concepts which pop up in our
mind which are commonly misconstrued are syllabus and
curriculum. Syllabus connotes the subjects as well as the topics
covered in the course of study. On the other
hand, curriculum implies the chapters and academic content taught
in school or college. It alludes to the knowledge, skills and
competencies students should learn during study.

The fundamental difference between syllabus and curriculum is that

the former is focused towards a particular subject. Unlike, the latter,
which is related to the all-round development of a student. Similarly,
there are other differences between these two that are discussed in
the article provided below, take a read.
Definition of Syllabus
The syllabus is defined as the documents that consist of topics or
portion covered in a particular subject. It is determined by the
examination board and created by the professors. The professors are
responsible for the quality of the course. It is made available to the
students by the teachers, either in hard copy or electronic form to
bring their attention towards the subject and take their study
seriously.

A syllabus is considered as a guide to the in charge as well as to the

students. It helps the students to know about the subject in detail,
why it is a part of their course of study, what are the expectations
from students, consequences of failure, etc. It contains general rules,
policies, instructions, topics covered, assignments, projects, test
dates, and so on.

Definition of Curriculum
The curriculum is defined as the guideline of the chapters and
academic content covered by an educational system while
undergoing a particular course or program.
In a theoretical sense, curriculum refers to what is offered by the
school or college. However, practically it has a wider scope which
covers the knowledge, attitude, behaviour, manner, performance and
skills that are imparted or inculcated in a student. It contains the
teaching methods, lessons, assignments, physical and mental
exercises, activities, projects, study material, tutorials, presentations,
assessments, test series, learning objectives, and so on.

The curriculum is well planned, guided and designed by the

government or the educational institution. It is aimed at both physical
and mental development of a student. It is the overall learning
experience that a student goes through during the particular course of
study.
Key Differences between Syllabus and Curriculum
The basic differences between syllabus and curriculum are explained
in the point given below:

1. The syllabus is described as the summary of the topics covered

or units to be taught in the particular subject. Curriculum refers
to the overall content, taught in an educational system or a
course.
2. Syllabus varies from teacher to teacher while the curriculum is
same for all teachers.
3. The term syllabus is a Greek origin, whereas the term curriculum
is a Latin origin.
4. The curriculum has a wider scope than the syllabus.
5. The syllabus is provided to the students by the teachers so that
they can take an interest in the subject. On the other hand,
normally the curriculum is not made available to the students
unless specifically asked for.
 6. Syllabus is descriptive in nature, but the curriculum is
prescriptive.
7. Syllabus is set for a particular subject. Unlike curriculum, which
covers a particular course of study or a program.
8. Syllabus is prepared by teachers. Conversely, a curriculum is
decided by the government or the school or college
administration.
9. The duration of a syllabus is for a year only, but curriculum lasts
till the completion of the course.

Conclusion
Curriculum and Syllabus are the terms of education, imparted to the
students by teachers. It means the knowledge, skills or qualifications
that are passed on from one generation to another. A subject syllabus
is a unit of the curriculum. The two terms differ in a sense that
curriculum is a combination of some factors which helps in the
planning of an educational program, whereas a syllabus covers the
portion of what topics should be taught in a particular subject.
 *******

Sheet for Students (Extra Notes)

 UNIT 03 – THE LEARNER
3.1 What is learning?
Concept of Learning
Concept of learning is of huge importance in human behavior. Human
being goes on learning from birth till death. Albert Einstein in one of
his quotes said that, “Once you stop learning you start dying”.

Learning is a natural phenomenon that is natural to all organisms

including both humans and animals. Learning affects a child’s
development. A child learns new habits only through the process of
learning and through imitated traditions and customs. Intellectual
skills are also developed through learning. The decision of right and
wrong, the concepts of justice and aesthetic sense, etc. develop
through learning. This process of learning continues throughout life.
Learning is the basis of maturation. Learning affects our
Customs and traditions
Attitudes and beliefs
personalities
goals

In fact, it would not be wrong to say that learning affects all aspects of
our life. Learning is a key concept of Psychology. Learning
phenomenon is very important for the development of human beings.
Various psychologists have explained learning from a different point
of views. According to behaviorists,
Learning is the modification of behavior as a result of experience. The
child brings changes in his behavior after gaining experiences from
the environment.
Everything a learner does or thinks is learning. Learning is a relatively
permanent change in behavior of the learner it even brings changes
in the personality traits of the learner.

Meaning of learning and definition in Education?

Various psychologists and educationists have defined the concept
and meaning of learning in their own way. Some define as a process,
some as a change in performance and some define learning as
acquisition and retention of knowledge.
According to Gestalt’s view,
“The basis of learning is to gain knowledge after observing the
whole structure. Responding towards the entire situation is
learning.”

Kurt Lewin has presented the field view of learning and

explained
The learning as the direct cognitive organization of a situation.
Motivation has a significant role & place in learning.”

According to Woodworth,
“The process of acquiring new knowledge and new responses
is the process of learning.”
 G.D. Boaz (1984) observes learning as a process. According to
him
“Learning is the process by which the individuals acquires
various habits, knowledge, and attitudes that are necessary to
meet the demands of life, in general”

According to Cronbach,
“Leaning is shown by a change in behavior as a result of
experience.”

Pavlov has said, “

Learning is habit formation resulting from conditioning.”

According to Kingsley and Garry,

“Learning is a process by which behavior is originated or
change through practice or training.”

In the words of C.E. Skinner,

“Learning is the process of progressive behavior adoption.”

As a result of studying and analysis of the above-mentioned

definitions of learning in education, the following facts come to the
light:

1. Learning is a modification in behavior.

2. Learning is the organization of behavior.
3. Learning is the confirmation of a new process.

The meaning of learning explained –

1. Learning is a broad term. Learning includes all activities which
affect children. Along with the growing process, the mental
development of the child occurs. As a result, changes take place in
his behavior continuously. The child goes on learning through
experiences.
2. From a psychological point of view, learning has been explained as
a stimulus-response process. According to the point of view, the
establishment of the stimulus-response relationship is known as
leaning.

Some other facts also come before us relating to the learning, such
as-
(i) Learning is a process through which the behavior of the child
changes or modifies.
(ii) Learning is predicted on the basis of changes in behavior.
(iii) These changes can be negative or positive.
(iv) The changes due to learning are permanent.
(v) Changes in the behavior are the results of experiences.
(vi) Learning can be termed as a mental process. Language
Customs and traditions
Attitudes and beliefs
personalities
goals

In fact, it would not be wrong to say that learning affects all aspects of
our life. Learning is a key concept of Psychology. Learning
phenomenon is very important for the development of human beings.
Various psychologists have explained learning from a different point
of views. According to behaviorists,
Learning is the modification of behavior as a result of experience. The
child brings changes in his behavior after gaining experiences from
the environment.
Everything a learner does or thinks is learning. Learning is a relatively
permanent change in behavior of the learner It even brings changes
in the personality traits of the learner.

Various psychologists and educationists have defined the concept

and meaning of learning in their own way. Some define as a process,
some as a change in performance and some define learning as
acquisition and retention of knowledge.
In a Layman’s view, “Learning is something we did when we went to
school.” In reality, each of us is continuously going to school.
Learning is occurring all the time. With every new experience, new
event or new situation we learn something. But this concept of
learning is purely theoretical. We cannot observe learning as we can
observe the personality of a person or his attitude. We can see
changes taking place but not the learning itself. Learning is used in
many contexts. Simply speaking, learning refers to this modification
of behaviour through practice, training and experience.

According to E.R. Hilgard, “Learning is a relatively permanent

change in behaviour that occurs as a result of a prior
experience.”

According to W.Mc Gehee, “Learning has taken place if an

individual behaves, reacts, and responds as a result of
experience in a manner different from the way he formerly
behaved.”

Kurt Lewin has presented the field view of learning and

explained
The learning as the direct cognitive organization of a situation.
Motivation has a significant role & place in learning.”

According to Woodworth,
“The process of acquiring new knowledge and new responses
is the process of learning.”

According to Cronbach, “Leaning is shown by a change in

behavior as a result of experience.”

Pavlov has said, “Learning is habit formation resulting from

conditioning.”

Some other facts also come before us relating to the learning, such
as-
(i) Learning is a process through which the behavior of the child
changes or modifies.
(ii) Learning is predicted on the basis of changes in behavior.
(iii) These changes can be negative or positive.
(iv) The changes due to learning are permanent.
(v) Changes in the behavior are the results of experiences.
(vi) Learning can be termed as a mental process.
How is ‘Learning’ defined?
Learning may be defined as a relatively permanent change in
behaviour that occurs as the result of experience. Not all changes
can be explained as learning, so our definition has to be qualified to
exclude them. The phrase relatively permanent excludes changes in
behaviour that result from temporary transient conditions such as
fatigue or the influence of drugs.

By specifying that learning is of experience we exclude changes that

are due to maturation, disease, or physical damage, could be defined
more simply as profiting from experience, were it not that some
learning snot “profit” the learner: useless and harmful habituate
learned just as are useful ones.
3.2 What are the Conditions Affecting Learning in
School?
Learning is in the context (learning material) when we say that a
student is learning our answer is not complete, we just give an
incomplete statement.
We should say a student is learning what? And the answer to this
‘what’ indicates towards the content a student is expected to learn or
the objectives he is going to achieve.

Besides, learner and content, in a conventional classroom, there is a

teacher who through the act of his teaching helps the students learn.

Thus, there are three categories of conditions which affect learning

namely.

1. The Conditions Related to the Content

2. The Teacher
3. The Learner

Unless a teacher knows ‘What to teach’ and the student knows ‘What
to yearn’ it will be impossible to carry on the process of learning. The
answers to these two questions specify the content or the curriculum.

The activities, the objectives, and the organization of the curriculum

determine the nature of the learning process.

The conditions related to students are perhaps the most important in

facilitating efficient learning. So, educationists on providing a
favourable learning environment to the students, whether in school or
at home the student should be given a calm, clean lighted and well-
ventilated space for his study and related activities.

The physical and mental health of the student also affects his
learning. Only a physically and mentally alert student can learn
properly. Reasons for Deficiency – Sometimes, students show a
deficiency in learning. There may be so many reason-some areas
under:
1. The type may not be properly motivated.
2. They may not be interested in what is being taught to them.
3. The teacher might have used the defective method of teaching or
the activities he has chosen are beyond their maturity level.
4. The student may be over-burdened due to heavy home
assignments given to him in one or more academic subjects. Such a
practice creates unnecessary tension in the mind of the student. So
the student feels tired and bored in his study.

3.3 Nature of Learning

Change in Behaviour: Learning involves change in behaviour,
although the change may be good or bad from an organization’s
point of view. The change in behaviour need not be an
improvement over the previous behaviour, although learning
usually connotes improved behaviour. For example, bad habits
like smoking, prejudice and stereotype are often learned by
individuals.

Change in Behaviour must be Relatively Permanent:

All the changes do not reflect learning. To constitute learning,
change should be relatively permanent. Temporary changes
may be only reflective and fail to represent any learning. Any
temporary change in behaviour caused due to fatigue or drugs
or temporary adaptations are not covered in learning.

Change Must Be Based on Some Experience, Practice or

Training:
The behavioural change must be based on some form of
practice, experience or training. Any change in behaviour due to
physical maturation, any disease or physical damages do not
constitute learning. This change may not be evident until a
situation arises in which the new behaviour can occur.

Reinforcement:
 The practice or experience must be reinforced in order for
learning to occur. If reinforcement does not accompany the
practice or experience the behaviour will eventually disappear.

Learning is Reflected in Behaviour:

A change in an individual’s thought process or attitudes not
accompanied by behaviour is not learning. Further learning
needs to result in behaviour potentiality and not necessarily in
the behaviour itself. For example, if a person is thinking of using
drugs, but has not actually used them and he finds out that a
friend of his has died because of drugs, he will never get
involved with drugs. This experience has changed his behaviour
potential.

3.4 THE CHILD AS LEARNER

Did you know?
- Children who believe that their parents think 'school is great'
automatically do better in class.
- Children need between 11.5 hours sleep (aged 4) and 9.5 hours
sleep (aged 11) in order to control their own behaviour properly in
school.
- Children who don't have breakfast struggle to concentrate and do
less well in assessments and SATs as a result. They are also more
likely to be overweight as they make up for missing breakfast by
eating in the evening - the time that the body doesn't need energy so
'stores' it as fat.
- Teachers must behave as would a "reasonable" parent. Children
who see that their parent disagrees with their teacher misbehave in
the same way as when they see two parents arguing.

1. The Child Learner as Responsible and

Independent

Preparing for Primary School (age 4-7): The start of

independence
• Teach your child to use the toilet (and urinal) independently; this will
improve their self-esteem when they are at school with their peers
• Ensure they can dress themselves and put on their own coat
• Encourage them to carry their own bag to school
• Be confident when dropping them off at school; don’t let them ‘cling’
to you at the school gate
• Encourage them to become a ‘playground friend’ or ‘school buddy’
• Support them to hang up their school uniform ready for the next day
• Include them when completing household tasks

Preparing for Junior School (age 7-11): Supporting your child to

organize themselves

• Take turns in finding the way to the shops, playground etc.; this will
give them confidence when navigating their way around the school
building and playground
• Support them to make their own bed each morning
• Make them responsible for organizing their own homework activities
• Ensure they pack their own school bag in plenty of time
• Encourage them to walk or cycle to school by themselves or with
friends when it’s safe to do so
• Make time for your child to play out with their friends in a safe area
• Encourage them to become a ‘reading buddy’ and to take on
responsibilities at school

Preparing for Secondary School (11+): Supporting your child to be

responsible for themselves

• Ensure your child is aware of the dangers of using social media and
the internet inappropriately
• Teach them to manage a small budget
• Create a tidy space at home for them to complete their homework
• Show them how to create a study timetable; encourage them to
complete their homework without unnecessary help or intervention
• Explain the importance of packing the right equipment for school
each day e.g. calculator, books, PE Kit
• Encourage them to travel independently by public transport, bike or
foot
• Make them aware of the costs of using a mobile phone
• Teach them how to prepare a simple meal
• Ensure they change their bed regularly

Hints and tips for encouraging independence:

Set appropriate boundaries for your child but help them to try out new
things
• Try to guide your child rather than tell them what to do; this will
encourage them to develop their own thoughts and ideas with your
support
• Give positive support when your child faces challenges
• Praise effort rather than success and help them see we all learn
from mistakes
• Don’t do everything for your child, even if that seems easier!
• Try to be positive when your child is demonstrating independence

2. The Learners getting ready to learn

Talking and listening
It is really important to talk to your child and listen to them. Finding
time for both can be so difficult with busy lives!

• Set aside time for talking – without being interrupted by phones, TV,
radio, computer etc.!
• Tell them about your day and encourage them to tell you about
theirs
• Don’t interrupt your child, be patient and allow them time to speak
• Ask your child for their opinions and value what they say.

Spending time together

You can help your child if you:
• Share books and games in a quiet environment – not in front of the
TV!
• Play games together as a family that encourage concentration, such
as jigsaws and board games
• Encourage physical play and exercise by taking a trip to the park or
the local leisure center
• Give lots of hugs and praise

Being prepared!
• Check your child has their name in everything they bring to school
• Make sure your child remembers to bring everything they need each
day – reading book, PE kit, homework
• Keep in contact with the school and let them know if you change
phone numbers and addresses
• If you have concerns about your child’s wellbeing, tell school as
soon as possible so they can help to find solutions to any problems

Working out a family routine

• Children like routine so try to have regular times for going to bed
and getting up, mealtimes and family time
• Make sure they have a healthy breakfast at home or at the school’s
Breakfast Club
• Have a regular time for a meal together in the evening
• Try to make time for homework, reading and talking together and
bedtime stories

Getting enough sleep

• Children need sleep to develop, to concentrate in school and to
learn well
• Under-fives need up to 15 hours, primary children about 10 hours
and even older children still need 9 hours
• Too many late bedtimes can make it hard for them to learn
• A good night’s rest will help your child feel happy all day long

Behaving Well
• Agree clear and realistic rules and stick to them!
• Encourage your child to always say ‘please’ and ‘thank you’ and not
to interrupt you or others when you are talking
• Support school rules and encourage your child to follow these
• Ask for help if your child’s behaviour is proving difficult at home

3. Getting your Leaner Ready to Learn

Exciting things to do together: There are lots of fun activities you
can do as a family to help your child with their learning and to support
the school curriculum

• Visit a museum or historical site

Go shopping and use real money
Walk in a woodland
Plant seeds and watch them grow
Visit the library and choose a book
Make a tent, indoors or out!
Plan a route using maps, compass or GPS
Search for mini beasts or go pond dipping
Look at the stars at night and find out about the planets
Make a model, picture or collage with everyday household items
Find time to sit together and think and dream.

Helping hand: at home

• Help your child to have all the equipment they need for learning
• Ask your child what they have learnt at school and take an interest
in these topics
• Allow your child to help you with shopping, cooking and other jobs
around the house
• Be patient when your child is helping
• Make time for regular reading with your child including books,
magazines, newspapers and online

Helping with homework:

• Provide a quiet place for your child to work

• Help your child develop a routine and set dedicated time aside
• Give encouragement and support to help your child complete their
homework • Help your child to learn the basics such as spellings and
tables
• Take time to answer your child’s questions and address their
concerns

Helping your child to learn in and out of the home:

• Link your child’s learning to family activities. The school can give
your ideas (or see the back page)
• Look for things in your local area that will help your child to learn
such as nature reserves and museums
• Spend time playing outside and talk about the world around them
• Get to know what your child is learning and ask the school about it
• Take time to listen to your child and explain things carefully,
developing their understanding and vocabulary

Helping hand:

• Offer to help out with educational trips, visits and clubs when you
can
• Ask your child’s teacher how you can help in class e.g. with reading
and practical activities
• Attend as many parents’ meetings as you can, especially ones that
are about learning
• If your school offers family learning, try to get involved

Helping with communication:

• You and your child’s school both want the best for them so don’t be
afraid to ask questions
• Read the information the school provides – letters, leaflets, emails,
texts or online
• Keep the school informed about family changes that might affect
your child’s learning, however small
• Respond promptly to school communications and let school know if
you change your contact details
Helping with school life:

• Join the PTA and get involved with fundraising to support your
child’s school • If your school has a Parents’ Forum, use this to share
views and ideas
• Take part in a Parent Helper Training Programme; this will help your
own child as well as other pupils
• Give constructive feedback to your child’s school about what is
working well.

3.5 THE FAMILY

The family is an intimate domestic group made up of people related
to one another by bonds of blood, sexual mating, or legal ties. It is the
smallest and most basic social unit, which is also the most important
primary group found in any society.

It is the simplest and most elementary group found in a society. It is a

social group consisting of a father, mother, and one or more children.
It is the most immediate group a child is exposed to. It is the most
enduring group, which has a tremendous influence on the life of an
individual, from birth until death. It also accounts for the most
enduring social relationship found in society. The family has been
defined by different social scientists.
Some of these definitions are given below -
‘Family is a group defined by the sexual relationship,
sufficiently precise and enduring to provide for the procreation
and upbringing of children.’ – Maclver

‘The family, almost without question, is the most important of

any group that human experience offers … the family … is with
us always, or more precisely, we are with it.’– Robert Bierstedt

‘Family is a more or less durable association of husband and

wife, with or without child, or of a man or woman alone, with
children.’ – M. F. Nimkoff

‘Family is the biological social unit composed of husband, wife

and children.’ - Eliot and Merrill
‘Family is a group of persons united by ties of marriage, blood
or adoption constituting a single household interacting and inter-
communicating with each other in their respective social roles of
husband and wife, father and mother, son and daughter, brother
and sister, creating a common culture.’ – Burgess and Locke
 ‘Family is a group of persons, whose relations to one another
are based upon consanguinity and who are therefore kin to one
another.’ – Kingsley Davis

Characteristics of Family
1. A family is a Universal group. It is found in some form or the other,
in all types of societies whether primitive or modern.

2. A family is based on marriage, which results in a mating

relationship between two adults of the opposite sex.

3. Every family provides an individual with a name, and hence, it is a

source of nomenclature.

4. Family is the group through which descent or ancestry can be

traced.
5. Family is the most important group in any individual’s life.

6. Family is the most basic and important group in the primary

socialization of an individual.

7. A family is generally limited in size, even large, joint, and extended

families.

8. The family is the most important group in society; it is the nucleus

of all institutions, organizations, and groups.

9. Family is based on emotions and sentiments. Mating, procreation,

maternal and fraternal devotion, love, and affection are the basis of
family ties.

10. A family is a unit of emotional and economic cooperation.

11. Each member of family shares duties and responsibilities.

12. Every family is made up of husband and wife, and/or one or more
children, both natural and adopted.
13. Each family is made up of different social roles, like those of
husband, wife, mother, father, children, brothers or sisters.

Functions of Family
As a social group and as an important social institution, family
performs various functions that are as follows:

1. A family is a unit through which procreation takes place. Marriage

sanctions sexual relationships, and it also establishes a family, which
is further reinforced with the birth of children.

2. The process of reproduction is institutionalized, regulated and

controlled in a family. The family legitimizes the act of reproduction.

3. Family helps in the propagation of human species and

perpetuation of the human race.

4. Family provides an individual with an identity.

5. It is through the family that every family name is carried on from

one generation to another.

6. Family is responsible for the production and upbringing of children.

7. Family is an important agent of socialization. The primary

socialization of any individual takes place within the family. The imme-
diate family members teach all the basic rules and norms of social life
to a child.

8. Family is also an important agent of cultural transmission. Culture

is transmitted from one generation to another through the family. All
the aspects of culture are learned within the family structure.
9. Family is a great source of strength, emotional and psychological,
for its members. All the members are aware that they can depend
upon their family in times of need.
10. Family provides an individual with a home, and establishes
enduring social relationships.

11. The family is the basis of division of labour, where all members
have their duties and obligations towards each other.

12. A family fulfills the economic needs of its members. This function
has transformed, with families moving from being production and
consumption units in earlier times, to becoming more of consuming
units rather than a producing one. Nowadays, members of a family no
longer produce things themselves; rather, they go out and work for
some monetary remuneration or wages.

13. Family is traditionally responsible for the education of the

children.

14. Family also has a recreational function. Earlier, most recreation

was family- based. Family gatherings during festivals, functions,
family reunions, marriages, brought entire families together. Now-a-
days, taking family members out on holidays or for movies, plays,
dinners, or parties, etc., perform the same function.

Types or Forms of Family

A description of the above classification of types or forms of the

family is explained here:
1. Based on Birth:
Family of Orientation:
The family in which an individual is born is his family of
orientation.

Family of Procreation:
The family where an individual sets up after his/her marriage is
his/her family of procreation.
The family of orientation and procreation may live together under
the same roof, but can still be distinguished.

2. Based on Marriage:

Monogamous Family:
This family consists of one husband and wife, including children
and is based on monogamous marriages.

Polygynous Family:
A family consisting of one husband, and more than one wife,
and all the children born to all the wives or adopted by each of
them. This type of family has its basis in the polygynous form of
marriage.

Polyandrous Family:
A family made up of one wife and more than one husband, and
the children, either born or adopted with each one of them. This
family is based on polyandrous marriage.

3. Based on Residence:

Family of Matrilocal Residence:

When a couple stays in the wife’s house, the family is known as
family of matrilocal residence.

Family of Patrilocal Residence:

 When a family stays in the house of husband, the family is
known as family of patrilocal residence.

Family of Changing Residence:

When a family stays in the husband’s house for some time, and
moves to wife’s house, stays there for a period of time, and then
moves back to husband’s parents, or starts living in another
place, the family is called a family of changing residence.

4. Based on Ancestry or Descent:

Matrilineal Family:
When ancestry or descent is traced through the female line, or
through the mother’s side, the family is called matrilineal family.

Patrilineal Family:
A family in which the authority is carried down the male line,
and descent is traced through the male line or the father’s side,
is called a patrilineal family.

5. Based on Authority:

Matriarchal Family:
Matriarchal families are generally found in matrilineal societies.
In these families, a woman is the head of the family, and
authority is vested in her. Succession of property is through the
female line, i.e., only daughters inherit the property.

After marriage, the husband resides in the wife’s house and

descent is traced through the mother’s side. Here, children are
brought up in mother’s house. Thus, in matriarchal societies, the
matrilocal system exists. Matriarchal families are found only in
matrilineal societies, which are very limited in number all over
the world. They are found in parts of Latin America, Ceylon,
parts of Africa and India (the Khasis and the Garos).

Patriarchal Family:
 Patriarchal families are commonly found in all parts of the
world, since most societies in the world are patrilineal societies.
In patriarchal families, the head of the family is a male, and
authority is vested in him. Descent and property is passed
through the male line and children are brought up in father’s
house. Such families are Patriarchal in nature.

6. Based on the Nature of Relations:

Conjugal Family:
The conjugal family is made up of adults among whom there is
a sexual relationship. It refers to a family system of spouses and
their dependent children. The emphasis is placed on the marital
relationship that exists between spouses. In modern times, the
term ‘conjugal family’ is being used for partners, who have a
long- term sexual relationship, but are not actually married.

Consanguine Family:
A consanguine family is made up of members among whom a
blood relation exists, or those who are consanguineal kin, i.e., a
family consisting of parent(s) and children, or siblings (brothers,
sisters, or brothers and sisters).

7. Based on state or structure:

Nuclear Family:
A nuclear family is a small group consisting of a husband, a
wife and children, natural or adopted. It is more or less an
autonomous unit that is not under the control of adults or elders
of the family. It consists of two generations only. In all modern
societies, nuclear family is the most common type of family. In
fact, nuclear family is both the consequence as well as the
cause of the disintegration of joint family.

Joint Family:
A joint family consists of three generation, living together under
the same roof, sharing the same kitchen and purse or economic
 expenses. It is a family consisting of three nuclear families living
together. According to Iravati Karve, a joint family is ‘a group of
people, who generally live under the same roof, who eat food
cooked at one hearth, who hold property in common, and who
participate in common family worship and are related to each
other as some particular type of kindered.’

In Figure 2, Ego (the shaded figure) is a part of a joint family

consisting of four generations—the children, parents, grandparents
and great-grandparents, all from the father’s side. These types of joint
families are also known as patriarchal (father- centred) or patrilineal
(lineage traced through the father s or male side) joint families.

In such families, only unmarried daughters, or at times widowed

daughters are a part of the family. Married daughters no longer
belong to the family as they become a part of their husbands’ family.
However, in the case of matriarchal joint families (mother-centered) or
matrilineal (lineage or descent traced through the mother’s side or the
female side), daughters are a part of the joint family, whereas sons
become a part of their wives’ families.
The Role of the family in Education
The family is the most important primary group in society. Everyone is
a member of family and has duties to make our self to become a
person who have responsibility and value. Also, family has
responsibility in teaching children as its contribution in a building
human resource for society. Member of family has right to get the
body prevent, take care, and human right from parents. Member of
family need meal, clothes, home, education, health prevention, and
safety. To complete this need, the parents try to do anything to raise
and complete all needs. The family also has function to provide
formal and informal education to children or member of family. So,
function of family is very important to educate children to become
human resource in society.
The primary function or essential function:
There are six major functions in the primary function or essential
function including firstly, Stable satisfaction of sex need refer to sex
drive is powerful in human being and sex need make humans try to
do anything to develop their livelihood. Secondly, Reproduction
relates the result of sexual satisfaction is reproduction. Reproduction
is a function of family to reproduce a new birth for social. Thirdly,
Production and Rearing of the child relevant the family provides the
individual life and a chance to survive. We owe our life to the family.
The child which is helpless at the time of birth is given the needed
protection of the family. So family is a function par excellence for the
production and rearing of children. The fourthly, Provision of home
connect the family provides the home for its member. Home is a
place that provides opportunity for member meeting to educate each
other. Children are born and brought up in home only. Though, often
children are born hospitals, clinics, maternity homes, etc., they are
nursed and nourished in the homes only. The fifthly, Family-An
instrument of culture Transmission refer to the family transmits ideas
and ideologies, folkways and more, customs and tradition, beliefs and
values from one generation to the next.
So, children or members of family had to learn the field by parents.
The sixthly, Status Ascribing function relate the family also performs a
pair of functions status ascription for the individual, and societal
identification for the individual people recognize us by our names and
our name are given to us by our family.
The secondary function of family or non-essential function:
There are four major four functions in family, the firstly, Economic
Functions: relevant to the previously member of family work together
in farms for the production of goods. Member of family think about
relationship to provide individual needs each other. They cooperate
and help to correct, teach about process of economic. But now the
situation has changed. The family member does not work together at
home. They are engaged in different economic activities outside the
home. The secondly, Educational functions relate the family provides
the basic education to children. The member of family teaches
children how to speck, how to organize, etc.

The member of family helps to develop children motor skill, intelligent

etc. Today preschool has instead of family function. The thirdly,
Religious function relate the family is a center for the religious training
of the children. The children learn from their parent’s various religious
virtues. The family used to teach the children the religious values,
moral precepts, way to worshipping God, etc. The fourthly, The
Recreational Functions: connect with the recreation was largely
family based. It fostered a close solidarity. Reading aloud, visiting
relatives, family reunions, church socials, singing, dancing, playing
indoor games, etc., brought together the entire family. Elders would
organize their own recreation among themselves or together with
other children.

Both the primary function and Secondary function play a very

important role in education, but secondary function seems to be more
important function than primary function because it shapes children
personality, help them able to communicate with others, and
household financing supports that help to build children’s capacity.
Unlikely, primary function just focuses on sex needs, reproduction of
generation, provide home or we can say primary needs that all family
has lost.
What is the role played by the Home or the family
in providing Education to the child?
The home is a primary agency of education. It is an informal but
active agency. Family is also called an original social institution which
gave birth to other organizations.

Every individual is born in a family and socialization takes place there

at first. It is an important institution for child-rearing.

The child is introduced to the culture of the society in the family itself
and fulfils his needs Physical, emotional, psychological and social. He
gets his fundamental education through interaction with others in the
family. There is an atmosphere of congenial love, affection, sympathy
and understanding in the family and this promotes mutual interaction
and informal education.

Happy family is the ideal place for the growth of the child’s
personality. The child lives there most of the time and imitates as well
as emulates most of the qualities of his family members. The
harmonious relations in the family — between the parents, among the
brothers and sisters, among children and parents create a “rapport”
for the development of all-round personality. This atmosphere also
helps the child for learning and developing health habits.

In the older days the family was the center of professional education.
Parents and brothers were helping the child to learn the basic
knowledge and skills required for adopting the traditional vocations. It
was the center of moral education.

Children were learning the ethical principles like truth, nonviolence,

good conduct and so on in action or in reality from their superiors.
The family was also imparting religious education to the child and
organizing different ceremonies which were sources of education.

Now the family has disintegrated and the system of joint family-life
has broken down. Due to technological advancement, families are no
longer the centers of professional education. The functions of
religious or moral education are not properly done by the family. The
external environment and mass media are having their powerful
impact on children now-a-days. Urbanization has its bad effects on
the behaviour of individuals.

In face of all these limitations and difficulties, the role of the family
cannot be underestimated. In the small family’s children are born and
brought up and must be influenced by the other members of the
family. The spirit of love and affection, sympathy and understanding in
the family facilitates educational or learning process or the child. The
family must provide the basic tools or elementary knowledge for
education.

The good qualities of heart, head and hand are better imbibed
through interaction in the family than in anywhere else. Group living
begins and flourishes in the family and the child learns different skills
of group living for his future life.

Congenial relations and sympathetic understanding among the

members of the family are conducive to the development of
personality and growth of education Parental attention to the care of
children and happy as well as harmonious relations between the
parents and children would make the family “a sweet home” which is
essential for well- being of the children as well as for good of the
society.
Nine Important roles played by family in Imparting
Education
Among all the agencies of education home as the first and most vital
agency of shaping the behavior of the child. The education starts
from the mother. That is why mother is the first teacher and home is
the first school for child’s socialization. It is the oldest educational
institution.

Home helps in providing various educational activities, information,

and guidance to its family members since the inception of the society.
The educational functions of the home are discussed in the following
points.

Educational Functions of Home/Family

(1) Physical and motor development:

Home helps the child for its full physical growth and motor
coordination through proper food, nutrition, health habits, exercise
and immunization programmes.

(2) Face to face interaction:

It helps in providing different interactions for the development of child.
Family members share their numerous experiences freely with the
child, so it is called the first learning center for the child.

(3) Home provides complete social environment:

In home children learns how to eat, speak, dress, learn good habits,
manner, etc. from the family members. He learns the lessons of
social values and qualities in order to be a future responsible citizen.
He learns how to adjust in his society.

(4) Home teaches citizenship and social virtues:

The child learns social and civic virtues through cooperation, mutual
understanding, sympathy, self-sacrifice, service tendency. He also
learns his civic duties and responsibilities for making of the nation.

(5) Home provides moral and religious education:

The child learns various moral and religious lessons from its family.
Through prayer, moral teaching and family religions he imitates, what
the other members do. So, in this way the status of family transmits
from one generation to other generation.

(6) Home provides vocational education:

Home helps in providing different vocational education, including
parental vocational. He imbibes various skills and ways of his father’s
trade, vocation, business for meeting the future demand and
livelihood.

(7) Home helps in all-round development:

For all-round development of the child, it helps in guiding him. Home
provides emotional and financial support to the child for its sound
development. Therefore, it is a secure place for the expression of
one’s full talent without any problem.

(8) Home helps in conservation and promotion of culture:

Home equips the child to conserve the important values, ideas of the
home and to promote these through experiences.

(9) Home develops leadership quality:

Through personality development and inspiration of the family
members child develops leadership quality from the family or home.

Therefore, family or home is the most important and effective agency

of education. It is the basis and center of all social, political, moral,
economic, physical, aesthetic, vocational, religious interaction in the
society.
Conclusion:
To sum-up there are two functions of family as primary function and
secondary function in MacIver’s theory. Although the primary function
refer to stable satisfaction of sex need, reproduction or procreation,
production and rearing of the child, provision of home, family-an
instrument of culture, status ascribing function, and affectional
function, but the secondary function is more important because it a
function that help children to develop their capacities to access in
primary school.
Making Family an Effective Agency of Education

Measure # 1. Provision for Physical Development:

Residence of family should be clean and open to light and air. The
entire environment should be peaceful and conducive to physical
wellbeing.

Good food, which has nutritious values, should be provided to the

children, in which one can find a balanced combination of fats,
minerals, vitamins, proteins, carbohydrates, water etc.

Clothes of children should be such which permit sufficient air

circulation and free movements. Besides, family should provide
adequate play and rest to the children for development of physical
part of the personality. Moreover, good habits of personal cleanliness
should be injected into the minds of children from the very early
childhood stage.

Measure # 2. Development of Intellectual and

Aesthetic and Practical Interests:
For the development of intellectual part of the personality, family
should provide quiz games, intelligent play, word-building games,
action songs, toys, sketches, etc. to children. Children should be
made curious to know different sorts of knowledge. Parents should try
for satisfaction of curiosity of children.

Parents should try to develop the aesthetic sense of their children by

providing various kinds of hand work, sketching, drawing of scenery
and designs. In addition to the above interests, home provides full
opportunities to children to learn practical knowledge through which
experience is gained.

Measure # 3. Provision of Constructive Activities:

The child is endowed with certain constructive tendencies which need
to be developed through pursuing constructive activities by him.
Therefore, opportunities should be given to the child for self-
expression in an accepted way.

Measure # 4. Development of Character and

Training of Responsibility:
Family helps in the development of moral character by inculcating
self-confidence and training of responsibility. Children should be
encouraged to take up responsibility and should develop courage to
face the situation.

Measure # 5. Development of Individual’s Needs

Capacities and Interest:
Since an individual is not a carbon copy of another, every possible
opportunity should be provided to cater to the needs, capacities and
interests of the children judiciously for the overall development of
individuality.

Measure # 6. Impartial Treatment:

Parents should behave fairly and impartially with all the children
without any reservations. Family, in a democracy, should provide
equal opportunities to boys and girls for the richer, happier and better
life.

Measure # 7. Religious Education:

The family should create suitable condition for imparting religious
education in a neutral manner to the children so that certain values
will be fostered in them—love, sympathy, sacrifice, service, fellow-
feeling and a host of altruistic qualities.

Measure # 8. All-round Development:

The family should provide all sorts of opportunities to the children for
their all-round development of personality in all its aspects—physical,
mental, social, emotional, moral, spiritual, and aesthetic. Therefore,
no single aspect of development is to be neglected. Parents should
provide all the desirable experiences and activities to their wards for
stimulating all-round development of personality.

Measure # 9. The need of Nursery or Kindergarten

School:
If the family is unable to fulfill the needs and interests of the children,
parents should admit them in some nursery or kindergarten schools,
where their development will be possible by providing every
opportunity to them. Thus, they will be nurtured properly in such an
environment.

3.6 THE SCHOOL

School as an Agency of Education
The term ‘School’ originated from the Greek word ‘Skhole’ which
means ‘leisure’? The reason of associating ‘leisure’ with school is
that, in Ancient Greece, liberal education was not imparted to all.

It was a privilege of the highest class in society which had enough

leisure to cultivate the specialized aspects of culture through liberal
education. Today, school stands for a specialized and formal agency
set up by the society for imparting education to the rising generations.
(A) Origin of School as an Educational Agency
In olden times, when the social life was very simple, the family
provided the child with all the activities and experience he needed.
Then, so long as occupations were centered round home or village,
the family, the church and the local community served as a school for
life.

The children learnt by imitating the work and life process of their
parents and neighbours. But, by and by as the society became more
complex with the growth of civilization, and as human knowledge and
experiences grew in written from, home or family and other informal
agencies of education were found inadequate for the efficient
transmission of culture heritage to the future generation.

Thus, arose the necessity of a formal agency of education called the

school. By and by, the knowledge and skills secured by the children
became so complex that it became rather impossible for the home to
transmit the same to the children. Thus, education of children
became a specialized occupation of those persons who were highly
learned and qualified for discharging this function efficiently.

These persons began to be known as teachers, and the agency

through which the teachers imparted education to the children came
to be known as School. In recent times, the school has assumed a
very comprehensive role so much so that the functions of the family
and the community have also fallen on the school. Now, the school
has to discharge not only its own educational functions, but also to
provide what home and community provided in the past.
“The school has to provide total education, i.e. education for
knowledge, for skills, for understanding, for culture, for making a
contribution, for a sense of belonging, for attitudes and for a proper
orientation to the modern world.” Moreover, with the coming in of
democracy, universal education has not only become a necessity in
the modern world, but also an accepted social ideal. So, the school is
required to discharge very important functions in modern society.

(B) Important Functions of the School

1. Conservation and Perpetuation of Society.
One of the most important functions of school is to maintain the
continuity of social lift by handing down traditions, experiences,
values and customs of the society; from one generation to the other.
The progress of the society depends upon the transmission of
knowledge and skills from one generation to the next. This important
function is faithfully and efficiently performed by the school.

2. Promotion of Culture and Civilization.

The school not only transmits the cultural heritage to the rising
generation, it also helps to promote culture and civilization. A Cannon
has said, “If each generation had to learn for itself what has been
learned by its predecessors, no sort of intellectual or social
development would be possible and the present state of society
would be little different from the society of the old stone-age.”

Thus, the school performs the important function constantly re-

organizing and re-structuring human experiences for the promotion of
culture and civilization.

3. All-round Development of the Individual.

The functions and responsibilities of school have increased manifold
during the recent years. Its function is no longer the transmission of
the knowledge of 3 R’s as the concept of education has developed
and become more comprehensive the school has to assume a more
comprehensive role.
Now, the school aims at the development of the whole personality of
the child. Education is now defined as all round development of the
personality of the child, physically, intellectually, morally, socially and
spiritually. Through its curricular and co-curricular activities, the
school caters to the child’s social, constructive, artistic and other
impulses. Thus, the child not only acquires knowledge, but also
develops the requisite habits, skills and attitudes. In this way, the
school helps to bring about all round development of the child’s
personality.

4. Promotion of Social Efficiency.

To lead a successful life in the modern society the individuals must
acquire social efficiency. In a democratic society, the children must be
trained in the democratic ways of life through education and the
school programmes must be planned accordingly.

Training for effective participation in a democratic society and

cultivation of a planned sense of rights and duties is an important
function of the school. This is done by the school by having a clear
concept of democratic ideals, and then directing the educational
programmes accordingly.

5. Adjustability in Society.
John Dewey says, “We send children to school to learn in a
systematic way the occupations which constitute living.” Brown says
that, “The school has a direct responsibility of preparing the individual
child for post-school adjustments.” A child spends a period of his life
in school. After completing his school education, he is generally to
adjust himself in the society outside the school to the best of his
capability and capacity.

If this adjustment is proper, the school has succeeded in its aims and
objectives. So, one of the main functions of the school is to turn out of
its portals such young men and young women as may adjust
themselves properly and usefully and lead successful lives on private,
public and professional levels.
6. Introduction of Higher Values of Life.
No progress of education is complete without the inculcation of higher
values of life in the pupils. Moral and religious education which was
formerly imparted by the family and the church is now also the
responsibility of the school. So along with the social, economic and
democratic ideals, the school is also to develop moral sense of the
children, so that they may be able to distinguish between right and
wrong, virtue and vice, and also act upon the right and moral path of
action. Thus, school education must develop in the children the
moral, spiritual and higher values of life.
 Essential functions of a school as an agency of
Education
School in the modern time is treated as the most suitable, active and
formal agency of education. As per the changing need of the hour,
school develops and grows with its specific goals. It is emerged out of
the demand for education and pressure on the parents regarding their
educational pursuit.

Main Function of School

(1) Conservation and promotion culture:
The school conserves the valuable culture, tradition, values of the
society and helps in promoting and developing these with the rolling
of the time. It also spreads the store of culture to the next generation.

(2) All-round development of the individual:

For all-round development of the individual school has a package of
programmes. Through its different activities, it draws out the hidden
potentialities of the child and develops them in a proper way.

(3) Development of higher values of life:

School helps in developing and cultivating good and higher values
like truth, sympathy, love, cooperation, etc. in child. Through different
social interactions and moral teachings, it spreads the message of
righteous living in a society.

(4) Development of social responsibility:

School is called a society in miniature. Because in schoolchild shares
his feelings with various children coming from different strata. So, he
learns the lessons of social duty, responsibilities and understanding
the feelings of others. So, school helps in social change and social
control.

(5) Citizenship training:

School creates the first civic society for the child. So, child learns the
duty and civic rights for the country as a responsible citizen. So,
school trains the lessons of citizenship to a child.

(6) Adjustability in society:

School prepares child to face the problems of the society. So proper
adjustment and application of learned knowledge can be checked
and guided by school. So, the main function of the school is to
develop adjustment capacity of an individual.

(7) Vocational training:

Through different activities, school provides training in different
vocations. It also cultivates the values of dignity of work and labor. It
prepares children to face any challenge in the future to solve their
bare necessities.

The role of school cannot be confined with these lines. In modern

days, the role of school has been increasing day by day. It is called
the hub of learning. Every developed state gives first priority to the
schools for total national development. Really, school is now a
prestigious institution in the society, which can be called a man-
making factory.
 The Relationship between School and Society

WHAT IS A SCHOOL?
• The word ‘school’ is normally associated to buildings, students,
curriculum and instruction, teachers and administration.
• Oxford English Dictionary definition: an institution for educating
children. Any institution at which instruction is given in a particular
subject.
• School is a special institution, created to serve specific social needs.
• It, therefore, not only gets aims and objectives from society but its
contents and methods are also determined in accordance with the
activities, carried on in society, for which the school functions.

WHAT IS A Society?
• A society is a group of people living according to a shared culture.
• Society refers to a group of persons who share a culture,
government, institutions, land, or a set of social relationships.
• A person can belong to several societies at a time religious,
professional, and social
• The thing that makes a group of people a society is that they share
a common culture.

RELATION BETWEEN SCHOOL & SOCIETY

• Schools shape children’s perceptions of the world, the values,

beliefs, and norms of society are internalized within children so that
they come to think and act like other members of the society.
• Schools helps in building a nation.
• A good society is the product of a good school system and a good
school system is the product of a good society. So, there must be
intimate relationships between the school and the society.
School is the representative of society
• School are special institution which strives for the fulfillment of the
desires of society.
• School determines its destination in the light of social objectives.
• School is nothing but a reflection of the needs of society.

Society provides a line of action to education

(School)
• School cannot decide its objectives by itself.
• For the realization of the objectives of education, the educational
institutions are established in the society.

Effects of school on Society: Schools have a deep impact

on the society. Parent’s school choice decisions are influenced by the
groups or organizations to which they belong. Argues that parent’s
decisions not only influence student’s academic performance but also
effect student’s future.

Effects of community on school: An effective method of

promoting education and ensuring school support is involving the
community in school activities.
• By inviting community members to join in school festivities, the
school administration can improve effectiveness of the education and
raise the likelihood that the school will continue to be supported by
the community.

Agents involve between school and community

o the main group and agents involved in the dynamics of the

relationship between school and community are:
o School administration
o Teachers
o Non-teaching staff
o Students and parents
o Governing bodies
o School board.

Schools as social agents and social critics

Cultural Transmission - As a social institutional, schools take a
more traditional purpose in passing on of culture.

Function Perspective- Functionalists argue that the function of

school for cultural transmission is necessary for it maintains
solidarity, integration, and stability of the society.

Conflict Perspective- Conflict theorists take a critical view of

education by arguing that educational system teaches and
supports the norms, values, and social skills and schools play
little role in promoting significant changes in society.

Critical Perspective- Critical theorists assert that individuals

must be suspicious why such cultural elements are transmitted
to individuals and society.

3.7 WHAT IS ROLE OF EDUCATION IN SOCIETY?

ROLE OF SCHOOL IN A SOCIETY “EDUCATION IS THE MOST
POWERFUL WEAPON WHICH YOU CAN USE TO CHANGE THE
WORLD” ~ NELSON MANDELA

Society - We all live in a society which has its own set

spoken/unspoken rules and one of them is education. The society
expects you to go to school followed by college, get a job, settle down
etc. In fact, education helps you become a useful member of the
society. An educated member certainly has a greater chance to
contribute to his community. Education helps you become an active
member of the society and participate in the ongoing changes and
developments.

Role of Education in a Society

Education should be a means to empower children and adults alike to
become active participants in the transformation of their societies.
Learning should also focus on the values, attitudes and behaviors
which enable individuals to learn to live together in a world
characterized by diversity and pluralism.
1. FOR A HAPPY AND STABLE LIFE IN SOCIETY - If you want to
lead a happy life and enjoy the good things in the society, you
certainly need to get educated. A great job, a good social reputation
is few of the many benefits of being an educated person. Education is
a must for a promising and secure future and a stable life.
2. EQUALITY - If we want to see the world as a just and fair place
where everyone is given equal opportunities, education is what we
require. Education is a must if we want to do away with the existing
differences between different social classes and genders. It opens a
whole world of opportunities for the poor so that they may have an
equal shot at well-paying jobs. Education also plays a major role in
women empowerment.

3. MAKES YOU SELF DEPENDENT - Going to school and getting

Education is very important if you want to be a self-dependent
person. It helps you become financially independent but that is not all.
Education also makes you wiser so that you can make your own
decisions.
4. MAKES YOU CONFIDENT - Your educational degree is
considered as a proof of your knowledge by many. If you are
educated you have more chances of being heard and taken seriously.
Generally, an uneducated man will find it harder to express his views
and opinions owning to lack of confidence. Even if he does so, people
may not take him seriously. Education gives you the confidence to
express your views and opinions.
5. MAKES THE WORLD A SAFER AND MORE PEACEFUL PLACE -
Education majorly affects our understanding of the difference
between right and wrong. An educated person is well aware of the
consequences of wrong/illegal actions and he is less likely to get
influenced and do something which is not legally/morally right. Also, a
number of uneducated people who live a poverty-stricken life owning
to lack of opportunities often turn to illegal ways such as theft and
robbery to solve their problems. If you are educated, you are well
aware of your rights, the law and your responsibilities towards the
society. Hence, education is an important factor which contributes in
social harmony and peace.
6.HELPS YOU UNDERSTAND THE WORLD WE LIVE IN -
Education is what you need if you want an answer to your ‘whats’ and
‘hows’ and ‘wheres’. It helps you understand the world you live in.
You get to know more about your surroundings as well as the whole
world through subjects like history, geography, science etc.
7. RESPECT - Everybody likes a wise and knowledgeable person!
Educated people are considered highly reputable in the society. The
more educated you are, the more respect you will get from those
around you.
8. KEEPING UP WITH THE WORLD - We live in an ever changing
world. New technologies keep coming up and if you don’t want to be
left behind, you must keep up with the world which is moving really
fast. Without education it will be really difficult for you to adapt to all
these changes. An educated person is much more aware of the latest
technologies and all the changes that are taking place in the world.
For example, an uneducated person may not know about the benefits
of the internet whereas an educated person uses this gift of
technology regularly for work as well as for entertainment.

What is the role of school in society?

• Help students identify their interests and abilities

• Support students in setting personal learning goals
• Facilitate student involvement and learning in decision-making
regarding their own learning and the use of power and responsibility
in the classroom and school
• Create a culture of care and community where students learn to
support one another and take responsibility for the wellbeing of each
other and the total community
• Facilitate students learning together in a diverse groups where they
learn how to value contributions of others and manage productive
group work
• Teach students who are functioning at many differing levels of ability
together in heterogeneous mixes
• Assess student skills and learning styles to facilitate learning and
promote personal excellence
ROLE OF TEACHER IN LINKING SCHOOL IN
SOCIETY
1. CHARACTER BUILDING
Teachers have to activate the mind of the student as well as the body
of the student.
Teachers have to teach the student to respect the others instead of
their status because it returns you respect in back.
Teachers have to prepare the student for the life of purity and
sincerity.
Teachers have to aim on the balanced growth of the student
personality through the training of his feelings and bodily senses,
spirit, rational self and intellect.
Teacher can not only cater the spiritual development of the student
but also the responsible of body, mind and soul development.
Teachers provide a guide to the students to lead to the righteous
path

2. POSITIVE APPROACH
Teachers provide a guide line to be positive in life to their students.
Teachers can set an example in front of their students through
which they come to realize that what make their life well settled.
Good behaviour of teacher with student would promote the positive
effect of student.

3. REDUCING FEAR
Mostly kids feel fear while sitting in classroom therefore teacher try
to make such type of environment in which student feel comfortable.
Teachers mostly used to question such type of student to bring
him/her out of such types of fears. Teachers used to encourage
their students in front of whole class to make him/her relax of
gathering and build up his/her confidence.

4. SET AN AIM IN LIFE

Teachers help their students for choosing the right path for their
future life. Teachers make the mind of student that how he/she can
get their aim. Teachers choose some hard and easy ways in
academic to come to know about the student’s inner interest or their
mental level.
Teachers open the mind of their students about their future life that
how they will survive in the society to progress their aim.
Teacher gives the difference of right and wrong through which
students can easily choose their aim.

3.8 SOCIALIZATION
The human infant comes into the world as a biological organism with
animal needs. He is gradually molded into a social being and he
learns social ways of acting and feeling. Without this process of
molding, the society could not continue itself, nor could culture exist,
nor could the individual become a person. This process of molding is
called ‘Socialization’.

Every man tries to adjust himself to the condition and environment

predominantly determined by the society of which he is a member. If
he fails to do so, he becomes a social defiant and is brought back into
line by the efforts of the group of which he is a member. This process
of adjustment may be termed socialization.

Definitions of Socialization
Different sociologists have defined socialization in different ways.
 According to E.S. Bogardus “Socialization is the process of
working together, of developing group responsibility or being
guided by the welfare needs of others”,

W.F. Ogburn defines “Socialization is the process by which the

individual learns to conform to the norms of the group.”

Lundberg says that “Socialization consists of the complex

processes of interaction through which the individual learns the
habits, beliefs, skills and standards of judgment that are
necessary for his effective participation in social groups and
communities.”

According to H.T. Majumdar “Socialization as the process

whereby original nature is transformed into human nature and
the individual into person”.

A.W. Green opines, “Socialization is the process by which the

child acquires a cultural content, along with selfhood and
personality”.

According to Horton and Hunt “Socialization is the process

by which one internalizes the norms of his groups, so that a
distinct “self” emerges, unique to this individual.

Peter Worsley explains “Socialization as the process of

transmission of culture, the process whereby men learn the rules
and practices of social groups.

Aims and Objectives of Socialization

The socialization is mainly aimed at the development of self and the
formation of personality. The concept of ‘self refers to the individual
as subject (as the source of action and self-reflection), whereas the
term ‘personality’ refers to the individual as object (the object of
external evaluation). It is the process through which an individual is
moulded into an effective participant of society.
The following are the main objectives of
socialization:

1. It inculcates basic disciplines ranging from toilet habits to the

method of science. It helps in the learning of self-control.
2. It develops skills and capacities needed to fit into the society.
3. It teaches social roles (responsibilities) and their supporting
attitudes.
4. It instills aspirations and satisfies needs of the individual.
5. It helps in the transmission of culture from generation to gener-
ation.
6. It develops a sense of identity and the capacity for independent
thought and action, for example learning of language.
7. It develops conscience which is one important characteristic
product of this process.

Mechanism of Socialization
There are numerous sub-processes of the process of socialization or
social learning.

The principal ones are the following:

 Imitation: Imitation is copying by an individual of the actions of
another. This may be conscious or unconscious, spontaneous or
deliberate, perceptual or ideational. It is the main factor in the
process of socialization which works from birth to death. As
children grow, they take recourse to imitation. Through imitation,
he learns to speak Da Da, Ma Ma, Papa etc.

Suggestion:
Suggestion is a process outside the learner. It is a process of
communicating information which has no logical or self-evident
basis. A person may ‘take a suggestion’ not only from the
conscious and deliberate persuasion of another but also without
the other person knowing it.

It plays a key role in the socialisation of the individual. By it

persons are made, unmade and remade. Through suggestion,
an educational system moulds the minds of children in the
desired direction. Propaganda and advertisements are based on
these fundamental psychological principles of suggestion.

Sympathy:
It simply means to feel with another individual. It binds us more
closely with our fellow men. Through the sympathetic reaction
we enter into a fuller understanding of the feelings and motives
of others, for instance, the sight of an ailing person or a disabled
person may cause a person to weep or to perform some
altruistic act of charity.

Competition:
Competition is a simulative process in which two or more
individuals compete with one another in achieving knowledge. It
is particularly important in social learning of children.

Agencies of Socialization
Briefly mentioned the chief agencies of socialization are the following.
1. The Family:
The parents or families are the first to socialize the child. They are not
only closely related to the child but physically also, they are nearer to
him than others are. From the parents he learns his speech and
language. He is taught social morality. He learns respect for persons
in authority. In the family, he learns a number of civic virtues.
The family is rightly called the cradle of social virtues. The child gets
his first lessens in co-operation, tolerance, self, sacrifice, love and
affection in the family. The environment of a family influences the
growth of a child. The psychologists have shown that a person is
what he becomes in family.
In a bad family, the child learns bad habits whereas in a good family
he acquires good habits. An important cause of juvenile delinquency
is bad family environment. At the time of mate choice, the parents
also try to find out the family history of the boy and girl in order to
know their good and bad points.
The relationship between the parents and the child is one of
constraint. The parents are older than he is and have the power to
command obedience. In case the child does not follow the rules, he
may be coerced. Of the parents, it is the mother who first begins the
process of socialization. The family continues to exercise its influence
throughout life. There is a vast literature on family to describe its role
in society.

2. The School:
The school is the second agency of socialization. In the school, the
child gets his education, which moulds his ideas and attitudes. A
good education can make, the child a good citizen, while a bad
education can turn him into a criminal. Education is of great
importance in socialization. A well-planned education can produce
socialized persons.

3. The Playmates or Friends:

The playmates and friends are also an important agency of
socialization. The relation between the child and his playmates is one
of equality. It is based on co-operation and mutual understanding.
They are mostly of similar age. The child acquires something from his
friends and playmates, which he cannot acquire from parents. From
them he acquires co-operative morality and some of the informal
aspects of culture like fashions, fads, crazes, modes of gratification
and forbidden knowledge. The knowledge of such things is necessary
from the social point of view. To take an example, the knowledge of
sex relations is considered in our society something undesirable for a
youth till he gets married. If such knowledge is banned strictly until
marriage, the performance of numerous functions of sex life may be
difficult later marriage. This knowledge the child acquires from his
friends and playmates.
4. The Religion -
Religion has been an important factor in society. In the early society
religion provided a bond of unity. Though in modern society the
importance of religion has diminished yet it continues to mould our
beliefs and ways of life. In every family some or the other religious
practices are observed in one or the other occasion. The child sees
his parents going to the temple and performing religious ceremonies.
He listens to religious sermons, which may determine his course of
life and shape his ideas.

5. The State:
The state is an authoritarian agency. It makes laws for the people and
lays down the modes of conduct expected of them. The people have
compulsorily to obey these laws. If they fail to adjust’ their behavior in
accordance with laws of the state they may be punished for such
failure. Thus, the state also moulds our behavior.

6. Mutual relation between parents:

There is a close link between the development of the child and the
parents’ mutual relationship which may be of four types:—(1) The
mother loves the father, but the father does not-Love her, (2) The
father loves the mother but the mother does not love the father, (3)
None of them love each other, and (4) There is intense love between
them.

All these four situations influence the socialization of the child. The
first three situations are unfavorable for socialization, because they
impair the child’s adjustment. Then, there is no stability and control in
the child’s behavior, because he does not find the same in parents.
When the life of parents is happy, they are able to take due care of
the child and his socialization goes on smoothly.

7. The social and economic status:

The social and economic status influences the process of
socialization. All like to meet children belonging to good social and
economic status. Such children generally get ample opportunities to
meet with various types of people.
Hence their socialization goes on in a good speed. Quite contrary to
this, people do not welcome meeting children of low or bad economic
and social status. Such children do not enjoy occasions to meet with
various types of people. So, their socialization takes a different turn.
Such children may also develop inferiority complex.

8. Neighbors and companions: Neighbors and companions play an

important role in socialization. Before starting going to school, the
child spends much of his time with neighbors and companions. Even
after his admission to a school, he maintains his contact with his
neighbors and companions.

If the neighbors and companions are good the child forms good
habits, otherwise he goes astray and picks up undesirable modes of
behavior that is why liquor shops and other bad places are regarded
as vicious and the children are advised not to frequent them.

Bad companions mould the child towards bad habits. Needless to

add that we have to see that the child does not associate himself with
bad neighbors and depraved companions

9. Social anxiety: All children like to behave in such a manner as to

elicit praise from others. From the age of 12 to 22 or 23 years (i.e.
during adolescence) he is very much keen to have approval of his
conduct from others.

It is so because now he has developed greater social consciousness.

Adolescents are very much afraid of others’ adverse criticism and
punishments from his elders in the family. No corporal punishment
should be given to adolescents.
In very trying situations, at worst, they may be scolded. If needful,
some of the conveniences given to them may be withdrawn. The
adolescent undergoes an anxiety for showing desirable behavior.
The more one has this type of social anxiety, the more he tries to
seek praise from others. Thus, this type of social anxiety works as a
good motivation for desirable socialization.
10. The caste or class level: Socialization of the child is influenced
by the caste or class he belongs to. The child from a majority group
may consider himself superior to that from a minority community.
Similarly, in Hindus a child from a so-called high caste regards
himself as superior to that from a caste which in his opinion is lower.

The children from lower castes consider themselves inferior to those

from higher strata of society. For example, in U.S.A. the Negro
children regard themselves inferior to white ones.

In each country there are many children who consider themselves

inferior or superior to others because of their caste or class level. This
feeling may create an imbalance in their behavior, and accordingly,
their socialization is also affected.

11. Culture: Socialization of the child is deeply related with culture.

That is why differences are perceptible in the personalities and forms
of socialization in children nurtured in varying cultures.

The culture of a high family is likely to be higher than that of a lower-

class family. Therefore, differences are found in the nature of
socialization in children coming from higher and lower families.
Role of Teachers in Socialization
ROLE OF TEACHER IN CHARACTER BUILDING:
Teachers have to activate the mind of the student as well as
the body of the student.
Teachers have not restricted to the text book or syllabus
because it has another name of mental growth.
Teachers have to teach the student to respect the others
instead of their status because it returns you respect in back.
Teachers have to prepare the student for the life of purity and
sincerity.
Teachers have to aim on the balanced growth of the student
personality through the training of his feelings and bodily
senses, spirit, rational self and intellect.
Teacher can not only cater the spiritual development of the
student but also the responsible of body, mind and soul
development.
Teachers provide a guide to the students to lead to the
righteous path.
ROLE OF TEACHER IN AIMING STUDENTS LIFE:
Teachers help their students for choosing the right path for their
future life.
Teachers make the mind of student that how he/ she can get
their aim.
Teachers choose some hard and easy ways in academic to
come to know about the student's inner interest or their mental
level.
Teachers open the mind of their students about their future life
that how they will survive in the society to progress their aim.
Teacher gives the difference of right and wrong through which
students can easily choose their aim.
ROLE OF TEACHER IN POSITIVE APPROACH:
Teachers provide a guide line to be positive in life to their
students.
Teachers mostly used to judge their students mind to know
about their self-approaches. (For dealing with them)
Teachers have power to divert their student from negative
approaches by own self display as role model.
Teachers can set an example in front of their students through
which they come to realize that what make their life well settled.
When dealing with students’ teachers should be unbiased
towards any particular culture and language.
Good behavior of teacher with student would promote the
positive effect of student.
ROLE OF TEACHER IN PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT:
Teachers train them that role model for the whole how they can
groom class that why teachers their personality with maintain
his/ her confidence not with personality.
 Mostly students copy
Teachers help they’re their teachers, the way students to
maintain their teacher use to speak, mental and physical use to
talk, look, work appearance in society etc. through which one
can know his/her awareness of aspects of life according to their
personality.
ROLE OF TEACHER IN DEVELOPING EMOTIONS:
Teachers have to encourage the students so that they naturally
develop their emotions.
Teachers have to motivate the students for what he/ she desire
to become in future. (Emotion of curiosity)
Teachers have to develop the feelings of love, care, help,
brotherhood, respect etc. which create a special bond of
affections. (Emotion of affections)
Teachers have to socialize the students for every aspect of life
through which students overcome his/ her shyness. (Reducing
shyness)
Teachers have to engage the students in different activities to
overcome the confusions and inner dissatisfaction.

3.9 ACTIVITIES
An activity is a unit of work that an individual playing the described
role may be asked to perform. The activity has a clear purpose,
usually expressed in terms of creating or updating some artifacts,
such as a model, a class, a plan. Every activity is assigned to a
specific role. The granularity of an activity is generally a few hours to
a few days, it usually involves one role, and affects one or only a
small number of artifacts. An activity should be usable as an element
of planning and progress; if it is too small, it will be neglected, and if it
is too large, progress would have to be expressed in terms of an
activity’s parts.
Activities may be repeated several times on the same artifact,
especially when going from one iteration to another, refining and
expanding the system, by the same role, but not necessarily the
same individual.
Steps
Activities are broken down into steps. Steps fall into three main
categories:

Thinking steps: where the individual performing the role

understands the nature of the task, gathers and examines the
input artifacts, and formulates the outcome.
Performing steps: where the individual performing the role
creates or updates some artifacts.
Reviewing steps: where the individual performing the role
inspects the results against some criteria.
Not all steps are necessarily performed each time an activity is
invoked, so they can be expressed in the form of alternate flows.

ACTIVITY BASED LEARNING

Meaning of Activity
•The state of being active.
•Any specific behaviour or action of a particular kind.
•A thing that a person or group is doing or has done.
•An educational task that involves direct experience and participation
of students.
•A specific pursuit or deed in which a person participates.

Examples: Acting, performing, demonstration, playing a game,

thinking, writing, reading, reasoning, questioning, answering,
operating something etc.

Meaning of Activity Based Learning

• An activity or activities used in an educational process to make
students learn. • Learning through and from activities.
• Activity based learning means that the teacher incorporates
activities of some type in teaching to make students learn.
• Using an activity or activities as a base for learning.

Different types of ABL

• Dramatization: Conversion in to a dramatic form or reconstruction
of an event, novel, story etc. in a form suitable for dramatic
presentation.

• Quizzes: Competitive activity in which participants should give the

answers to the questions in a prescribed span of time following some
pre-determined rules.

• Group discussions: Discussing in smaller groups (four to fifteen

students) about a given topic and reaching a decision or arriving at
some conclusions.

• Role play: Enacting some situations or playing the role of things,

persons, characters etc.
• Educational Games: These are games that are designed to help
students to learn about certain subjects, enhance concepts,
understand different contents, learn a skill etc.

• Brainstorming: It is a group activity in which group members are

encouraged to produce a large number of ideas quickly on theme or a
problem without commenting on any one’s view points for subsequent
discussion and evaluation.

• Problem solving: Problem solving is a process of finding the

solution to the problem by using one or more concepts or principles
or formulae or required information.
• Debates: Arguments (discussion involving Arguments) between two
groups in which one group argues to defend the controversial issue
or theme and other group puts up the arguments against the theme.

• Discovery learning: Learning through exploration or discovery.

Learning by exploring or discovering many aspects of the
environment on their own.

• Project: It is a practical unit of activity having educational value and

aimed at achieving one or more definite goals of understanding,
involves investigation and solution of problems, planned and carried
out to completion by pupils in a natural ‘real life’ situation.
• Field work: Going to the real-life situations for observing the
phenomenon, collect relevant data, process and analyze the data and
arrive at conclusions.

• Experimentation: Carrying out or conducting the experiments in the

laboratory.

• Concept mapping: It is a process of representing the concepts or

different things in hierarchical fashion with most inclusive, general
concepts at the top and less general concepts at the bottom in a
pictorial form.

Why do we need ABL?

• Children can learn well when they learn in their surrounding
environment.
• When they actively participate and involved in learning.
• When they learn on their own.
How will you organize ABL?
• Decide Instructional Goals
• Understand the learners’ cognitive level and characteristics.
• Consider the nature of the subject.
• Know the time available for achieving the instructional goals.
• Availability of human and non-human resources.
• Select or design the suitable activities.
• Prepare for implementing that in the class.
• Provide for link between different activities and previous knowledge.
• Implement it in the class room.
• Follow it up and bring about required changes in the activities for
better us
 3.10 Experiential Learning

Meaning of Experiential Learning

Experiential learning means involving or based on experience and
observation. People learn through experience and observation. It is
natural way of learning. Learning organization encourages
experiential learning. As the person grows in seniority, he gradually
understands how his seniors perform their jobs with perfection and
ease. He then does the same way. It is; therefore, experienced
persons are given more importance and organizations retain them
and they receive higher salary.

Through experience they learn to tackle complex and difficult

problems. Experience makes them perfect. An employee finds
himself unusually clumsy during early stages of his employment. But
as he grows, he learns to adjust himself with the people whom he is
working with. After gaining sufficient experience he becomes the
guiding force in the organization. People learn through their personal
experience, simulated experience and from others experience. They
learn by using the knowledge which represents experience of others.

Gradually through experience they reach perfection in their

performance. Organizations should create opportunities to transfer
the skills, knowledge, creative abilities that are acquired through
learning. Organizations must create an environment which is
conducive to learning. Allow people to gain experience. Anti-learning
factors should be removed. Such factors are the hurdles in the
development of learning. People should be enthused to change
themselves and modify their behaviour.

Remove fear and shyness from their mind. Self-motivation is the key
to learning. People should shed negative attitude about involvement
and participation. Involvement and participation encourage learning.
In experiential learning emphasis should be given to accuracy than
speed. Experiential learning enhances job satisfaction and career.
Employer is the beneficiary of experiential learning.
Importance of Experiential Learning:

(1) Experiential learning fosters development of self and organization.

(2) It gains in knowledge and skill, breadth and depth of
understanding which ultimately results in increased self-confidence
and esteem.
(3) It brings about change in behaviour and better understanding of
attitude of people.
(4) It brings about perfection in the performance of job.
(5) It helps employee gained in status and enables individuals to
move into more prestigious social roles and better rewarded jobs.
(6) It helps employees learn and develop and they become more
demanding of changes at work and further development.
(7) It provides competitive advantage for survival and progress.
(8) It facilitates organizational change and development.
(9) It helps in maintaining better relations with suppliers and
customers and dealers.
(10) It helps in meeting challenges faced by the organization.
(11) It helps in adopting new technology.
The idea of learning organization was put forward by Peter Senge of
USA. In his opinion the transformation of traditional organization into
learning organization will bring about basic change in the theory and
practice of management and will use the potentials of people for
development and growth of the organization. He also learning
organization will bring about sea changes in the management’s
attitude towards employees. Learning organization gives more thrust
on people who run the organization through use of knowledge.

It recognizes the development of skills, potentials and creative

abilities of the people and expansion of knowledge base. This
enhances development of self and that of organization. Adoption of
total quality management gives a further boost to development of
learning organization.

*****
Sheet for Students (Extra Notes)
Teaching is the distinctively human activity. It is imparting knowledge
and the learning process, the means by which the student assimilates
share of it. It is concerned with growth and development of whole
personality of the student-her mind, spirit, character and effective
behavior.

“A teacher is a person who selects and organizes teaching – learning

methods, consciously planning and controlling a situation directed to
the achievement of optimum student learning.”

Introduction to Teacher
“Teacher are the makers of history. A teacher affects eternity; he
can never tell where the influence stops”. Henry Brooks Adams

The success of an educational endeavor ultimately depends on the

type of persons who deliver good and effective teaching. Teacher as
the mainspring of teaching-learning process performs his role as a
successful manager and an instructional input to bring out changes in
behaviour of the pupils.

As a manager, he/she plans the instructional system at the pre-

teaching stage, makes decision to shift from one mode to another if
situation warrants at the teaching stage and he analyses results,
reflects on self and modifies the teaching-learning process at the
post-teaching stage.

As an instructional input, the teacher is directly involved in teaching-

learning process to bring about learning in students. In this context,
he/she introduces a lesson, explains a concept, clarifies doubts or
misconceptions with suitable illustrations, explains with suitable
diagrams, charts and models, puts questions to students.

Besides, he/she resorts to novel way to get the content transacted in

an interesting way to promote effective learning. Moreover, teacher
also acts as a facilitator of learning. When he/she provides guidance
to students in order to bring about learning of students by way of their
interaction with relevant instructional components, he/she is labelled
as a facilitator of learning.
As such, in the role of a facilitator of learning, student’s role of
interacting and moving forward is emphasized. Thus he/she helps in
maximization of Learning.

Characteristics of a Teacher (In Points)

Kind and patient

Clear exposition of subject matter

Ever loving nature

Good communicator

Keen observer, supporter and listener

Leadership ability as well as a deeper knowledge

Interest in students

Thorough knowledge of her subject matter

Excellent speech

Neatness and poise

Sense of humor
 Broad interest

Well balanced personality

Professional well- groomed

Tolerant and fair, without partiality

Characteristics of a Teacher
1. Mastery over the Content:
Mastery over the content is an essential characteristic for becoming
an effective teacher.

In other words, unless one has mastery over content of a subject or

discipline one cannot become an effective teacher.

If one lacks competence in the discipline, he or she cannot face

students with confidence and motivate them to learn the required
concepts, skills and attitudes. Therefore, basic knowledge base is
pre-requisite for effective teaching.
Content mastery can be achieved through various ways as reading
books, magazines, periodicals, journals, newspapers, dictionaries,
encyclopedias, attending seminars, workshops, symposia,
conferences, public meetings, discussing with colleagues, experts,
authorities, professionals, observing the happenings in and around
the environment and a curiosity to learn.

2. A Flair for Keeping Abreast of Latest Knowledge in Every

Field of Human Activities: In the scenario of explosion of
knowledge in every field, it is quite essential on the part of a teacher
to remain in touch with the latest trends, ideas, practices and
thoughts in various fields. Unless the teacher continuously learns
himself, he cannot be a good and effective teacher.

He/she cannot pay due justice to his/her duties and responsibilities, if

he/she does not up-to-date his/her knowledge in the context of rapid
changes in every stream of learning and thought.

Hence, it is not out of place to quote the famous words of Viswakabi

and Nobel laureate Rabindra Nath Tagore, “A lamp can never light
another lamp, unless it continues to burn its own flame. A
teacher can never truly teach, unless he is still learning in
himself”.

3. Knowledge of Instructional Skills:

Knowledge of a set of skills is essential for facilitating teaching-
learning process. Instructional skill is defined as the cluster of
behaviour shown by a teacher which can be acquired through
continuous practice.

The skills which help a teacher to carry out his/her instructional

process consist of the following:
(a) Introducing a lesson
(b) Questioning
(c) Probing
(d) Providing reinforcement
(e) Explaining
(f) Illustrating with examples
(g) Using audio-visual aids
(h) Using blackboard
(i) Recognizing attending behaviour of students
(j) Silence and non-verbal clues
(k) Stimulus variation
(l) Achieving closure

4. Other Professional Skills:

Certain amount of other professional skills is essential such as
planning, preparation, behaviour interventions and instruction. A
teacher needs to be an effective planner taking account of needs of
the students, available resources of the institution and time. Planning
is followed by adequate preparation taking time, resources and
objectives to be achieved.

Through need-based instruction and behaviour interventions a

teacher can be effective in achieving desired learning outcomes
among the students. Teacher is required to facilitate pupil’s learning
by using precise, remedial, compensatory and realistic teaching
techniques. He or she should have the competency to design proper
instructional programmes to modify the behaviour of the students
adequately.

Therefore, a teacher is a good system designer and developer of

teaching learning module for causing effective learning. In an age of
open and distance learning, it is expected that a teacher should have
the ability to prepare audio-instructional materials and modules that
would promote self-learning on the part of the pupils.

5. Interpersonal Skills:
Another important characteristic of an effective teacher is
interpersonal skills i.e. ability to communicate with the students
clearly and precisely, to identify students’ concerns and needs, to
respond to students with an open and stable attitude, to appreciate
and acknowledge the efforts of students, to accept each student as a
distinct individual, to demonstrate self-confidence in dealing with
them and to interact with them in ways that are adaptable.

So, an effective teacher can foster a strong confidence in students by

dealing with them kindly, effectively and fairly through the device of
inter-personal skills.

6. Organization Competency:
A teacher should have organizational competency to manage the
material resources available in the class-room in an effective way. As
a manager in the class, he/she controls the class in an effective
manner to ascertain effective learning.

Besides, he/she is expected to develop expertise in handling library

resources such as dictionaries, encyclopedia, library catalogues,
atlases, globes, maps, models, references etc. As such,
organizational competency is an important asset of a teacher that
makes him/her effective in teaching learning situation.

7. Diagnostic and Evaluative Skills:

A teacher should possess certain amount of diagnostic and
evaluative skills. The teacher should have the competency to gather
data related to student behaviour and to analyze student mis-
behaviour in a class-room in the light of probable causes. He/she has
to probe the case history for identification of behavioural
characteristics.

Likewise, he/she should have the capacity to design, develop and

administer appropriate instruments to measure student’s
achievements and interpret objectively to apply proper remedy.
Therefore, diagnostic and evaluate skills are essentials for becoming
an effective teacher.

8. Motivational Skill:
Another professional competency of a teacher is the ability to inspire
and motivate his/her pupils. She/he should have flair for motivating
pupils towards intellectual growth. Instead of harping on criticizing the
student’s mistakes, the teacher should show them right path to learn
effectively.

He/she has to show them way to get rid of problems on the way to
learning. He/she is required to find out strong points in each student
and give them opportunity to promote their growth. He/she ‘should
inspire them to learn in a better manner for securing proper growth
and development of pupils. He/she should inspire them to learn in a
through proper feedback, reinforcement and rewards.
9. Qualification of Teachers:
In order to be an effective teacher, a person should possess certain
requisite qualifications—general, professional and special. Generally,
it is expected that a teacher should have an excellent ‘academic
record and stock of general knowledge pertaining to various streams
or disciplines.

In addition to this, it is desired that a teacher should have proficiency

in one or two areas of subject’s vis-a-vis a plethora of subjects in the
current scenario of knowledge explosion. Over and above general
and special qualifications, professional qualification is a sure passport
for making an entry into teaching profession.

Since, teaching is regarded as a profession, professional qualification

is a pre-requisite before making an in-road to teaching profession.
Thus, a teacher pursues professional training programme, known as
teacher training programme, with a view to internalizing the skills or
techniques of the profession—basic requirements to become
effective teacher.

10. Job Satisfaction:

Research works on job satisfaction of teacher’s reveal the stark
reality that there is inevitably a direct and positive relation between
job satisfaction and effectiveness of teacher. In other words, it is
his/her earnest involvement in the job that determines his satisfaction
in the job.

His/her positive attitude to the teaching profession contributes to

effectiveness of teaching. On the contrary the feeling of being
unfortunate to be in the teaching profession is very pernicious which
brings untold harm to his/her style of teaching.

Job satisfaction differs from person to person. But it is an essential

pre-condition for being an effective teacher. In addition to the above
professional characteristics, a teacher possesses certain personal
characteristics to be an effective and resourceful teacher.
11. Repertoire or Repository of Values:
An effective teacher is a store-house of all eternal values-honesty,
truthfulness, loyalty, punctuality, politeness, cleanliness, dedication,
affection etc. He/she influences the behaviour of pupils by his/her
own illumination. He/she is a light who kindles other lights. A student
imbibes all values and virtues through observation and imitation of his
or her own teacher’s behaviour.

Therefore, a teacher stands as a model who shows by his/her own

action. It is not the matter how he/she preaches but in what way
he/she actually behaves. Therefore, goes a saying, “Example is
better than precept.” As such, his/her behaviour has to be
exemplary for the students and he/she stands as an ideal example
before the students.

12. Affection:
As a part of personality, a teacher needs to have the basic traits of
love and affection. Just as a mother puts her affection on her child, a
teacher should show love and concern for his/her pupils. Lack of
affection does have its baneful consequence upon the behaviour of
students.

For example, a student who is starved of affection tends to be

inactive and indifferent to the teaching executed by a teacher. This
also tells upon the performance of that student. He/she feels insecure
inside the school and she/he tends to develop certain psychological
problems. His/her emotional development gets impaired thus, his/her
personality gets mutilated and maimed.

13. Empathy:
An effective teacher needs to possess a great virtue i.e. empathy. It is
a feeling that one is virtually concerned with other needs and feelings.
This quality enables a teacher to understand his/her pupils better
both emotionally and intellectually. It enables a teacher to be
judicious, impartial and objective. It prompts a teacher to avoid
stereotyping and prejudices and to treat all pupils with equanimity
without any differences.

14. Concern and Commitment:

Genuine concern and commitment to the tasks are other qualities
which need to be reflected in the teacher. The teacher should be
dedicated and concerned about the development of pupils like their
parents. He/she should stand as a parent figure.
If a teacher is genuinely dedicated and concerned with the growth of
his/her pupil, it is required that he/she should remove all
inconsistencies in his/her talks. In other words, a teacher should
avoid blaming and shaming, ordering and bossing, and ridiculing and
belittling his/her pupils. A teacher needs to be authentic, genuine,
sincere and committed.

15. Humour:
It is an essential trait which a teacher should possess. It breaks the
monotony of the class and makes teaching an interesting affair. A
joke here or a witty utterance there can make pupils happy and
active. It can arouse laughter on the lips of students which could
make their minds lighter and relaxed. Without an element of humour,
teaching could be uninteresting.

Therefore, humour can turn out to be a good tool in the hands of an

enlightened teacher. Care should be taken to see that humour is not
at the expense of any individual student, Teacher should shirk any
comments that hamper a child’s self-esteem. Therefore, humorous
teaching helps in maximization of learning.
In short, it can be agreed that a teacher should possess both
professional and personal characteristics in order to be an effective
one. A teacher needs to develop several personal qualities as well as
professional skills to do his/her job effectively. Therefore, the quality
of teachers is of vital importance.

Further, his or her own behaviour does it have influence upon the
effectiveness of his/her teaching. Undesirable behaviour stands as a
great barrier on the way to good and effective teaching. Good
behaviour, other qualities and skills can be developed by proper
training—pre-service, induction and in-service component.

S.S. Krishnan and M.A. Nightinga! (1994) have succinctly

outlined the characteristics of an Effective teacher which are as
follows:

(a) He can teach using different methods of teaching, employing a

plethora of audio-visual aids,
(b) He should have developed morality,
(c) Have intellectual depth,
(d) Have a sense of humour,
(e) A man of all-round and balanced personality,
(f) Should be confident and at ease while teaching,
(g) Should have amicable relation with pupils,
(h) Should manage the class efficiently,
(i) He should plan the lessons properly,
(j) He should explain points lucidly,
(k) Make lessons interesting,
(l) He should stimulate and motivate pupils to think independently,
(m) He should be creative, constructive, resourceful, innovative and
co-operative,
(n) He should be flexible, alert and democratic in nature,
(o) Should be a good presentator and a vivid narrator,
(p) And he should pay attention to revision and examination reforms.

To conclude with the observation of Henry Von Dyke:

“He (teacher) communicates his own joy learning and shares with
boys and girls the best treasures of his mind. He lights many candles,
which in later years will shine back to cheer him. This is his reward.
Knowledge may be gained from books but the love for knowledge is
transmitted only by personal contact. No one had ever deserved
better of republic than the unknown teacher”!

ROLES OF TEACHER
INSTRUCTIONAL ROLE
 Plan and organize courses.
Create and maintain a desirable group which will encourage
and enhance learning and will lead to the development of
learner self-discipline.
Adapt teaching and preparing the instructional materials to the
varying interests, needs and abilities of the students
Motivate the challenging students to pursue and to sustain
learning activities which will lead them towards acceptance of
responsibility for their own learning.
FACULTY ROLE The role of faculty varies according to philosophy,
objectives and setting of teaching institution.
Chairperson, secretary or member of one or more committees.
Counselor of students in matters
Researchers
Resource persons to groups outside the institution, health
agencies, or other schools.
INDIVIDUAL ROLE
Plays a personal role as a member of a family, a community
and a citizen. Dignified and distinct personality
PROFESSIONAL RESPONSIBILITIES The following statement of
professional responsibilities must be adhered to by all teachers. In
carrying out their duties and responsibilities all teachers must: -

be conscious of their special duty of care to the students of the

public education system in all educational activities in and out of
school;
demonstrate the highest standards of professional behaviour,
exercise professional judgment and act in a courteous and
sensitive manner when interacting with students, parents or
caregivers, staff and the public; collaborate in the development
of school plans, policies and programs;
devise and document teaching and learning programs and
develop and implement appropriate evaluation mechanisms;
treat students equitably, including those with disabilities or
other special needs; meet the individual learning needs of
 students and assist each student to maximize his or her learning
outcomes;
effectively manage and implement programs for child protection
and student welfare;
undertake appropriate ongoing professional development to
promote competence in curriculum development, delivery and
evaluation, classroom management and teaching skills;
comply with legislative and industrial requirements and the
Department’s Code of Conduct, policies, including The Use of
Employer Communication Devices and procedures;
be familiar with the provisions of legislation relevant to their
official responsibilities;
comply with reasonable directions given by a supervisor or
principal and adhere to official guidelines concerning the
performance of their duties;
implement the priorities of the Department and the school and
ensure their professional actions reflect Government and
Departmental policy;
be fair in exercising delegated responsibility and promote
personal and professional development of staff;
perform their duties efficiently and effectively and with honesty,
integrity and fairness at all times;
Ensure that decisions are made fairly and conveyed promptly
both within the Department and to those students and members
of the public who have a right to know.
use information gained in the course of employment only for
proper and appropriate purposes use public resources
economically,

Functions of Teachers –

1. Explaining and Informing: - The good teacher is expected to be

well-informed in the areas in which she teaches. She is
expected to be able to communicate information needed for
background, enrichment and motivation and on many occasions
to explain relationship to children.
2. Initiating, Directing and administering: - one of the most
important functions of teaching is concerned with initiating,
organizing, directing and making decisions. From morning till
evening, the teacher faces and handles many problems which
require the initiative, direction and administration also.

3. Unifying the Group: - In the beginning of the session, a teacher

is confronted with a number of children who are not unified. As
they live together, they become a unified group. An important task
is to develop a group spirit within the group.
4. Giving Security: - Many children are in need of warmth
recognition, praise and friendly atmosphere. There are children
who feel a sense of loneliness, isolation, rejection and economic
insecurity. So, teacher should identify the needs of students.
5. Clarifying Attitude, Beliefs and Problems: - Many students are
confused by social influences. Looking at so many different ways of
living on TV, radio, movie and reading materials etc. which
introduce new and unusual ideas. So, the teacher should clarify the
doubts and creates opportunities for children to state their
attitudes, interests and problems, to talk about their purposes and
interests and aspirations
6. Diagnosing Learning Problems: - there are children in every
class who do not make expected progress in their studies, growth
and development. The teacher must diagnose the learning
problems of individual students and should suggest the possible
solutions.
7. Making Curriculum Material: - Curriculum plays an important role
in the course. The teacher should modify the curriculum in
accordance with the needs of group and the local community
8. Evaluating, Recording, and reporting: - the teacher has to
evaluate the progress of class as a whole and individual student by
means of tests and periodical examinations. She has to report the
progress to the principal and parents.
9. Arranging and Organizing Class Room: - It is important
responsibility of a teacher to make a class room a beautiful place
for learning. Arrangement should be flexible to change it to suit the
different occasions.
10. Participating in The School Activities: - The teacher should
participate in other school activities in addition to his routine
teaching assignment. These may include picnics, games,
organizing some shows etc.

10. Participating in Professional Life: - Every teacher is

expected to enter wholly into professional life and to make his
contribution to the improvement of the profession.
 Teaching as a Profession
Characteristic # 1. It Essentially Involves an Intellectual
Operation:
Since teaching involves arousal of interest in teaching learning
process, it requires an intellectual operation.
The teacher evolves a suitable plan of action to carry out teaching by
creating a conducive and supportive learning environment to achieve
the pre-specified objectives, i.e. bringing desirable changes in the
behaviour of the learners.
All the above are intellectual operations on the part of teacher.
Therefore, teaching is essentially an intellectual operation and
exercise.

Characteristic # 2. It Draws Material from the Spectrum of

Science:
Teaching is not only an art but also a science. As an art it propels
teachers to acquire some skills which are called “tricks of the trade”.
As such, a teacher needs to be trained properly in order to achieve
some objectives.

From the stand point of science, it goes through certain steps which
are followed in the training of a teacher. He/she is well-versed with
the steps of teaching which go in a systematic way. Therefore,
teaching is not a haphazard affair. It requires proper planning to reach
the goal. It is a goal directed process.

Characteristic # 3. It Transforms Raw-material into a Practical

and Definite End:
Learners are prospective raw-materials in teaching profession. They
are prepared to teach with efficiency and effectiveness for the larger
interest of society which has varied expectations. They are trained
into a practical and definite end by means of providing right
knowledge and practical training in teaching and other pedagogical
courses.
Characteristic # 4. It Possesses an Educationally Communicable
Technique:
An important characteristic of teaching as a profession is its nature of
science. As teaching is a science, teaching techniques are systematic
and have certain steps to be followed. It is easily communicable for
its wide application.

Characteristic # 5. It Tends towards Self-Organization:

It demands sensitivity of personnel involved in teaching activities
towards growth and development of profession. So, they are self-
organized by evolving a definite mechanism to sustain and promote
the standards of teaching profession.

Characteristic # 6. It Basically Performs a Social Service:

A nation or a society marches forward on the track of development if
teachers serve in a better manner to effect changes in various ways.
Teaching infuses a sense of service in the minds of teachers,
because teaching is essentially a social service. Self-interest recedes
giving way to general interest. It accords high premium on social
service-the crux of profession.
Characteristic # 7. It Has A Lengthy Period of Study and
Training:
Another chief characteristic of teaching is that this profession requires
a lengthy period of study and training. In other words, a person willing
to take up this profession has to study for a number of years and
acquire mastery over the contents of the subject matter. After this,
he/she has to pursue training in teaching skill and method.

Characteristic # 8. It Has A High Degree of Autonomy:

Autonomy is free from any form of intervention. Any form of
intervention in teaching activities is not brooked right from planning of
activities, identifying instructional objectives, development of
curriculum, and transaction of curriculum, evaluating student’s
performance, framing of admission and promotion rules to
organization of co-curricular activities.
Characteristic # 9. It is based upon a Systematic Body of
Knowledge:
Knowledge springs from different layers and spheres of life—social,
political, historical, psychological, economic, cultural and religious.
Teaching as a profession is based upon systematic body of
knowledge emanated from different spheres of human life and
activities.

Characteristic # 10. It Has A Common Code of Ethics:

Teaching profession has a common code of ethics which guides the
behaviour and conduct of teachers in their institutions and outside. A
code of professional ethics is a charter of rights and duties for the
protection of professional autonomy and freedom.

This can ensure development of a high degree of recognition, regard

and social status of the profession so that true professionalism
emerges in the long run. He/she is committed to his/her profession in
a true perspective.

Characteristic # 11. It Generates In-Service Growth:

In teaching profession, a teacher always learns at all stages of
teaching. Learning does not stop. An extra-ordinary literary genius
R.N. Tagore says, “A lamp can never light another lamp unless if
continues to burn its own flame; a teacher can never truly teach
unless he is still learning himself”.

The teacher has to be engaged in self-study and has to carry on self-

learning in order to keep himself/herself of abreast with the latest
trends in his/her subjects. This aspect is emphasized in teaching
profession which ultimately leads to growth of a teacher while in
service.

However, in-service training is a path finder for the growth of

professionalism of teachers. With all these characteristics, teaching
has become a noble profession with the prime motive of rendering
multi-furious services to society.
 4.2 ROLE OF A TEACHER IN EMERGING INDIAN
SOCIETY
“If a country is to be corruption free and become a nation of beautiful
minds, I strongly feel there are three key societal members who can
make a difference. They are the father, the mother and the teacher.”-
Abdul Kalam

JOB OF TEACHING
Schools are one of the first places where kid’s behaviour and future
educational success is shape. Teachers are carriers of either positive
or negative behaviour towards students. The reason why the first
year of school is so critical is because kids learn the base of their
educational life. Teachers must love their career in order for them to
pass enthusiasm, to assists and to provide a warm environment to
the students.

Teachers are the second mother for the students because students
spend a lot of time with their teachers. At the same time a real
teacher becomes through many years of training and experiences in
the field. The same way, mothers are not born being great mothers
but as their experiences with their kids expand, they become experts
on the field. We know that mothers look the best for their kids and
one of their goals is to raise their kids so they can become
professionals and pioneers for the society. As a mother teacher’s role
toward kids is to give them care, love, respect, lead, instruct and to
try to form a safe and pleasant environment at their homes and
society.

Teachers carry out the arduous task of preparing the youth to

shoulder the responsibility of the nation. Indeed, no one is more
responsible for taking a country forward in the race of modernization,
and at the same time imparting character to the personalities of the
young, than our very own teachers. While teachers in India have
given the country some of the world’s best doctors, engineers and
entrepreneurs, thus adding significantly to the growth of the global
giant that India is set to become, some academics have gone a step
ahead, playing a direct part in the country’s democratic setup.

ROLE OF TEACHER IN SOCIAL

TRANSFORMATION
• Teachers play an extraordinary part in the lives of children for
the formative years of their development. The importance of
teachers is something that cannot be understated. Their
influence can and will stretch on long after the final bell rings,
beyond the walls of the actual school.
• Teachers are mediators, able to hash out and make those who
are having an argument have some kind of common ground.
Anyone can really just punish the two parties and be done with
it, but there will be no lessons that will be learned from that. If a
teacher is able to figure out what has happened and help
develop understanding, then the youth will be far better off.
• The role of teacher in society is both significant and valuable. It
has far-reaching influence on the society he lives in, and no
other personality can have an influence more profound than that
of a teacher –Shiben Raina (2007).
• Studies reveal that a hard-working teacher is often admired by
students and members of the general society. Aside of the
academics, students also try to learn their teacher’s
mannerisms, modes of dressing, etiquettes, style of
 conversation and others. For a student to grow up as a
responsible citizen, the teacher is needed. After teaching
students simple Geometry and Arithmetic, for instance, virtues
such as punctuality, truth, hard work, honesty, simplicity,
hygiene, patriotism, love and sincerity, obedience, tolerance, etc,
must also be propagated. Society needs these values to
develop. It makes no sense for one to be intelligent but corrupt.
Any education churned out must be holistic and development-
oriented.
• The teacher must be well-resourced to be able to satisfy fully
the needs of students and society. There are sectors within the
society where the services of the teacher are needed. In the
areas of agriculture, commerce, sanitation and health, culture,
social welfare, governance, tourism and hospitality, the teacher
is important.
• Teachers have to help the people in need and also sympathize
with them. In the present era everyone is so selfish, the plea of
the needy is a knell to our eras. Instead of loving friend or
colleague, we look at him enemy who is competing with you in
the race to success. Say No to this and as a teacher he should
impart education for the overall development of a child and also
for the growth of the society.
• The role of teachers in society is both significant and
widespread valuable. It has influence in the society he lived in
and no other personalities who may have a great influence than
teachers.

EMERGING INDIAN SOCIETY

Emerging Indian society should be a learning society. We have to be
literate, educated and learners since the very outset of creation man
has been finding ways and means to make the life easier and
comfortable. In selective functions, the education system tends to
select students from particular socio-economic strata. The selective
character of formal education operates through families according to
environment and cultural resources, and through the schools,
according to the environment appropriate to the one that obtains in
the family of the child. It is widely recognized that formal education
plays a vital role in social mobility both horizontal and vertical.
 4.3 PARENTS AND TEACHERS

INTRODUCTION
Teacher is said to be a maker of man. He is the foundation of all
education. Any attempt of national reconstruction is not possible
without active participation of other teacher. A nation is built by its
citizens and citizens are moulded by teachers. Teacher is said to be a
maker of nation. The education Commission has stated that “the
quality and competence and character of teachers to be the most
significant factor influencing the quality of education and its
contribution to national development. Hindu civilization considers
teacher as the true representative of the God. Teacher or Guru is
considered as representative of Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva and is
responsible for creating and sustaining knowledge and destroying the
ignorance. The role of teacher is not limited to the classroom
teaching, but it extends to building up of human, vigorous nation and
society at large. At present, any individual can be teacher if he
satisfies the necessary conditions stated in government rules.
However, “the real role of a teacher is an architect of the nation. It is
implying that, the best, intelligent, sagacious proficient members of
the society should be enabled to qualify for this noble profession.”

Development of a nation depends upon the contribution of the

teachers. A teacher impacts knowledge of his students, in the
classroom. He guides each student to develop their potentialities.
These students, later on become doctors, engineers, managers,
lawyers, teacher’s etc. professionals. Thus, teaching is a mother
profession giving birth to several other professionals.

The future of a nation is built through the process of education, hence

talented, enthusiastic and learned teachers are necessary for the
progress of a society and nation. “The world of tomorrow will be born
from the schools today.” Thus the teacher contributes significantly
towards building a strong nation.

According to Singh and Raju (2006) a teacher is a person who is

directly engaged in instructing a group of students.
A teacher is a person known as a guide or helper in the process of
learning, in many societies, academic subjects are given priority, but
teachers’ duties include instruction in craftsman ship or vocational
training, spirituality civics in community roles or life skills. Teachers
need to understand a subject enough to teach its essence to
students. The goal is to develop a sound knowledge base on which
the students will be able to build as they will be exposed to different
life experiences. The passing of knowledge from generation to
generation helps students to grow as an ideal member of the society.
Good teachers can translate information, provide good judgment,
experience and wisdom in to relevant knowledge that a student can
easily understand, assimilate, retain and also pass on to others.

RESPONSIBILITIES OF TEACHER
A teacher has to fulfill various responsibilities, which may be
summarized as follows.
1. A teacher should be expert in his subject.
2. He should be enthusiastic about teaching students.
3. Encourage co-curricular activities like debate, quiz, writing etc.
4. Encourage initiatives and creativity among the students.
5. Train the students in the art of answering questions satisfactorily.
6. He should be available to the students even outside class hours.
7. Show concern for student.
8. Identify weak students and provide remedial teaching techniques.
9. He should have good communication skill.
10. He should be expert in teaching so that each and every student in
the class understands clearly the subject taught.
11. He should have ability to explain difficult concepts in simple terms.
12. He should behave like a friend, philosopher and guide.
13. His behaviour should be such that the students will remember him
during their lives.
14. He should frame such questions that students research and learn
by themselves without any help, is promote self-organized learning.

ROLE OF PARENTS
A parent is primary helper, monitor coordinator, observes, record
keeper and decision maker for the child. The most important duty of
parents is to look after their children and to take interest in their
welfare and progress. “Successful parenting entails both effective
components in terms of commitment, empathy and 14 positive regard
for children.”

Parenting begins during or before pregnancy and continues through a

balance of lifespan. Parenthood plays a crucial role in the process of
development of a child and also to the development of the society
through long term investment in children.

Parents are first and lifelong teachers and guide of every child. The
main task of parents in each generation is to prepare children of the
next generation for the physical, social, economic and psychological
situations in which the children have to survive and grow.

Parental involvement is defined as a “positive interaction between a

parent and their child.” Parented involvement includes a wide range
of activities but generally refers to parents and family members use
and investment of resources in their children’s schooling such
investments take place in or outside of school, with an intention to
improve learning of children. At home parented involvement includes
such activities as helping in doing homework, reading with children,
discussion about developments in school etc. Involvement at school
includes parents volunteering in the classroom, attending plays,
sports and other events organize by school etc.

Involvement at school includes parents volunteering in the classroom,

attending plays, sports and other events organized by schools. It also
includes school-based involvement, focused on such activities as
driving on a field trip, staffing a concession booth at school games,
coming to school for scheduled conferences or informal
conversations, volunteering at school and serving on a parent-
teacher advisory board.
The foundation of a child’s future is laid in the family. In later life it
becomes difficult to demolish or reconstruct these foundations. The
infant begins his life under the fostering affection and care of his
parents and other near and dear ones who are closely associated
with his family. As” he grows, he receives the first lessons of life in his
family and tries to imbibe habits, ideals and patterns of behavior of
family members”. Thus, the family has a deep influence on him.

The various activities of family and need for intercommunication

make the child to equip itself with a working of vocabulary. He
receives his first lesson of speech in his family. Extensive research
activities conclude that the Home environment is the most important
influence on academic performance of a child.

Parental or family involvement is beneficial to parents, teachers,

students and the community at large. “The most common learning
modalities are kinesthetic learning based on hands on work and
engaging activities, visual learning based on observation and seeing
what is being learned and auditory learning based on listening to
instructions. The brain develops according to the quality and quantity
of motivation the children receive from their parents.” Many of the
values later transmitted by the school are first inculcated in the child
at home. So, home environment influences the study habits of the
students. The good study habits depend upon the responsibilities of
the parents. Parent involvement includes parent child interactions that
communicate positive attitudes about school and importance of
education to the child.

“Parental involvement affects student achievement because these

interactions affect students’ motivation, their sense of competence
and the belief that they have control over success in school”. Parents
can be involved by checking homework, communicating with the
teacher and attending school functions. “When schools and families
work together to support learning, everyone benefits, students do
better in school and in life, parents become empowered, teacher’s
moral improves, schools get better and communities grow stronger.
Parents should take care to raise a well behaved child who is willing
to learn , parents should provide an-encouraging home atmosphere
so that child’s commitment to learn will increase Epstein (2001) has
concluded that there are six types of parent involvements, which are
parenting, communicating, volunteering, learning at home, decision
making and community involvement.

Psychologists and educators agree on the importance of early years

in developing habits that are preserved by the child. A child should
come to school with qualities of character that are valued by his
family, school and community. “These qualities include honesty,
respect caring about others, following directions of teacher and
school rules, taking responsibility and making good moral choices.”
The main role of parents is to provide care, love and training to their
children.” “The parents’ involvement is absolutely essential to a child’s
eventual success.” The parental influence is the most important factor
for any achieving child.

A child develops according to the quality and quantity of the stimuli

received by the child from his family members. The positive outlook of
every member of the family and favorable environment molds child to
prepare to study and have a good character. Most of the parents take
care of physical needs of the child, but at the same time they should
take care about their children’s intellectual, emotional and spiritual
development. Uneducated and poor parents need to be trained by the
schools and the government.
 4.4 Parent and Teacher Association
Parents, student, school, and teacher are interrelated to each-other
rapidly. Parent sends their children to school for education. School
educates children. Both are interested in children’s progress and both
are answerable to each-other but we have experienced that illiterate
and uneducated parents do not understand the importance of
education, so they do not provide a good educational environment for
their children.

In a village, few children complete primary education and the problem

of absenteeism from school is more rampant. Parents are busy in
agricultural and other activities. They do not keep contact with the
school.

Educated parents are often busy in their professional work. They

might not find time to keep contact with school. It becomes the
responsibility of the school to ensure the growth and development of
children.

Once a child is admitted to a school, parents start thinking that their

responsibility is over. Teachers think that parents do not take interest
in child’s education. On the other hand, parents think that teachers do
not teach well in the school. Both are blaming each-other. But both
are equally responsible for child’s progress, so both have to take
interest in the child’s growth and development.
Only home visits by a teacher are not enough. Parents should take
interest in child’s education. They should also know problems
academics as well as personal problems, that the children facing and
with the help of teachers, try to solve them.

They should know when the child conies to school, what he/she do in
the school? What are his/her interest/attitude and aptitude towards
study? What is his/her progress? Whether he/she takes part in other
activities of the school? What should be done to improve growth and
development of the child? In such a situation PTA helps in developing
all-round personality of the child. Ever)’ school should have a PTA.
For establishment of PTA the following steps
need to be taken:
(i) Invite parents to school.
(ii) Explain to them the objectives of PTA.
(iii) Give them brief idea about the activities of PTA.
(iv) Make membership of PTA voluntary.
(v) All parents should be invited.
(vi) Teachers have to take up the responsibility to conduct PTA
meetings.
(vii) Try to involve more parents in activities.
What are the Main Objectives of Parent and
Teacher Association?
The objectives of Parent-Teacher Association are the following:

(i) To bring home and the school in close contact:

These days’ teacher and parents do not come in contact with each-
other. Parents also do not know the teacher. Both should meet each-
other on some occasions.

(ii) To promote the welfare of the children in home

and community:
(a) Parents are busy in their professions. They do not find time to visit
the school and take interest in child’s progress. Once a year, the
school invites parents, which helps them to know about the child’s
performance and the problems of the child. Parents come to know the
behaviour of the child. Parents and teachers may cooperate with
each-other intelligently in the training of a child.

(b) Somehow both complain about each-other. In some cases,

parents blame teachers and teachers blame parents for not taking
interest. If both of them come together, know each-other, understand
each-other, it helps in growth and development of child’s progress.

(c) Parent-Teacher Association also helps school to inform the

community of what it is doing and the problems it is facing. The
involvement of parents and the community might help a school to
raise resources for its various activities.
(d) The importance of PTA is clear and the objectives are also
understood.

The following activities are to be organized in a

Parent-Teacher Association:
(i) The performance of a child is discussed.
(ii) The personal as well as academic problems of a child can be
discussed jointly and efforts made to solve these problems.
(iii) Celebration of festivals can be organized. Invite parents and
community members and accept their viewpoints.
(iv) Activities can be taken up with the help of the community e.g.
cleanliness of the city or village, shram yagnya, eye camp, tours,
funfair, cultural programme etc.

Objective of the PTA

To promote the welfare of children and youth in the home,
school, community and places of worship.
To raise the standards of home life.
To secure adequate laws for the care and protections of
children and youth.
To bring into closer relation the home and the school, that the
parents and teachers may cooperate intelligently in the
education of children and youth.
To develop between educators and the general public such
unified efforts as well as secure for all children the highest
advantages in physical, mental, social and spiritual education.
 4.5 TEACHER AND CURRICULUM
The word ‘Curriculum’ is derived from the Latin word ‘Currere’ which
means to run. Thus, curriculum means a run-way, a course which one
runs to reach a goal. Thus, education is likened to a race run on the
course of curriculum, with educational aim as its ultimate goal this
was the traditional viewpoint of curriculum.

The teacher was required to achieve the aim of education ‘by leading
them (students) through the curriculum prescribed’ for the purpose.”
The aim of education was to impart knowledge. Thus, curriculum was
thought to be a list of subjects to be studied by the pupils in the
school. It was the result of the desire of adults to teach the pupils the
knowledge and skills keeping in view their further requirements.

Highlights
1. Curriculum, derived from the Latin word ‘Currere’ means ‘run-way’,
a course which one runs to reach a goal.
2. Expert views:
1. A tool to mould material -Cunningham
2. Epitome of knowledge and experience -Froebel
3. Comprises experiences in and outside school -Crow and Crow
4. A general, over-all plan of the content -C.V. Good
5. A totality of experiences-S.E.C.

Definitions According to Authors

Curriculum has been described in different ways by different
educationists. Some of the expert views are given as under:

Cunningham’s View
“Curriculum is a tool in the hands of the artist (the teacher) to mould
his material (the pupils) according to his ideals (aims) in his studio
(the school).” This viewpoint is traditional and even today, to some
extent, curriculum is understood to be a course of studies or syllabus
designed to be followed at the various levels of education.

Froebel’s View
“Curriculum should be conceived as an epitome of the rounded whole
of the knowledge and experience of the human race.”

The View of Crow and Crow

“Curriculum includes all the learner’s experiences in or outside school
that are included in a programme which has been devised to help him
develop mentally, physically, emotionally, socially, spiritually and
morally.”

The View of Bent Rudyard and Kornenberg Henry

“Curriculum in its broadest sense includes the complete school
environment, involving all the courses, activities, readings and
associations furnished to the pupils in the school.”

The View of Carter V. Good

In his Dictionary of Education, he defines curriculum as “a general
over-all plan of the content or specific materials of instruction that the
school should offer the student by way of qualifying him for
graduation or certification for entrance into a professional or a
vocational field.”

Munroe’s View
“Curriculum embodies all the experiences which are utilized by the
school to attain the aims of education.”

According to Report of the Secondary Education Commission

“It must be clearly understood that according to the best educational
thought curriculum does not mean only the academic subjects
traditionally taught in the school but it includes the totality of
experiences that a pupil receives through the manifold activities that
go on in the school, in the class-room, library, laboratory, work-shop,
play-ground and in the numerous informal contacts between teachers
and pupils. In this sense, the whole life of the school becomes the
curriculum which can touch the life of the students at all points and
help in the evolution of balanced personality.”
 4.6 Curriculum and Education
From the definitions of curriculum, we see that curriculum and
education are inseparable. Curriculum is the plan and education are
the product. Aims of education are realized through the medium of
the curriculum. Education has two broad aims of education, individual
and social.

Individual aims emphasize the balanced development of the

individual. Social aims are identical with the development of social
qualities in the individual, which lead to his social efficiency and
cultural development. But these aims can be realized by providing
certain experiences to the pupil in the form of knowledge, skills and
traits, which constitute the content of curriculum. Thus, we see that
curriculum is a means to achieve the aims of education.
Need and Importance of curriculum
The teacher is required to achieve the aims of education. For that
purpose, he has to employ suitable instructional methods and
procedures.

But this he can do only when he knows what efforts he is to make

and in what order. In other words, he should know the content of
curriculum which consists of subjects, activities and experiences in
the properly graded form. Curriculum is in fact the ‘warp and woof of
the whole educational process. Its need and importance may be
summed up as follows:
1. Achievement of Educational Aims
Merely defining the aims of education is futile. There should be well
planned efforts to achieve the aims of education. We must think of
knowledge, activities, experiences and other influences which help in
the achievement of aims of education.

Curriculum need and Importance

1. Achievement of educational aims;
2. Criteria of suitable teachers;
3. Selection of suitable methods;
4. Reflects trends in education;
5. Providing suitable knowledge;
6. Providing suitable activities and experiences;
7. Providing wholesome influences.

There are three main factors of educational process

(a) The aims of education
(b) The curriculum
(c) The instructional methods.

2. Criteria of Suitable Teachers

It is curriculum which can show what types of teachers are required in
the schools. We should know what type of work they are required to
do and this is according to the requirements of curriculum.

3. Selection of Suitable Methods

Curriculum enables the teacher to select suitable methods of
teaching. ‘How to teach’ will be determined by ‘what to teach’.

4. Reflects Trends in Education

Curriculum is a means to achieve the aims of education which are
dynamic and go on changing with the changing social requirements.
Naturally, the curriculum will reflect the trends in education. For
example, modern education places following demands on the
curriculum:

(a) Providing Suitable Knowledge. Curriculum should include suitable

knowledge which will help in the achievement of aims of education.
(b) Providing Suitable Activities and Experiences. Curriculum includes
well selected activities and experiences needed for the development
of pupils according to social requirements.

(c) Providing Wholesome Influences. Curriculum should provide

wholesome school programme to develop the desirable behaviour
patterns in the pupils.

Thus, we see that curriculum is an important instrument or means to

achieve the ends of education.

Types of Curriculum
I. Activity-centered curriculum
In activity curriculum, .subject matter is translated in terms of
activities and knowledge is gained as an outgrowth and product of
those activities. The child acquires knowledge, skill and attitudes
through different activities.
Nature and Characteristics
(i) Learning through activity is more durable than through a theoretical
discussion.
(ii) Activity has occupied a central position in the curricula of the
advanced countries.
(iii) In this curriculum, provision is made for a series of activities in
schools suitable to various subjects.
(iv) Activities are organized based on the interests and attitudes of
the learners.
(v) The school becomes a workshop or a center of work for
organizing different activities.
(vi) The spirit of project work, experiment and discovery should
prevail in the school.
(vii) Activity should not be narrowly conceived.

Advantages of Activity Curriculum

The following are the advantages of activity curriculum:
(i) Education becomes meaningful when the learner finds activities
according to his own interest and attitude.
(ii) This type of curriculum promotes team work and cooperative
activities.
(iii) It is based on the needs and capacity of the learners.
(iv) It provides emotional satisfaction.
(v) It promotes physical fitness, alertness and initiative.
(vi) It encourages school community relationship.
(vii) It develops the constructive and creative urges of the learner.
(viii) The teacher becomes more imaginative and resourceful.
(ix) The learners are made mindful of their progress.
(x) It provides opportunities for the learners to utilize their leisure time
fruitfully.
(xi) It facilitates the development of different values like social, moral,
aesthetic and democratic values through activities and project works.
(xii) This type of curriculum can bridge the gap between work and
education, work and life, school and society etc.

Limitations of the Curriculum:

(i) It is not always possible to provide the necessary equipment and
instruments for organizing various activities.
(ii) Necessary field study and work are not given due weight-age.
(iii) Students may also be interested only on the kind of work
neglecting the others.
(iv) Sometimes more emphasis may be laid on practical activities and
less on theoretical knowledge.
Importance of activity-centered curriculum
1. Sublimation of Instincts. It helps in the sublimation of instincts like
curiosity and creativeness. The children like to act along the lines of
their instinctive tendencies. Their instincts are sublimated when these
find expression through constructive and purposeful activities. In the
absence of such activities the children may give expression to their
tendencies in destructive activities.

2. Balanced Development. The activities lead to the balanced

development of the child. There is coordination of hand, head and
heart in the performance of activities. Therefore, these bring about
physical, intellectual and emotional development of the child.

3. Social Virtues. The activities develop social virtues as these are

generally group activities. Mutual dealings within the group cultivate
habits of cooperation, fellow feeling and tolerance. This also develops
in them social awareness.

4. Motivation. Active participation of pupils in purposeful activities

arouses their interest and motivates them for learning.

5. Initiative. The pupils develop initiative, confidence and leadership

qualities.

6. Preparation for life. They gain real life experiences. Activity

centered curriculum prepares the students for life by providing such
experiences.

7. Co-operation. There is ample scope for teacher-pupil cooperation

in this type of curriculum.

II. Subject-Centered Curriculum

1. Centered in subjects
2. Emphasis upon teaching subject-matter.
3. Subject-matter selected and organized before the teaching
situation.
4. Controlled by the teacher or someone representing authority
external to learning situation.
5. Emphasis upon teaching facts, imparting information, acquiring
knowledge for its own sake or possible future use.
6. Emphasis on teaching specific habits and skills as separate and
isolated aspects of learning.
7. Emphasis upon improving methods of teaching subject- matter of
specific subjects.
8. Emphasis upon uniformity of exposures to learning situations and
in so far as possible, uniformity of learning results.
9. Education as aiding each child to build a cognitive memory.
10. Education schooling
III. Experience curriculum

1. Centered in learners.
2. Emphasis upon promoting the all-round growth of learners.
3. Subject-matter selected and organized co-operatively by all:
learners.
4. Controlled and directed co-operatively by pupils, teachers, parents,
supervisors, principals and others in the learning, situation.
5. Emphasis upon meaningful experiences which will function
immediately in improving living.
6. Emphasis upon building habits and skills as integral parts of large
experiences.
7. Emphasis upon understanding; improving through use, the process
of learning.
8. Emphasis upon variability, on exposure to learning situations and
variability, in the results, expected and achieved.
9. Education as aiding each child to build a socially creative
individuality.
10. Education considered as a continuous, intelligent process of
growth.

Principles of Curriculum Construction

The main principles of curriculum construction may be mentioned as
under:

Principles of Curriculum Construction are:

1. Principles of Child Centeredness;
2. Principle of Community Centeredness;
3. Principle of Activity Centeredness;
4. Principle of Variety;
5. Principle of Co-ordinations and Integration;
6. Principle of Conservation;
7. Principle of Creativity;
8. Principle of Forward. Looking;
9. Principle of Flexibility;
10. Principle of Balance;
11. Principle of Utility.

1. Principle of Child Centeredness.

As modern education is child-centred the curriculum should also be
child-centred. It should be based on the child’s needs, interests,
abilities, aptitude, age level and circumstances. The child should be
central figure in any scheme of curriculum construction. In fact,
curriculum is meant to bring about the development of the child in the
desired direction so that he is able to adjust well in life.

2. Principle of Community Centredness.

Though the child’s development and growth is the main consideration
of curriculum construction, yet his social behaviour is also to be
suitably developed, both the individual development and the social
development of the child deserve equal attention. He is to live in and
for the society.

Therefore, his needs and desires must be in conformity with the

needs and desires of the society in which he is to live. The values,
attitudes and skills that are prevailing in the community must be
reflected in the curriculum. However, the society is not static. It is
dynamic. Its needs and requirements are changing with the rapid
developments taking place in all fields. While working for the
development, this factor cannot be ignored.

3. Principle of Activity Centredness.

The curriculum should center round the multifarious activities of
pupils. It should provide well selected activities according to the
general interests and developmental stages of children. It should
provide constructive, creative and project activities. For small
children, play activities should also be provided.!
The purposeful activities both in the class-room and outside the
class-room should be provided. It is through a network of activities
that the desired experiences can be provided and consequently
desirable behavioural changes can be brought about in children.

4. Principle of Variety.
The curriculum should be broad-based so as to accommodate the
needs of varied categories of pupils, so that they are able to take up
subjects and participate in activities according their capacities and
interests.

The needs of pupils also change from place to place. For example,
the pupils in rural areas, urban areas, and hilly areas will have
different needs. The needs of boys and girls are also different. So,
these considerations should be reflected in the curriculum.
5. Principle of Co-ordination and Integration.
Of course, the pupils are to be provided with selected experiences
through various subjects and activities but these must be well
integrated. Various subjects and activities have to serve the same
ultimate purpose, the achievement of the aims of education. The
activities and subjects should not be put in after-tight compartments
but these should be inter-related and well-integrated so as to develop
the whole child.

6. Principles of Conservation.
One of the main functions of education is to preserve and transmit
our cultural heritage. This is essential for human progress. Culture
consists of traditions, customs, attitudes, skills, conduct, values and
knowledge. However, the curriculum framers must make a suitable
selection of the elements of culture, keeping n view their educational
value and the developmental stage of pupils.

7. Principle of Creativity.
The conservation of culture helps to sustain the society. The culture
should not be simply transmitted but also enriched. There should be
provision in the curriculum to develop he creative powers of the child
so that he becomes a contributory member society. Raymont says,
“In curriculum that is suited to the needs of today and of the future,
there must be definitely creative subjects.”

8. Principle of Forward Looking.

Education is to enable the child to lead a successful social life. So,
the curriculum should not cater to the present needs of the child
alone. The needs of his future life should also be considered. The
curriculum should also include knowledge, skills, experiences,
influences etc. which will develop in the child abilities and power to
make effective adjustments in the later life.

9. Principle of Flexibility.
In our age, rapid developments are taking place in various fields.
Consequently, the needs of society are hanging. The content of
curriculum cannot be same for all times to come. It should not be
static. It must be dynamic and change with the changing times. It
should reflect the latest trends in the field of education and
psychology.

10. Principle of Balance.

The curriculum must maintain a balance between subjects and
activities, between direct and indirect experiences, between
academic and vocational education, between compulsory and
optional subjects, between formal and informal education, between
individual and social aims of education etc.

11. Principle of Utility.

Curriculum should be useful rather than ornamental. It should not
only include subjects which owe their place in it to tradition. The
curriculum must have practical utility for students. So, there should be
some provision for technical and vocational education in the
curriculum.

The various principles of curriculum construction should be kept in

mind. Various regional and national conditions should also be
considered. Its fact, all considerations which will help in achieving the
aims of education should be given due consideration.

Role of Teacher in Curriculum Development

The teacher associated with the curriculum association has
numerous jobs and obligations. Educators need to appreciate
educating and viewing their understudies creates interests and
aptitudes to their greatest advantage territory. The instructor may
need to make exercise plans and prospectuses inside the structure of
the given curriculum since the instructor's obligations are to execute
the educational plan to address understudy issues.

Teacher's inclusion as a focal point of educational plan improvement

prompts the powerful accomplishment of instructive change. In this
way, the instructor is a significant factor in the accomplishment of
educational plan advancement including the means of suggestion
and assessment.

A teacher can contribute by cooperatively and adequately working

with curriculum development groups and authorities to arrange and
design materials, course books, and content. Teacher association
during the curriculum development is imperative to adjust the content
of the curriculum based on student's needs in the classroom.

Lastly, no curriculum is perfect, or most suitable for students, or free

from criticism, but to be effective it must be accepted by teachers and
must be deemed educationally valid by parents and the community at
large.
 Role of Teachers in the Curriculum Process
Each state establishes content standards and educational
benchmarks by grade level. School districts apply these standards to
develop a curricular framework for teachers. Teachers hold the key to
the curriculum process. Using a wide variety of techniques, teachers
encourage learning by delivering content in creative and impactful
ways. Whole-group instruction, individualized attention, experiential
education and using a global lens, are methods that provide teachers
with avenues for success in the curriculum process.
Active Learning
Curriculum is content, but when contextualized, it comes alive for
students. The role of teachers in the curriculum process is to help
students develop an engaged relationship with the content. Active
learning will increase the focus and retention of the curriculum,
resulting in an exciting learning environment. Teachers build lessons
that include simulations, experiments, case studies and activities to
deliver curriculum. This interactive approach intertwines curriculum
and practical experiences that immerse students in learning. The
curriculum process provides opportunity for teachers to be creative
and put their unique stamp on the classroom experience.
Multiculturalism
During the curriculum process, teachers use a prescribed curriculum
to build lessons that have global impact. For example, teachers
integrate examples of diverse people who have made significant
contributions in the content area. The intentionality of building
inclusion helps dispel stereotypes and to encourage students to look
favorably upon diverse groups. If district-issued books or materials do
not highlight historically underrepresented groups, teachers can
provide supplemental materials during the curriculum process. Finally,
the curriculum process enables teachers to consider how they can
best deliver lessons that will reach English Language Learners, or
other diverse populations.
Equity Minded Instruction
Well-intended curriculum cannot always meet the needs of all
learners in the classroom. Teachers are the experts, when it comes to
understanding the individualized needs of each student.
Differentiated or Adaptive instruction is critical so that it ensures that
each student will maximize their potential. Teachers may group
students by interest to encourage collaborative learning or to assess
student progress so that the teacher can determine the pace of
curriculum delivery. Teachers may also create groups with varied
levels of student achievement to encourage collaborative learning
and success. The curriculum process relies on teachers to modify
content delivery, as needed.
Incorporating Student Choice
During the curriculum process, teachers consider how they can
incorporate student choice into classroom learning. Teachers can
help students connect content to an individualized plan that reflects a
career interest. Project-based learning is a dynamic option that
teachers must plan, during the curriculum process. This hands-on
technique immerses students in a practical project that brings alive
the classroom curriculum. Providing a wide variety of learning options
speaks to the needs of all students and optimizes learning potential.
Teachers use the curriculum process to plan and coordinate student
choice options.

****

Sheet for Students (Extra Notes)

 5.1 EDUCATION
Education is a systematic process through which a child or an adult
acquires knowledge, experience, skill, and sound attitude. It makes
an individual civilized, refined, cultured, and educated. For a civilized
and socialized society, education is the only means. Its goal is to
make an individual perfect. Every society gives importance to
education because it is a panacea for all evils. It is the key to solve
the various problems of life.
Education has been described as a process of
waking up to life:

Waking up to life and its mysteries, its solvable problems, and

the ways to solve the problems and celebrate the mysteries of
life.
Waking up to the inter-dependencies of all things, to the threat
to our global village, to the power within the human race to
create alternatives, to the obstacles entrenched in economic,
social, and political structures that prevent our waking up.

Education in the broadest sense of the term is meant to aid the

human being in his/her pursuit of wholeness. Wholeness implies
the harmonious development of all the potentialities God has
given to a human person.

True education is the harmonious development of the physical,

mental, moral (spiritual), and social faculties, the four
dimensions of life, for a life of dedicated service.
Etymological Meaning of Education
Etymologically, the word ‘Education’ has been derived from different
Latin words.

a) ‘educare’ which means ‘to bring out’ or ‘to nourish’.

b) ‘educere’ which means ‘to lead out’ or ‘to draw out’.
c) ‘educatum’ which means ‘act of teaching’ or ‘training’.
d) ‘educatus’ which means ‘to bring up, rear, educate’.
e) ‘ēducātiō’ which means “a breeding, a bringing up, a rearing.”

· The most common Indian word ‘shiksha’ is derived from the

Sanskrit verbal root ‘shas’ which means ‘to discipline’, ‘to control’,
‘to instruct’ and ‘to teach’.
Similarly, the word ‘vidya’ is derived from Sanskrit verbal
root ‘vid’ which means ‘to know’. Vidya is thus the subject matter of
knowledge. This shows that disciplining the mind and imparting
knowledge were the foremost considerations in India.

Back in the 1500s, the word education meant “the raising of children,”
but it also meant “the training of animals.” While there are probably a
few teachers who feel like animal trainers, education these days has
come to mean either “teaching” or “the process of acquiring
knowledge.”

Definitions of Education According to Different

Authors
Since time immemorial, education is estimated as the right road to
progress and prosperity. Different educationists’ thoughts from both
Eastern and Western side have explained the term ‘education’
according to the need of the hour.

John Locke said, “Plants are developed by cultivation and men by

education”. This world would have been enveloped in intellectual
darkness if it had not been illuminated by the light of education. It is
right to say that the story of civilization is the story of education. Thus,
education is an integral part of human life. It is the basic condition for
a development of a whole man and vital instrument for accelerating
the wellbeing and prosperity by the light of education.

Various educationists have given their views on education. Some

important definitions are:

1. Mahatma Gandhi – “By education I mean an all-round drawing out

of the best in man – body, mind and spirit.”

2. Rabindranath Tagore – “Education enables the mind to find out

the ultimate truth, which gives us the wealth of inner light and love
and gives significance to life.”
3. Dr. Zakir Husain – “Education is the process of the individual
mind, getting to its full possible development.”

4. Swami Vivekananda – “Education is the manifestation of divine

perfection already existing in man.”

5. Aristotle – “Education is the creation of sound mind in a sound

body.”

6. Rousseau – “Education is the child’s development from within.”

7. Herbert Spencer– “Education is complete living.”

8. Plato – “Education is the capacity to feel pleasure and pain at the

right moment.”
9. Aristotle – “Education is the creation of a sound mind in a sound
body.”

10. Pestalozzi – “Education is natural, harmonious and progressive

development of man’s innate powers.”

11. Froebel - “Education is enfoldment of what is already enfolded in

the germ.”

12. T.P. Nunn – “Education is the complete development of the

individuality of the child.”

13. John Dewey – “Education is the process of living through a

continuous reconstruction of experiences.”

14. Indira Gandhi – “Education is a liberating force and in our age it

is also a democratizing force, cutting across the barriers of caste and
class, smoothing out inequalities imposed by birth and other
circumstances.”

Western Concept of Education

Some of the famous western Educational thinkers interpret the term
Education as per their understanding. Biranchi Narayana Dash, a
noted Educationist has summarized the different opinion of western
scholars on Education.
Socrates: - Education means the bringing out of the ideas of
universal validity which are latent in the mind of everyman.

Plato: - Education is the capacity to feel pleasure and pain at

the right moment. It develops in the body and in the soul of the
pupil all the beauty and all the perfection which he is capable of.''
Aristotle: -Education is the creation of a sound mind in a
sound body. It develops man's faculty especially his mind, so
that he may be able to enjoy the contemplation of supreme truth,
goodness and beauty of which perfect happiness essentially
consists.

Rousseau: - Education of man commences at his birth before

he can speak, before he can understand he is already
instructed, Experience is the forerunner of preceptº

Comenius: - All those who are born as human beings need

Education because they are destined to be real man, not wild
beats, dull animals and clumps of wood.

Pestalozzi: - Education is natural harmonious and progressive

development of man's innate powers.

William Froebel: - Education is unfoldment of what is already

enfolded in the germ. It is the process which the child makes
internal, external.

Herbart Spenser: - Education is complete living.

Thompson: -Education is the influence of the environment

upon the individual to produce a permanent change in his habits,
Behaviour of thought and of attitude,

Adams: -Education is a conscious and deliberate process in

which one personality acts upon another in order to modify the
development of that other by the communication and
manipulation of knowledge.

T.P. Nunn: -Education is the complete development of the

individuality of the child so that he can make an original
contribution to human life according to the best of his capacity.

Tremont: - Education is a process of development from infancy

to maturity, the process by which he adopts himself gradually in
various ways of his physical, social and spiritual environment.
 Ross: -The aim of Education is the development of valuable
personality and spiritual individuality.

John Dewey: - Education is the process of living through a

continuous reconstruction of experiences. It is the development
of all those capacities in the individual which will enable him to
control his environment and fulfill his possibilities.

Milton: - I call, therefore, complete and general Education that

which fits a man to perform just by , skillfully and magnanimously
all the offices, both private and public of peace and war.

Ulich Robert:- It (Education) is the constant instruction among

people and between people and the subjective worldº.

NATURE OF EDUCATION
As is the meaning of education, so is its nature. It is very complex.
Let us now discuss the nature of education:

1. Education is a life-long process- Education is a continuous and

lifelong process. It starts from the womb of the mother and continues
till death. It is the process of development from infancy to maturity. It
includes the effect of everything which influences human personality.

2. Education is a systematic process- It refers to transact its

activities through a systematic institution and regulation.

3. Education is development of individual and the society- It is

called a force for social development, which brings improvement in
every aspect in the society.

4. Education is modification of behavior- Human behavior is

modified and improved through educational process.

5. Education is purposive: every individual has some goal in his life.

Education contributes in attainment of that goal. There is a definite
purpose underlined all educational activities.
6. Education is a training- Human senses, mind, behaviour,
activities; skills are trained in a constructive and socially desirable
way.

7. Education is instruction and direction- It directs and instructs an

individual to fulfill his desires and needs for exaltation of his whole
personality.

8. Education is life- Life without education is meaningless and like

the life of a beast. Every aspect and incident needs education for its
sound development.

9. Education is continuous reconstruction of our experiences-

As per the definition of John Dewey education reconstructs and
remodels our experiences towards socially desirable way.

10. Education helps in individual adjustment: a man is a social

being. If he is not able to adjust himself in different aspects of life his
personality can’t remain balanced. Through the medium of education,
he learns to adjust himself with the friends, class fellows, parents,
relations, neighbors and teachers etc.

11. Education is balanced development: Education is concerned

with the development of all faculties of the child. It performs the
functions of the physical, mental, aesthetic, moral, economic, spiritual
development of the individual so that the individual may get rid of his
animal instincts by sublimating the same so that he becomes a
civilized person.

12. Education is a dynamic process: Education is not a static but a

dynamic process which develops the child according to changing
situations and times. It always induces the individual towards
progress. It reconstructs the society according to the changing needs
of the time and place of the society.
13. Education is a bipolar process: According to Adams, education
is a bipolar process in which one personality acts on another to
modify the development of another person. The process is not only
conscious but deliberate.

14. Education is a three-dimensional process: John Dewey has

rightly remarked, “All educations proceeds by participation of the
individual in the social consciousness of the race.” Thus, it is the
society which will determine the aims, contents and methods of
teachings. In this way the process of education consists of 3 poles –
the teacher, the child and the society.

15. Education as growth: The end of growth is more growth and

the end of education is more education. According to John Dewey,
“an individual is a changing and growing personality.” The purpose of
education is to facilitate the process of his/her growth.

Therefore, the role of education is countless for a perfect society and

man. It is necessary for every society and nation to bring holistic
happiness and prosperity to its individuals.

AIMS OF EDUCATION
Aims give direction to activities. Aims of education are formulated
keeping in view the needs of the situation. Human nature is
multisided with multiple needs, which are related to life. Educational
aims are correlated to ideals of life. The goal of education should be
the full flowering of the human on this earth.

According to a UNESCO study, “the physical, intellectual,

emotional, and ethical integration of the individual into a complete
man/woman is the fundamental aim of education.”

The goal of education is also to form children into human persons

committed to working for the creation of human communities of love,
fellowship, freedom, justice, and harmony. Students are to be
moulded only by making them experience the significance of these
values in the school itself. Teachers could achieve this only by the
lived example of their lives manifested in hundreds of small and big
transactions with students in word and deed.

Education is not a single aimed activity. It has a multiplicity of aims.

Some Scholars say that the information of character is the aim of
Education when others say that the preparation for a full life is the
aim of Education. Again someone says that Education aims at the
formation of a sound mind in a sound body. Apart from this, scholars
are also in the opinion that the aim of Education is Adjustment,
acquisition of ability for livelihood and the making of good citizens are
the aim of Education. All these views appear to be logical as to the
aim of Education but after a closer look; it will have lots of demerits
and defects.

All the views fail to answer completely to the questions, relating to the
components or ingredients of good character, the fullness of life, and
a sound mind. Education is closely connected to the life of a human
being. The aim of Education must touch the whole philosophy of life
of man, but it not so. The aim of Education may different in time,
condition, individual, and society.
Here we may discuss the six aim of the National Education as
Raghunatha Safaya describes are as follows

1. Vocational Aim - Artha

2. Cultural Aim - Karma
3. Moral Aim -Dharma
4. Spiritual Aim – Moksha
5. Individual Aim
6. Social Aim
1. Vocational Aim/Utilitarian
In the past, social life was very simple. The son usually adopted the
profession of his father and therefore, there was seldom any need for
specialized training, outside the home, in ordinary occupations and
callings of life. In modern times; however, with great advancements in
the fields of technology and industrialization, the simple social
structure of the past has no place.

Parents are so busy in offices, fields or factories that they seldom find
any time to impart the necessary education and training to their own
children in the vocation, they are themselves engaged in. The result
is that educational institutions have to perform his function also, along
with imparting general education.

Some educationists think that education should have a utilitarian aim.

It means that it should help an individual to earn his own livelihood.
They stress that education should be useful rather than ornamental.
Certain critics, however, have contemptuously called it the “bread and
butter aim” but there is nothing mean about this aim. Earning one's
own livelihood is an essential function of human life.

It, therefore, cannot be ignored if we are to impart education for life.

More than seventy-five percent of parents send their children to
school, only with the aim that they may be able to stand on their own
feet rather than be drags on others.

John Dewey says, ªTo find out what one is fitted to do and to secure
an opportunity to do it, is the key to happiness.

2. Cultural Aim - Cultural means something cultivated and ripened

as against the raw, crude, and unrefined nature of man. E.B. Taylor,
the English anthropologist, defined culture as, “that complete whole
which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any
other capabilities and habits, acquired by man as a member of
society.”

The earlier scholars emphasized the material aspect of culture and

thus gave a historical account of the various cultural epochs, viz
nomadic pastoral, agrarian, and industrial. But the material aspect is
represented by the word `civilization'.

The present trend is to emphasize the non-material aspects like

moral habits, art, language, literature, and religion, which add dignity
and grace to life. So education for culture aims at giving such
knowledge and characteristics to man as may add beauty and grace
to his life. It is the knowledge that leads to culture. Worthwhile
experiences of the race are assimilated in such a way in the mind that
it becomes polished and cultured.
3. Moral Aim - Some educationists advocate that moral or character-
building aim should be kept in the fore-front and all other aims be
subordinated to it. Mahatma Gandhi, the embodiment of morality,
says, “Education of heart or moral education is the prime most
function of education to provide, if it is to be worthy of its name.

If we succeed in building the character of the individual, society will

take care of itself. Herbert, the great educator of the nineteenth
century, declares, ‘The one and the whole work of education, which is
a long and complex training, may be summed up in the concept
`morality'.”

‘Russell’ also emphasizes that the formation of proper character is

the chief aim of education. The idealists also support the moral aim
as the ultimate aim of education. They say that education must lead
the youth to things that are true, honest, just, pure, lovely, and good.
Character-building is also an ancient aim of Greek and Indian
education.

Plato remarks, “Nothing should be admitted in education which does

not conduce to the promotion of virtue.” The ancient Indian Guru
taught his pupil to show respect to all that is noble and to strive after
truth and purity of thought, word, and deed. The English system also
claims that elementary education should aim at the training of
character.

4. Spiritual Aim - The idealists proclaim that the only aim of

education is to develop the spiritual side of an individual. Along with
“Education for vocation.” “Education for citizenship “, “Education for
social efficiency”, and “Education for Democracy”, a slogan like
Education for Spiritualism, may appear to be the lasted fad to be-
wilder the poor teacher. But it is the oldest principle underlying all
educational endeavors in our country, which had gone into oblivion
due to vicissitudes of time and the impact of an alien civilization.
Ancient India educators defined education as a means for salvation.
Dr. Radhakrishnan, the great educator of modern India says, “The
aim of education is neither national efficiency nor world solidarity but
making the individual feel that he has within himself something
deeper than intellect, call it spirit, if you like.”

5. Individual Aims – Sir Percy Nunn observes, “Nothing goods enter

into the human world except in and through the free activities of
individual men and women and that educational practice must be
shaped the individual. Education should give scope to develop the
inborn potentialities through maximum freedom.”

Because:
(1) Biologists believe that every individual is different from others.
Every child is a new and unique product and a new experiment with
life. Thompson says, “Education is for the individual”. An individual
should be the center of all educational efforts and activities.

(2) Naturalists believe that the central aim of education is the

autonomous development of the individual. Rousseau said,
“Everything is good as it comes from the hands of the Author of
Nature, but everything degenerates in the hands of man.” God makes
all things good; man meddles with them and they become evil. God
creates everything a good man makes it evil. So, an individual should
be given maximum freedom for its development.

(3) Psychologists believe that education is an individual process

because of individual differences. No two individuals are alike. So
education should be according to the interest of the individual.

Criticism of Individual Aim:

The individual aim is not desirable because man is a social animal.
Society’s interests should be protected.

(1) Individual aim makes individual selfish.

(2) Maximum freedom may go against society.
(3) Individuality cannot develop from a vacuum; it develops in a social
atmosphere.
(4) Unless society develops, the individual cannot develop.
(5) Who will recognize society- where the individual is selfish?

6. Social Aim:
The supporters believe that society or state is supreme or real. The
individual is only a means. The progress of society is the aim of
education. Education is for the society and of society. The function of
education is for the welfare of the state. The state will make the
individual as it desires. It prepares the individual to play different roles
in society. Individuality has no value, and personality is meaningless
apart from society. If society will develop individual will develop
automatically. Here society plays an important role.

Criticism of Social Aim:

(1) It makes individual only a tool of government.
(2) It reduces individual to a mere non-entity.
(3) Society ignores the legitimate needs, desires and interests of the
individual.
(4) It is against the development of individuality of the individual.

Individual aims and social aims are the most important aims of
education. They are opposed to each other individual aims give
importance to the development of individuality. Social aim gives
importance to the development of society through individual not
fulfilling his desire. But it will be seen that the development of
individuality assumes meaning only in a social environment.

Scope of Education
Scope means the range of view outlook field or opportunity of activity
operation and application. Education has a wider meaning and
application.

1. Educational philosophy
Philosophy of education covers aims of education, nature of
education, the importance of education, and the function of education
its very old and essential part of education.
2. Educational psychology
The main aim of education is the development of a child. Psychology
helps to understand the child better and development of child with
respect of physical, mental, emotional, social adjustment, individual
difference, personality, thinking, reasoning, problem-solving.

3. Educational sociology
A child lives in the society so its important for him to know about the
society the nature of society, type of society, the interdependence
between culture and society.

4. History of education
It is also important to know the background, origin, development,
growth and aspect of the subjects.
And also, the education system method of teaching during ancient
period, medieval period, British period and the modern period.

5. Economics of education
For the growth of business and market the world-class economical
education is important for each and important.

6. Method of teaching
In ancient time the pupil were passive listeners but now they actively
participate with the teacher in the process of education. So, the skill
and proficiency of difference teaching methods needs to be
developed.

7. Educational administration and supervision

The educational institution and the system has to be supervised and
administrated smoothly so that the process of education goes well.
Regulation of fund, democratic administration, autonomy, personnel
management etc.

8. Problems of education
This scope includes problems of teaching management of education
and also suggestion and remedies for it.

9. Population education
 Viewing at the undesirable growth of population, awareness is
created through population education.

10. Environmental education

Ecological in balances have drowned the attention of intelligence
today.
So, looking at the study of the environmental problems of
environmental education has great importance.

5.2 PROGRESSIVE EDUCATION THOUGHT IN

INDIAN CONTEXT

CONTRIBUTION OF RABINDRANATH TAGORE IN

EDUCATION
Among the contemporary Indian Philosophers of Education
Rabindranath Tagore, holds an eminent position. He may be called as
a Humanist in the strict sense of the term. His humanist approach is
not materialistic but integral in nature. His philosophy is Cosmopolitan
Humanism and his theory of education is directly deduced from this
philosophy. Tagore was born on May 6, 1861, at Calcutta. The family
of Tagore was known for its enlightened and progressive views.

After private education, in India, he was sent to England in 1877 to

study law for becoming a barrister but he soon returned to India.
Tagore becomes a world figure when his book “Gitanjali” won him the
Nobel Prize in 1913. On December 22, 1921, Tagore founded the
visvabharati-an international university to bring about an
understanding between eastern and western cultures. Tagore has left
his deep impression on several facets of life i.e. artistic, cultural,
educational, intellectual, political, and social. There is no field of
literature which he has not enriched by his contribution. He was a
great artist, an educationist, a poet, a patriot, a philosopher, and
social reformer.

Tagore’s Philosophy of Life

1. Tagore’s Humanism: Tagore observed, “He (God) is there where
the tiller is tilling the hard ground and where the pathmaker is
breaking stone.”

2. Tagore’s Naturalism: He said, “He lives in a prison-house whose

walls are alien to him.” Tagore loved nature immensely.

3. Tagore’s Spiritualism: Tagore said, I believe in the spiritual unity

of man and therefore I ask you to accept this task from me.”

4. Tagore’s Individualism: Tagore believed that every being has the

right to shape his life in his own way.

5. Tagore’s Universalism: He wanted to break down barriers

between cultures. He said, “Before we are in a position to stand
comparison with the other cultures of the world, or truly cooperate
with them, we must base our own culture on a synthesis of all the
different cultures we have.”

6. Tagore’s Internationalism: Tagore advocated synthesis between

the East and the West. The Visvabharati at Shantiniketan is an
embodiment of his international outlook.

EDUCATIONAL PHILOSOPHY OF TAGORE

Sources of Information: Apart from his several publications on
different aspects, we get valuable information about Tagore’s views
on education from the following sources relating to education.

Essays were written mostly in Bengali.

I. ‘Shiksar Herpher’ (Our Education and Its Incongruities)

2. ‘Shiksha Samasya’ (The Problem of Education)
3. ‘Abaran’ (Culture or Covering)
4. ‘Tapovan’ (Forest Colony)
5. ‘Dharmashiksha’ (Religious Education)
6. ‘Hindu Visvavidyalya’(Hindu University)
7. ‘Strishiksha’ (Women Education)
8. ‘Shiksar Bahan’ (The Vehicle of Education)
9. ‘My School’
10. ‘Shiksar Milan’ (The Meeting of Cultures)
11. ‘A Poet’s School’
12. ‘Shiksar Vikiran’ (Diffusion of Education)
13. ‘Ashramer Shiksha’ (Education in Ashram)
14. ‘Bodher Sadhana’ (Education of the Feeling)
I5. ‘Several Convocation Addresses’

Factors Influencing Tagore’s Philosophy of

Education

Tagore’s philosophy of education was influenced by the following

factors:
1. Influence of the Home Environment.
2. Influence of the School Environment.
3. Love for Nature.
4. His Extensive Visits.

TAGORE’S VIEWS ON EDUCATION

On account of the above influences, Tagore may be described as an
idealist, a naturalist, a modernist, a pragmatic, a traditionalist, and
above all a humanist and an internationalist. Following were the aims
of education according to Tagore:

1. Self-Realization: Spiritualism is the essence of humanism. The

manifestation of personality depends upon the self-realization &
Spiritual knowledge of an individual.

2. Intellectual Development: By intellectual development, he means

the development of imagination, creative, free-thinking constant
curiosity, and alertness of the mind. The child should be free to adopt
his own way of learning which will lead to all-round development.

3. Physical Development: Tagore’s educational philosophy also

aims at the physical development of the child. He gave much
importance to sound & healthy physique. Yoga, games & sports are
prescribed in Santi Niketan as an integral part of the educational
system.

4. Love for Humanities: Tagore held that education can teach

people to realize the oneness of the globe. Education for international
understanding & universal brotherhood is another important aim of
his educational philosophy.

5. Freedom: freedom is considered an integral aspect of human

development. Education is a man making process, it explores the
innate power that exists within the man. It is not an imposition rather
a liberal process that provides utmost freedom to the individual for his
all-round development.

6. Co-relation of Objects: Co-relation exists with God, man &

nature. A peaceful work is only possible when co-relation between
man & nature will be established.

7. Mother tongue as medium of instruction: Language is the

vehicle of self-expression.
Man can freely express his thought in his mother tongue. Tagore has
emphasized the mother tongue as the medium of instruction for the
Childs education.

8. Moral & Spiritual Development: Tagore emphasized moral &

spiritual training in his educational thought. Moral & spiritual
education is more important than bookish knowledge for an integral
development of human personality. There must be an adequate
provision for the development of selfless activities, co-operation, and
love fellow feeling and sharing among the students in an educational
institution.

9. Social Development: According to Tagore, ‘Brahma’ the supreme

soul manifests himself through men & other creatures. Science is the
source of all human beings & creatures, so all are equal. Tagore,
therefore, said, “service to man is service to God”. All should develop
social relationships and fellow felling from the beginnings of one’s life.
Education aim at developing the individual personality as well as
social characters which enables him to live as a worthy being.

Curriculum
Tagore recommended a curriculum for the full man satisfying the
spiritual,
the creative, the aesthetic, and the vocational aims of education.
Besides providing for the teaching of ordinary schools, Tagore
developed many educational ideas, years ahead of others. Now-a-
days educationists talk so much about the educational value of crafts,
projects, music, dancing, fine arts, etc. But it is indeed very significant
to note that the poet provided for the teaching of most of these
subjects from the very beginning in his school at Shantiniketan.

Methods of Teaching
Tagore strongly criticized the bookish and examination-oriented
Teaching. He stressed the movement of the whole body in various
learning activities. He followed the activity principle and advocated
constructive and creative activities.
Children as Children
It is a mistake to judge children by the standards of grown-ups.
Adults ignore the natural gifts of children and insist that children must
learn through the same process as themselves. This is man’s most
cruel and most wasteful mistake.

Children have their subconscious mind which is more active than

their conscious intelligence.

Discipline and Freedom

Living ideals cannot be set into a clock-work arrangement. Tagore
wrote, “I never said to them. Don’t do this, or don’t do that I never
punished them”.

An Ideal School
An ideal school is an Ashram where men gather for the highest end
of life. Tagore observed. “To give spiritual culture to our boys was my
principal object in starting my school at Bolpur.”

Role of the Teacher

In teaching, the guiding spirit should be personal love based on

human
Relations. In education, the teacher is more important than the
method. Tagore pointed out, “A teacher can never truly teach unless
he is learning himself. A lamp can never light another lamp unless it
continues to burn its own flame.”

Religious Education
Tagore stressed religious education through practice. He wrote,
‘Teaching of religion can never be imparted in the form of lessons, it
is where there is a religion in living- where life is simple.”
According to Tagore, “Real training consists not in foisting moral
teachings but in making religion and morality an integral part of life.”

AN IDEAL SCHOOL
Tagore attempted to make his school at Bolpur as an ideal institution.
According to him, an ideal school should have the following
characteristics:

1. The school should be situated in natural surroundings. There

should prevail in the atmosphere of nature’s own beauty with her
varied gifts of colour and dance, flowers, and fruits, with the joy of her
mornings and the peace of her starry nights.

2. It should cultivate a love of nature among the students.

3. It should provide spiritual training to students.

4. It should educate children by providing an environment of freedom.

5. It should impart education in the mother-tongue of the students.

6. It should provide an environment after the fashion of ancient

‘tapovans’-forest schools about which he had read so much in the
Upanishads.

7. It should be a community school where there is no distinction of

caste and creed.

8. It should teach crafts like sewing, book-binding, weaving,

carpentry, etc.

9. It should include drawing, art, and music as an integral part of the

curriculum.
10. It should provide students adequate opportunities for choosing
their hobbies and occupations.

11. It should be a self-governing institution-has a dairy farm, post

office, hospital, and workshop. Students hold their own courts.

12. It should provide for close personal contact with the teacher. The
number of students in classes should be very small.

13. It should have a well-equipped library.

14. It should provide for manual labour.

EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTES STARTED BY

TAGORE

Following institutions were started by Tagore to carry out his

experiments in education:

1. Sisu Bhawan (Nursery School)

2. Path Bhawan (School Section-Matriculation Examination)
3. Siksha Bhawan (Higher Secondary)
4. Vidya Bhawan (College of Undergraduate and Post-Graduate
Studies and Research)
5. Vinya Bhawan (Teachers’ Training College)
6. Kala Bhawan (College of Fine Arts and Crafts)
7. Sangit Bhawan (College of Dance)
8. Sriniketan (Department of Rural Reconstruction)
9. Siksha Satra (Rural High School)
10. Silpa Sadan (College of Industrial Training)
11. Cheena Bhawan (School of Languages, e.g., Chinese, Tibetan,
etc.) By and large, all formed part of Visvabharati University.

VISVABHARATI (WORLD UNIVERSITY)

The word Visvabharati consists of two Sanskrit words. ‘Visva’ means
the world and ‘Bhararti’ means cultures. Thus, Visvabharati would
mean world culture. The motto of this university is ‘Yarta Visvam
bhavari ekamidam’ i.e. where the world meets in one place.

Main Features of Visvabharati: Tagore describes these as:

I. It wants to hold before the world the ideal of the universality of man.

2. The greatest distinction is the direct and immediate emotional

contact of pupils with their teachers and with external nature.
3. A specialty of our institution is that it wants to bring up our pupils in
an inseparable association with nature.

4. It is intended not only to be the intellectual centre of the intellectual

life of India but also to the center of her economic life.

5. It is envisaged to be the nucleus of an international university and

as one of the means of promoting mutual understanding between the
East and the West.

Growth of Visvabharati: In 1863, Rabindranath’s Tagore’s father

founded the Ashram at Bolpur. It was called Shantiniketan (Abode of
Peace). It was meant for the seekers of truth. In 1901, Tagore started
the experimental school. In 1921, it became the Vis vabharati.

CONTRIBUTIONS OF TAGORE TO EDUCATION

1. Tagore established a number of educational institutions at

Shantiniketan.

2. Tagore founded the Visvabharati.

3. Tagore was a great practitioner. He worked out his ideas and ideals
in a constructive way in a constructive way.
4. Tagore drew attention to the listless environment of the traditional
school.

5. Tagore tried to synthesize the ancient Indian ideals of education

and the western arts and sciences.

6. Tagore pointed out the significance of providing an environment of

freedom in the school.

EDUCATIONAL CONTRIBUTION OF MAHATMA

GANDHI

INTRODUCTION
Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi was born at Porbandar in Kathiawar
of Gujarat state on October 2, 1869. His father was the prime minister
of the state’s Porbandar and Rajkot. He went to England to get a
Barrister degree after completing his studies up to matric level, on
September 4, 1881. He remained there for three years or so. He
passed his Law Examination and was called to the bar in 1891.

When we talk about Gandhi, automatically certain ideas come to our

mind i.e. truth, nonviolence, simplicity, love for all, leadership, the
dignity of labour and implementation, or practicing ideas rather than
just propagating them. These ideals or qualities reflected in the
educational philosophy of Gandhi.
Gandhiji as an Idealist: - Gandhi had very high ideals that he
followed ideals like simplicity, truthfulness, nonviolence. He had not
only their principles in mind but also plasticized them in his life.

Gandhiji as a Pragmatist: - Pragmatist is one who

realistically solves the problem. Gandhiji believed that the best way to
learn is by doing and it is believed that when you learn by doing you
remember 90% and it leads to knowledge. Pragmaticism is the
hallmark of Gandhian philosophy.

Definition: -“By education I mean all-around development,

drawing out of the best in the child-man body, mind, and spirit.”

Literacy according to him is neither the end of education nor even the
beginning. It is one of the means whereby men and women can be
educated. Literacy in itself is no education.”

Gandhiji gave the concept of 3 r’s and 3 HE’s

Hand-psychomotor domain/skills
Heart-spiritual domain/skills
 Head-Cognitive domain/skills

3r’s: Read, write and arithmetic

Gandhiji emphasized certain ideals, practical work, and the

potentiality of students in education. It is education through which we
can find out the potential of the students and teach them certain
ideals which will help them to be a good citizen and through practical
activities, students will be in a position to think practically and they will
be attentive and active, this will help them to mould their character.

Thus, Gandhian education has been characterized as encompassing

the head, the heart, and the hands that means the all-round
development of the child. According to him education is that which
draws out and stimulates the spiritual, intellectual, and physical
faculties of children. Thus, Gandhiji’s purpose of education is to raise
man to a higher-order through the full development of the individual
and the evolution of a “new man.”

Gandhi’s Educational Experiments’

1. Gandhiji’s philosophy of life including philosophy of
education took shape in South Africa.
His educational experiences at the Tolstoy Farm at Transwal in South
Africa proved very valuable to him in formulating a new system of
education suited to the needs of masses. On the Farm, he undertook
the responsibility of educating his own sons and other children.
The children had to devote 8 hours a day for vocational training and
only 2 hours to book learning. “Learning by doing’ and learning by
cooperation’ became the chief methods of education.

2. Gandhiji came to India in 1914

Thereafter though he was deeply involved in the freedom struggle.
He continued his educational experiments for a short time at
Shantiniketan, then at Sabarmati Ashram, and finally at Sewagram
Ashram established by him. Sewagram Ashram is located 16km from
Wardha. This place has a great significance as Gandhiji not only
formulated his scheme of Basic Education but also fought the battle
for freedom from here.

3. Gandhiji writings on Education

Important publications on education and having a hearing on
education are:
1. My experiments with truth.
2. Basic Education
3. Towards Need Education
4. True Education
5. To the students
6. Task Before Indian students
7. India of My Dreams
8. Medium of Instruction
9. Taskforce India

Gandhiji also wrote extensively on education is ‘Harijan’-a paper

founded by him.

Aims of Education
1.Bread and Butter aim:
Bread and Butter aim refers to utilitarian aim which is an immediate
requirement. Gandhiji focused on education that provides learning
while learning. This has to be a tool with every learner. S/he can
remove unemployment keeping in mind the poverty and
unemployment of India. Gandhiji focused and suggested industrial
training and development of manual skills and handicrafts as the
subject of education which will give satisfaction to the educand of his
earning and self-reliance but also it will be proved as a support to
his/her family and nation at large.

2. Cultural Aim: -
According to Gandhiji cultural aspect of education is more important
than literacy. Culture is the foundation, the primary thing which the
girls ought to get from here. It should show in the smallest detail of
your conduct and personal behaviour, how to sit, how to walk, how to
dress etc. it is the education through which students or everyone
learn the glorious culture of the country India, its incredible arts,
religions and so on. Education is the device that makes them familiar
with our great culture and it is to be taught that how do they adapt
and what is the importance of the value of our culture. Thus, Gandhiji
laid much emphasis on the cultural aim of education and
recommended that Geeta and Ramayana be taught as a means of
introducing students to their rich cultural and spiritual heritage.

3. Harmonious development: -
Education should develop all the three levels i. e. 3RS- read, write,
and arithmetic. The education should help in feeling what is taught
and what happens to him and to express, what he feels and also
what he wants to do. So all the faculties of a person should be
developed. Writing and reading will make him literate and arithmetic
will help in calculating day-to-day expenses and more importantly, it
will help in logical thinking and analyzing things.

4. Moral Aim: -
Education should make the person aware of what is right & wrong. It
inculcates in us values and manners and moulds our character.
Gandhiji focused more on character building than on literacy.
According to him the development of personality was more significant
than the accumulation of intellectual tools and academic knowledge.
And we also believed that an educand should be taught non-violence,
truth, and importance of thoughts, word, and deed.

5. Social and individual Aim: -

The aim of the education of Gandhiji is both social and individual. He
wanted individual perfection and a new social order based on “Truth”
& “Non-violence”. Education trains an individual and makes him an
ideal citizen who will help his nation. An individual learns so many
things from surrounding, culture, society, and so on and he
progresses simultaneously society progresses because the
individuals’ growth is nothing but the growth of the society and
nation.
6. Ultimate Aim: -
Self-realization is the ultimate aim of life as well as education.
Through education, everyone understands about themselves and get
the answer to the universal question who am I? It is the education
which helps them to understand their existence and its purpose. It is
spiritual education that provides knowledge of God and self-
realization. The individuals recognize their potentials or abilities and
prove them as ideal citizens of their nation via education. It is the
education that makes them familiar with spirituality and different
religious and finally every individual realizes what they are?

This is the self-realization- the ultimate aim of education. In the words

of Gandhiji- “true education should result not in material power but a
spiritual force. It must strengthen man’s faith in God and not awaken
It.” he further adds “Development of the whole-all were directed
towards the realization of the ultimate reality –the merger of the finite
being into infinite.”

Types of Education
After the Zakir Hussain reported education Gandhiji initiated a
concept of Sarvoday Society. Gandhiji has given six types of
education under the Sarvoday society.

1.Basic Education
2. Buniyadi Talim
3. Nay Talim
4. National Education
5. Wardha Shikshan/Education
6. Life Education

Principal features of Gandhiji’s philosophy of life

Gandhiji s philosophy of life has a deep spiritual basis and the two
pillars of his thoughts were obviously satya and „ahimsa – truth and
„nonviolence – a happy combination of „karmayoga and gyanyoga :
1. Realization of God: Mahatma Gandhi believed in Ekeswarabad
and thought that only through the medium of God, the manifestation
of truth, love, life, and knowledge if possible. He said, “God pervades
everything. God is life, Truth, and Light.

2. Truth and Ahimsa (non-violence): Ahimsa is the only way,

Gandhiji suggested, that can lead us to the ultimate destination of life.
Satya and ahimsa are the two sides of the same coin. They are
intertwined and it is practically impossible to separate them.”
‘Satyagraha’ implies holding of truth, thorough love, and purity.

Service of Humanity: Gandhiji observed, “The immediate

service of all human beings becomes a necessary part because
it is the only way to see Him in his creation.”

Self-discipline and Self-purification: Gandhi always held the

high ideals of purity, sacrifice, and service.

Righteousness and truth as the highest religion: Gandhiji

was of the firm view that ‘true religion and true morality are
inseparably bound up with each other.’’

Ram Rajya as the Concept of a Society: He wanted to

establish Ram Rajya which he identified with justice, peace,
happiness and welfare of all.
According to Gandhiji, completion of life is attained through the
fulfillment of soul, and for this purpose a favorable society if
needed. What he sought was a spiritual society set on the
foundation of freedom, justice, equality, love, peace and non-
violence.

Gandhiji’s view on Concept of Education: Gandhiji summed

up his ideas on education in these words, “By education I mean
an all-round drawing out of the best in child and man-body, mind
and spirit.” “All round’ implies the harmonious development of
the individual.
 Man is neither mere the gross animal body, nor intellectual and
nor the heart and soul alone. A proper and harmonious
combination of all these three is required for making the whole
man. Any programme on education which puts exclusive
emphasis on one of these aspects of the human personality is
against the principle of education.

3. The objective of Education: “The ultimate objective of education

is not only a balanced and harmonious individual but also a balanced
and harmonious society-a just social order in which there is no
unnatural dividing line between the havens and have, and everybody
is assured of a living wage and right to freedom.”

4. Education and Character: Gandhiji said, “What is education

without character, and what a character without elementary purity is?”

5. Learning by Earning: According to Gandhiji, students should

learn and side by side earn by doing some work in the school.

6. Craft Centred Education: Craft should become the source and

centre of learning. Gandhiji suggested crafts like weaving and
spinning etc. About spinning, Gandhiji said, “Just as we cannot live
without eating, so we can't attain economic ‘independence and
banish pauperism.”

7. Self-sufficient Education: Education should be imparted in such

a way through crafts that their products/manufactured articles by the
students should meet some expenditure in running the school.

8. The dignity of Labour: Love for work with hands should be

developed in the students.

9. The medium of Instruction: Mother-tongue should be the

medium of instruction. The foreign medium has made our children
practically foreigners in our land.
10. Discipline: The highest form of freedom comes through humility
and self-control. According to Gandhiji, discipline should not be
imposed from outside. In this view, discipline grows in the human
mind out of self-control. So he sought a favourable classroom
condition for the development of such discipline from within.

11. Women Education: For the progress of the nation women

education is essential. So, the girls should be given enough
educational scope. He advocated an experimental co-education
system. Side by side, home science will be introduced.

12. Ideal Teacher: A teacher has an immense influence on his

learners. In education, learners' success depends on their teachers.
So the teacher should present himself before his learners as an
example. He said, “We must procure the best teachers for our
children, whatever it may cost parents so that they can undertake
adequately the moulding of their children.”

The Curriculum Prescribed by Gandhi

Gandhiji regarded education as preparation of future life. He wanted
education for all, for every Indian around the corners of India. He
sought that education which would enable them to attain financial
self-reliance. He wanted to apply his basic education following these
steps:

1) He propounded activity-oriented learning. Weaving, agricultural

works, paper designing, metal works, etc. should be introduced in the
syllabus. Handicraft is an important part of his educational system. It
will serve as a bridge between rural and urban life and interest will
grow in the learners.

2) Around these activities, other subjects will be taught simply-

another language, history, geography, mathematics, physical
education, social sciences, civics. All these subjects should be
introduced in light of the social situation of the learners and he will be
imparted education in connection with his life.
3) For the spiritual development of the learner, Gandhiji puts stress
on the practice of music, dance, art and culture, and many other co-
curricular activities.

4) For the moral development of a child, he should be inspired to

respect his elders. He will learn the lesson of honesty, simplicity,
prayer, meditation, etc.

5) There will be enough scope for the physical health development of

the child. Through physical exercise, he will learn the lesson of self-
defense.

6) For the girls, Gandhiji planned for the learning of home science.

Gandhiji’s teaching System

Gandhiji s teaching system is based on social science, psychology
and physiology, and the principle of activity. The principle of
correction is also used well by him informing his education-theory.
There is an obvious similarity between his ideas of basic education
and the thoughts of John Dewey.

Gandhiji s teaching system is full of the following characteristics:

1) Compulsory universal free education for the boys and girls of the
7-14 yrs age group.

2) The mother tongue will be the medium of education. On this level,

English learning will be rejected and Hindi should be learned as a
national language.

3) Learning will be arranged centering on handicrafts in accordance

with the learner's ability.
4) Basic education is activity-oriented.

5) Individual and group effort is developed through this practice.

6) An important feature of basic education is learning with earning.

Philosophy of Basic Education

According to Gandhiji, true education means an all-round
development drawing out of the best in child and man, body, mind,
and spirit. Basic education indicates such education which may help
an individual to fulfill his basic needs. The scheme of basic education
is based on the national culture and civilization of India and its main
objective are to make a child self-reliant and self-sufficient.

According to the innate nature of a child, this e3ducation may guide

him to choose the right profession in the future.

As an educational philosopher and an experimentalist, Gandhiji

wanted to make a new social order based on truth and non-violence.
According to him, truth and education help one to reach the peak of
self-realization. He wanted a silent social revolution through basic
education which does not stand for mere technique rather it stands
for anew crafts- centered approach full of spirit and self-realization
which always seeks truth.

Proposals of Basic Education

The scheme of basic education formulates the following proposals-

1) Free, universal, and compulsory education should be provided for

all boys and girls between the ages of 7-14 years.
2) The Mother tongue of the child should be the medium of
instruction.

3) According to the capacity of the children and the needs of the

locality, education should be crafts oriented.
4) Spinning and weaving, card-board and wood-work, leather-work,
kitchen, gardening, agriculture, and fishery were suggested as
suitable crafts in basic education.

5) Crafts oriented education has an economic view also because the

selected craft should be taught and practiced so that children can
produce articles that can be used in the school or maybe sold to
mitigate the expenditure of the school partly (Gandhi, 1951).

6) The social and scientific implications of the selected craft must be

taught.

7) All the subjects to be taught were to be integrally associated with

the selected craft.

Principles of Basic Education

1. Free and Compulsory Education: - Gandhiji regarding basic
education or bunyadi talim, has given his views that education is i.e.
elementary education should be free of charge and all should get
educated so that they can do minute calculations of daily life
expense, read and write. This is necessary because this will make a
person live independently.

2. Mother tongue as a medium of education: - Gandhiji

emphasized the mother tongue to be the medium of instruction. The
mother tongue would enable the children to express themselves
effectively and clearly. If a student/child learns through the mother
tongue then he can easily learn ethical and moral values and the
importance of national heritage. According to him if English is to be
taught as a medium of instruction then it hinders the development of
understanding and clarity of thoughts/ideas.

3. Craft centeredness: - Learners should get exposure to learn skills

and craft like knitting, weaving, agricultural activities, cooking which
make them self-dependent because they will not only earn on their
own but also develop three domains: -
 Physical Domain – by doing physical work like
agriculture which will give good physical exercise.

Psycho-motor Domain- by developing social skills-

how to behave, how to work in groups; how to co-
ordinate.

Cognitive Domain- by developing thinking skill,

analyzing, estimating- what would be the expense to
prepare craft and how much material will be required.
Gandhiji also suggested there should be any inferiority or superiority
regarding work. We should do every work/everything with the thinking
that those words are mine and they have value whether it is sweeping
or working in an office.

4. Self-sufficiency: -Basic education should provide such training

that one can realize that immediate aim- earning- after or during basic
education. Earning for one’s self and satisfying one’s needs.

5. Co-related teaching: - Gandhiji considered knowledge as a whole

that is every subject interrelated. While doing craftwork, it requires
economical skills to buy material and to keep estimate how much it
would require. It will also require mathematical skills to calculate the
earnings and so on. As the subject should be taught which will lead to
all-round development, students should develop a love for subjects to
learn them.

6. Non-violence: -One of the aims of basic education is to prepare

ideal and responsible citizens who will develop virtues like non-
violence so that they are not attracted by violence and other anti-
social activities. If each would try to inculcate this value then there will
be peace and harmony among the citizen of India. There will not
disagreement and it will good understanding with each other.

7. Ideal citizen: - Education makes a man think from a broader and

ideal perceptive therefore Gandhiji focused on preparing ideal
citizens of the nation who are responsible and sensible to nation,
duties, and rights. Education of civics will give them civic sense-
rights and duties to the nation, how government works and it exists.
History will make them aware of golden days as well as of the bravery
of the nation, heroes who fought for the freedom of India which will lift
their nationalistic feeling.

The curriculum of Basic Education

Wardha education conference in 1937 suggested that basic
education for children between 7-14 years of age and curriculum has
also been suggested accordingly. A large emphasis was given on
general science for boys and home science for girls.

The following are the major subjects suggested in the conference –

1) Basic craft
(i) Spinning and weaving
(ii) Carpentry
(iii) Agriculture
(iv) Fruit and flower cultivation
(v) Leatherwork
(vi) Culturing fish
(vii) Poultry
(viii) Handloom
(ix) Any handicraft according to the local need

2) Mother tongue

3) Mathematics

4) Geography, history, and civics to be combined as social science

5) Painting and music

6) P.T., drill, and sports, etc.

7) General science comprising of physics, chemistry, botany, zoology,

hygiene and nature study, etc.

8) Home science

9) Hindi for that area in which it is not the mother tongue (Gandhi,
1951).

Merits of Basic Education

Merits of basic education are as follows –

1) The concept of basic education is helpful for the rapid expansion of

elementary throughout the country with minimum dependence on the
public fund.

2) Basic education helps the developing status of our country

because it has a surprising financial aspect.

3) Basic education is activity-oriented education based on learning by

doing principle which helps an individual to acquire the practical
knowledge on livelihood as well as guide him to choose the
profession in the future according to his interest.

4) As basic education is child-centric, it considers the creative and

constructive sense of children as well as the dignity of labour.

5) This educational approach is based on the principle of correlation;

it emphasizes on the basic craft chosen by an individual and
correlates entire education with the practical knowledge about the
craft. Correlation also takes place between the physical environment,
social environment, and craftwork.

6) Basic education is based upon the cultural and social heritage of

our country.
7) One of the major objectives of basic education is the harmonious
development of body, mind, and spirit.

8) This educational system inculcates social, moral as well as

democratic values like cooperation, responsibility, fellow-filling in the
minds of the students ( Soni, 1999).

The Utility of Basic Education Plan

• Introduction of free compulsory universal education.
• This education plan will be in connection with the reformation of the
economy of the country.
• Formation of a society free from classes and torture.
• Development of national integrity.
• Building up ideal citizen through the combination of individual and
society.

Causes of the Failure of Basic Education Plan

• Basic education failed due to the lack of responsibility of the leaders
and the government and their attitude is not yet changed.
• Handicraft was not selected well in connection with the learner's
demand and the social situation.
• Lack of sufficient money for the implementation of the plan
• Lack of enough trained teachers

RELEVANCE OF GANDHIJI’S VIEWS ON

EDUCATION IN MODERN TIMES
1. The most important point in Gandhi’s scheme of education is its
emphasis on relating school education to the needs of society. He
wanted to achieve this objective through a system of ‘Learning while
earning’. He gave an important place to the learning of the craft. It will
be seen from the curriculum of the present-day schools that work
experience and socially useful productive work find an important
place.
2. His emphasis on education through the mother-tongue is the
accepted principle by all thinkers.

3. Gandhiji's stress on inculcating dignity of labour is the need of the

hour. There is the dire need to develop elements of spirituality in our
life which is dominated by materialism.

EDUCATIONAL CONTRIBUTION OF GIJUBHAI

BADHEKA
Gijubhai Badheka (1885-1939) Life Sketch of Gijubhai

Gijubhai Badheka was a famous patriot, devoted teacher, and an

inspiring pillar of education. He was born on 13 November 1885 in
Gujarat. His parents were religious by nature. So, it was natural for
him to inculcate religious tendencies. Gijubhai was much influenced
by the ideas of famous educationist Maria Montessori. He studied the
Montessori educational system deeply and transformed it as per the
Indian circumstances.

Education and Schooling as visualized by

Gijubhai
Gijubhai Badheka is an educational thinker of high quality. He has
given a very important place for a child in his educational thought.
Gijubhai advocated child-centered education. Perhaps he was the
first great educator in India who focused his attention on the pre-
primary stage of education in India. His principles of child-centered
education were based on Education, Society, and Curriculum

Philosophical Understanding of Education

Such concepts as freedom for the child, respect for the child, spiritual
development for the child, creativity of the child, and development of
good qualities of citizenship. He emphasized on the method of self-
learning through self-dependence, self-discipline, self-expression,
sense training and nature study. Education prepares the mind of our
young men and women so that they can accept the good and life-
giving elements of our culture.
According to him, the curriculum of education should be purposeful.
The curriculum or content should as such that it can meet the aims of
teaching purposes that subject Gijubhai dreamt of a school for
children that do not instill fear in their mind and a place where they
would go happily and willingly. His dream was turned into a reality in
his 'Bal Mandir' - a school which he set up for children between two
and half years to six years of age in 1920 at Bhavnagar, Gujarat.
There he devoted himself to child education fully.

At his Bal Mandir, Gijubhai conducted a new experiment. He provided

free opportunities to children for playing, singing, poetry reciting,
storytelling, gardening, nature study and the play-way method. It gave
maximum freedom to the children to develop their potential. As a
result of this, Bal Mandir became a centre of attraction for children
and Gijubhai became a great source of inspiration for those engaged
in nursery education.

Published works-
Badheka published close to 200 works including storybooks. His
topics include children, education, travel and humour. However, his
focus was books for children, parents, and educators.
Publications
Gijubhai wrote more than 200 books - 180 books for children and for
parents and teachers. His important publications for teachers and
parents are:

1. Prathmik school mein shiksha (Education in Primary School)

2. Mata- se prashna (Questions to Parents)

3. Diva-swapna (Day-dreams) Divaswapana (D dreams) is an

Educator's Reverie. It was first published in Gujarati in 1931. It
established Gijubhai as a luminary in the field of education. It was
translated into English in 1989. Divaswapana is the imaginary story of
a teacher who rejects the orthodox concept of the teaching-learning
process. The teacher conducted several experiments in a primary
school against heavy odds-Cynical teachers, naughty students,
indifferent parents. He was able to get the approval of the
Department of Education to conduct experiments. He neglected the
traditions of teaching from prescribed books. The teacher with
untiring patience was successful.

Prof. Krishna Kumar describes the richness of the experiments

contained in Divaswapana in these words: As a reader of
Divaswapana', one is blown off in a gust of joy and curiosity leaving
behind the sadness borne out of one's knowledge of India's colorless,
out wrapped primary schools. One starts to paint the picture of the
future in which the talent imprisoned in the nation's schools will break
forth and children will enjoy the pleasure of taking stock of the world
round the classroom with their teacher".

Gijubhai is considered as one of the most

important writers of children's literature in
Gujarati.
He wrote books for children keeping in view their aptitudes, feelings,
and interests. He discarded the traditional approach of writing stories
and poems which gave moral sermons. He was keen to give ethical
messages to children indirectly. He was convinced that children's
work should be so forceful that it spontaneously attracts children.
They should get joy and pleasure. Ethical messages should come to
them indirectly. His books have been translated into several Indian
languages.

The following are the important books translated

and published in Hindi.
1. Nani Ke Ghar Jane De
2. Tad Tad Tadak
3. Bhut Ka Bhai
4. Nayee Aur Poonch Kata Bagh
5. Kani Gauraya
6. Budhia
7. Mendak Ki Shadi
8. Billi Ke Gale Mein Haddia
9. Unt Ke Pair Sade
10. Moorkh Brahman

In his magazine entitled Sikshan Patrika, Gijubhai highlighted the

'World of Children by writing about the nature of the children and
teaching-learning of children. Diwa Swapna: Gijubhai's "Diwa
Swapna' written in 1931 in Gujarati, attracted the attention of
educators throughout India. Its translations were published in 1934
and 1962. It is a kind of criticism of a primary school. It presents a
glimpse of the beautiful and happy nature of the school of the future.
The whole book is written in the form of a story.

The points and events, which have become the theme of this book,
are a kind of daydream for the teachers. In his Bal Mandir, Gijubhai
experimented upon principles of psychology and principles of
teaching children. How could these principles be made practicable in
primary schools was explained in his book 'Diwa Swapna' Giubh
acknowledges that the teacher of our primary school is ignorant,
servant, greedy money-maker and he does not have self-confidence.
By reading this book the teacher may repent, feel sorry, and visualize
the daydream by raising his level of aspiration.

Teaching of Language And Other Subjects:

One book of Gijubhai is about teaching language in a Primary School
He discusses the method of teaching different aspects of language to
the children.

The salient features of language teaching advocated by Gijubhai are

the following:

1. Reading should precede writing.

2. Writing should start withdrawing lines.

3. Children should be taught how to hold the pen with fingers, how to
turn it. How to control it and how to reach the shape of a letter by
drawing absurd shapes.

4. Dictation helps to acquire speed and accuracy of writing after

hearing.

5. Poetry Teaching should start with teaching or folk songs. The

poems should be simple, descriptive, and based on stories. No role
learning is needed in poetry. The thrill characteristic of the poem
should be stressed. There is no need for word meaning in poetry
teaching.

6. Grammar is a part of language and should not be taught

separately. In his book on day-dreams, the teacher Lakshmi Shankar
teaches nouns, verbs, pronouns, adjective etc. through play. Children
recognize them by playing with words.

7. History is to be taught by telling stories.

8. Geography is to be taught by using the globe.

9. The Montessori Method is used for teaching mathematics.

10. The drawing should be taught by asking the students to draw the
shape of things like table, mango, guava, etc.

11. Children's books should contain the life-sketch of religious

persons. The principles of religion may be postponed at this stage.

12. Gijubhai emphasized games. He said that children should be

allowed to play freely and enjoy the play. There is no question of
winning and losing in the games.

Critical Evaluation
1. Gijubhai's work was recognized by Mahatma Gandhi who said that
Gijubhai's devotion and work always attracted him.

2. Kaka Kalelkar appreciated the network of Bal Mandirs established

by Gijubhai He said that by teaching parents about the worship of
children. Gijubhai stood for child freedom and child-welfare.

3. Tara Ben compared Gijubhai with fire. She said that wherever he
went he kindled the light.

4. Madam Maria Montessori was sad for not being acquainted with
Gijubhai who stood for child-freedom and child-happiness.

5. Kishori Lal Mashruwala saw a kind of non-violent revolution in

education in the work of Gijubhai. The impact of Gijubhai Shri
Badheka was greatly inspired by the environment of freedom under
which children were trained in the Montessori system. He was
encouraged by his co-worker Shri Nanabhai Bhatt who was the
Director of Shri Dakshinamurti Bhawan. The work of Shri Gijubhai
inspired many people in Gujarat, Maharashtra, and other States. He
also greatly influenced ladies. Like Smt. Tarabai Modak was also
working for the promotion of the Montessori system in India. An
important feature of Dakshinamurti Bal Mandir is that children in
these schools belong to tribal areas also.

SHORT SUMMARY
Girijashanker Badheka, generally known as Gijubhai, the most
outstanding personality in the field of pre-primary education, was
born to Bhagwanji and Sm. Kashiba of Vala in Saurashtra at
Chittal 9Saurashtra) in the house of his maternal grandfather on
15 November 1885. He had his early education at a primary
school at Vala and later passed the Matriculation from
Bhavnagar around 1905.

He joined the Shamlals College but had to leave his studies

incomplete and go to East Africa in 1907 to earn a livelihood. On
his return in 1910, he studied law in Bombay. He started practice
in 1911 as a District Pleader and in 1912 he enrolled himself is
High Court Pleader. He, married twice, first Sm. Hiren (19020
and after her death is. Jadiben (1906).

Gijubhai’s maternal uncle Hargovind Pandya had a great

influence in moulding his mind and character. Another strong
influence was that of S. P. Stevens, a solicitor for whom Gijubhai
worked in East Africa, who taught him self-help and reliance.

Solicitude for the education of his first son, Narendrabhai (b.

February 1913), led Gijubhai to see the child education classes
conducted under the guidance of Motibhai Amin at Vaso,
Gujarat, where he was presented a Gujrati book describing the
Montessori method of education. That first attracted him to
organize child education on similar lines. In 1915 he assisted in
drafting the construction of the Dakshinamurti, then started as a
hostel at Bhavnagar. In 1916 he left legal practice and joined the
Dakashinamurti as Assistant Superintendent. He drew the
attention of the Superintendent, Nanabhai Bhatt, to the fact that
the boarders had to study in old-fashioned schools.

To remove this anomaly the Dakshinamurti was converted into

a teaching institution with Gijubhai as the Acharya (Principal).
Simultaneously Gijubhai trained his son according to the
Montessori system. This convinced him about the need to begin
at the very beginning, and the Dakshinamurti Balmandir, a pre-
primary school, came into being August 1920. Gijubhai’s
contribution was an evolution of a system of child education
suitable to the Indian environment, training teachers, and the
creation of suitable literature for children.

Teachers and parents Gijubhai’s system liberally borrowed from

the educational philosophies of Montessori, Frobell, Dalton, and
others and oriented the admixture to fit Indian requirements.
Freedom and love were the twin principles around which the
system revolved. With the introduction of equipment for sensory
development, coupled with the use of music, dance, travel,
story-telling, and play-ground as instantly acquired popularity
with children and parents.

In 1925 the first Pre-Primary Teachers’ Training College

(Adhyapak Mandir) was started at Dakshinamurti to meet the
need for qualified teachers. Gijubhai also turned his attention to
children’s literature and wrote simple short stories, nursery
rhymes, and tales of travel and adventure. He produced more
than100 works that still retain their importance and many of them
have been rendered into several other Indian languages.

In 1925 Gijubhai, along with Sm. Taraben Modak, started

editing a Gujrati monthly, the Shikshan Patrika. His frank and
fearless criticism of the existing methods of education created a
sensation in Gujrat. For the propagation of the new system of
 child education among the masses, conferences were organized
in 1925 at Bhavnagar and in 1928 at Ahmedabad.

Gijubhai was partly responsible for the entry of Harijans into the
Dakshinamurti. He also assisted in making arrangements for the
farmer families who were abandoning their homes during the
Bardoli Satyagraha. He initiated the concept of the ‘Vanarsena’,
a battalion of children satyagrahis who made life impossible for
the Government officials in the 1930 Movement. Under Gijubhai,
Nanabhai, and Harbhai, the Dakshinamurti, located in the
territory of sympathetic princes, came to be regarded as the
training-center for dedicated freedom-fighters. Gijubhai also
conducted Adult Education Campaign in 1930.

In 1936 Gijubhai left the Dakshinamurti due to a difference of

opinion and started the Adhyapak Mandir at Rajkot. Constant
overwork had ruined his health, and he died on 23 June 1939.
Proverbial affection for the children earned him the title
‘Maochhali Ma’ meaning mother with whiskers.

CONTRIBUTION OF JIDDU
KRISHNAMURTHY

Educational Philosophy of J.Krishnamurti

J. Krishna murti is one of the greatest and the most remarkable
thinkers of our age. His contribution to the worldly thought especially
concerning educational philosophy is indeed a unique one; as he has
indicated a completely new approach to life as well as to education.
Mr. Umashanker Joshi, a well-known personality of Gujarati literature,
paid the greatest tribute to J.Krishnamutri that the human being of
tomorrow, now onwards will consider him as benefactory, useful to
whole mankind for the ages to come, as he has opened inaugurated
such types of direction, horizons of knowledge that coming
generations will be awful to him. J. Krishna murti does not believe in
any set ideology or any type of specific or any special, particular
tradition, religion, method, manner, or ideas and ideals.

Concept of Education

J. Krishnamurti has given some definitions, concept and

characteristics of the word education with the help of key words.

(1) The right kind of education cultivates the whole being,

(2) The right kind of education should accomplish the important things
in life,
(3) Right education helps to find out the problem,
(4) Right education cannot be drawn into the stream of society in any
circumstances,
(5) Right education helps to find out what one really wants to do,
(6) Right kind of education brings the total development of man,
(7) The right kind of education is helpful for creativeness,
(8) The right kind of education helps to find out true vocation,
(9) The right kind of education starts with students and their questions
for creative pleasure,
(10) The right kind of education does not concern with any system or
ideology, (11) The right kind of education encourages thoughtfulness
and consideration, (12) The right kind of education helps to be
mature,
(13) The right kind of education helps to be watchful to the influences,
(14) The right kind of education helps to understand the total process
of oneself, (15) Education is the understanding of oneself,
(16) The right kind of education is concerned with individual freedom
and brings true co-operation with the whole
(17) The right kind of education refuses any bondage, rule and
regulations of the government,
(18) The right kind of education requires a great deal of intelligence,
insight,
(19) Education should help to prevent inner and outer conflict, within
or without, (20) The right kind of education avoids to become
mechanical beings and pre-determined ends,
(21) To understand all our relationship is called right kind of
education,
(22) True education means to awaken intelligence and significance of
life as a whole.

J. Krishnamurti, in the key word -Education is a way of discovering

our true relationship to everything, expresses that right education
helps the individual to discover his true relationship with everything.
For that a mind which is free to think, free to be creative, free to love
is required.

Concept of education given by J. Krishnamurti

can be summed up as under;
Right kind of education...

• cultivates the whole being

• accomplishes the important things in life
• helps to find out the problem
• cannot be drawn into the stream of society in any circumstances
• helps to find out what one really wants to do
• brings the total development of man
• is helpful for creativeness starts with students and their questions
for creative pleasure
• does not concern with any system or ideology
• encourages thoughtfulness and consideration,
• helps to be mature
• helps to be watchful to the influences
• helps to understand the total process of oneself
• is the understanding of oneself?
• is concerned with individual freedom and brings true co-operation
with the whole
• refuses any bondage, rule and regulations of the government
• requires a great deal of intelligence, insight
• helps to prevent inner and outer conflict, within or without
• means to awaken intelligence and significance of life as a whole.
• helps to understand all our relationship.

Basic Principles Concerning to Education

Present education has become a funnelling of many subjects into our
brain, conditioning us to conform. Millions and millions throughout the
world are being educated and are finding no jobs. Such education
offers a subtle form of escape from ourselves and it inevitably creates
increasing misery, conflict and confusion result from our own wrong
relationship with people, things and ideas.

According to J. Krishna murti, there are five basic principles

concerning to education. Directly J. Krishna murti has not mentioned
them as principles but it was the researchers humble try to arrange
his educational ideas on elaborated , vast level.

Through the study, it can be concluded as

(1) Learning to unlearn,

(2) Competition and co-operation,
(3) Fearlessness,
(4) Get disturbed and disturb others,
(5) Inward flowering.
J. Krishna murti has suggested 14 key words to explain his ideas on
education along with basic principles, they were as such:

(1) Education is of prime significance in the creation of a new culture,

(2) The prevailing condition of education offers a subtle form of
escape from the self from the life
(3) The first principle of learning is learning to Unlearn,
(4) Competitive spirit is accepted as a means for progress in the
realm of education,
(5) Competition is absurd,
(6) Right kind of education avoids comparison and competition,
(7) Right kind of education teaches fearlessness,
(8) Without fear one learns more,
(9) Discontentment is to be understood in a very different sense. Get
disturbed and disturb others,
(10) Discontentment ñ burning desire for freedom, new understanding
of the way of life,
(11) One should ask oneself for Inward flowering,
(12) Flowering means growing deeply, inwardly,
(13) The beauty, watchfulness and constant inquiring mind makes
one happy, (14) Right education makes one blossomed in all aspects.

Through the study, the basic principles of education according to J.

Krishna murti can be concluded as...
• Learning to unlearn, • Competition and co-operation, •
Fearlessness, • Get disturbed and disturb others, • Inward
flowering.

Curriculum
J. Krishnamurti has not prescribed any specific subjects or any
selected course in a set, fixed pattern as a means of education. As he
he expresses that he does not want to be bound by any specific belief
about set pattern for the study or fixed course or syllabus for
education. So, the researcher could not find out any direct idea units
based on J. Krishnamurtií's educational ideas concerning to
curriculum.
Three idea units which seemed to be relevant were: (1) Teaching of
different subjects is not enough but student’s initiative should be
awakened, (2) Students should be educated to live life, (3) With
learning academic subjects, one should educate oneself.

He is the bitter critic of present-day educational system, method,

curriculum and testing level (evaluation) so he expresses ideas
through right kind of education. He is the man who speaks complete
truth in real critical words. So, he has not mentioned or forced for any
specific, special subjects for the curriculum. In the key word, teaching
of different subjects is not enough but student’s initiative should be
awakened, he suggests that the different subjects are necessary but
they are not enough.

In the key word, students should be educated to live life, J.

Krishnamurtiís philosophy regarding education is revealed as he
wishes that along with the teaching of other subjects, students should
be taught how to live, though he doesn’t mention it directly. He is of
the opinion that education should be concerned with totality of life. He
believes that education is the means to create new values peace,
happiness and non- violence. He doesn’t lay stress on head
(intelligent) only but he feels that heart (emotional level) in the life
should also be emphasised.

J. Krishnamurti is of the opinion that a child should be the lover of the

nature and its elements. It should be acquainted with the nature. In
the key word, with learning academic subjects, one should educate
oneself, he explains that learning of academic subjects is important
but the more important thing, for him, is to educate oneself. He is not
against technological or technical education, but they should not
over-power human beings.

From the above discussion, the ideas of J. Krishna murti regarding

curriculum can be summarised as under:

Curriculum ... • should not be fixed but flexible • should include the
matter which teaches how to live life.
The Aims of Education
Education forms a central core of Krishnamurtiís world view. In fact,
Krishnamurti spent his entire life talking about education as being the
agent not only of inner renewal but also of social change. Education
is therefore the foundation on which the good society will build itself.
The inner world is the source and continuation of the disorder, and for
J. Krishnamurti, education should be concerned with changing the
source which is the individual, since it is human beings who create
society, not some gods in heaven. So, he has given the aims-
purposes of right kind of education.

J. Krishnamurti suggests six purposes as aims of education. The six

key words are as such:

(1) The purpose of education is to create integrated men and women

for peace, (2) The purpose of education is to cultivate right
relationship,
(3) The purpose of education is to grow up the whole mind, heart and
body,
(4) The purpose of education is to create complete human being
(5) The purpose of education is to know how one’s mind works,
(6) The purpose of education is to create new mind, new society.

J. Krishnamurti believes that the purpose of education is to awaken

the thoughtfulness. He states that purpose of education is not to
educate the individual the words but to awaken the thoughtfulness in
him so that he becomes sensitive, watchful and alert. Thus, the
purposes of education were shown with special treatment by J.
Krishna murti. From the above discussion, it can be summed up as
below.
The purpose of education is. • to create integrated men and women
for peace • to cultivate right relationship • to grow up the whole
mind, heart and body • to create complete human being • to know
how one’s mind works • to create new mind, new society.

The Functions of Education

J. Krishnamurti was not an educator in the narrow or formal sense of
the term, as he had no formal qualifications to either propagate or
promote educational goals or establish educational institutions. His
concern for what he considered right education is clearly not an
attempt to provide temporary solutions to society’s problems or seek
to correct them through merely educating people to read or write. For
him, the role of right education, then, is to make the individual highly
sensitive to everything not just to teach mathematics and geography
because the highest form of sensitivity is the highest form of
intelligence. He has suggested some functions of education in his
books concerning to education
J. Krishna murti has suggested 16 idea units and key words to
express his idea regarding the functions of education. They were

(1) The function of education is to help the individual to discover the

psychological hindrances
(2) The function of education is to cultivate new values,
(3) The function of education is to bring a mind which goes beyond,
(4) The highest function of education is to prepare integrated
individual, new values,
(5) The real function of education is to understand the whole process
of living in the new world,
(6) The real function of education is to understand the rotten society
and to create new society, new world,
(7) Basic function of education is to help the one to find out what
really love to do,
(8) The function of education is to understand completely, fully and
deeply to break the social pattern,
(9) The main function of education is to create specialised and trained
mind but the mind which can meet challenges,
(10) The function of real education is to awaken, employ the energy
into discovery of reality,
(11) The function of education is not only to pass examination but to
prepare for livelihood, deep thinking, initiative and laughter,
(12) The function of education is to make creative human being who
can think for himself, not a slavish machine,
(13) The function of education is to make students able to investigate,
to find out, to discover knowledge and techniques,
(14) The function of education is to create awareness for not imitating
others,
(15) The true function of education is to cultivate the intelligence and
to solve the problems of life,
(16) The function of education is to help each one of us to live freely
and without fear.

School- its concept and characteristics

Most of the eminent thinkers have thrown the light on the importance
of school in one’s life. The objectives, functions, the form and nature
of the schools are introduced by them from time to time. Most of them
seem to agree on the point that the school helps in the process of
education i.e. all-round development, drawing out the best, to
enhance the personality along with intelligence and wisdom etc

J.Krishnamurtiís thinking on schools is totally different. He does not

consider the school as organizations for the indoctrination of children,
but rather as places where students and teachers can flower, and
where a future generation can be prepared because schools are
meant for that. He emphasizes on the psychological development of
individuals which is as important as acquiring academic knowledge
and skills. The main function of school is to help the child to discover
and to see the real hindrances in the development of the child.

The following 9 idea units and key words are suggested by

J.Krishnamurti regarding school. They are:

(1) A school which is successful in the worldly sense is more often a

failure as an educational centre,
(2) A school is a sacred place as a place for learning,
(3) The individual should be important not the school,
(4) A school is the place where one can find himself and do what he
likes,
(5) A school cultivates mind to meet the challenges of life,
(6) The purpose, aim and drive of the school is to make complete
human being, (7) A school is a place where the art of learning-living is
being taught,
(8) Schools must be the centre of learning ñ the depth of relationship
and sacredness,
(9) A school is a place of learning in real sense not mere
accumulation knowledge,
(10) Schools should have limited number of students,
(11) The function of a school is to help the student to awaken his
intelligence to learn the importance of right relationship.

Teacher-Student Relationship
The following idea units and key words expressed his ideas on the
teacher-students relationship. They are:
(1) No fear in teacher-student relationship,
(2) Teacher-student should meet regularly,
(3) Feeling of being secure is primary need of students,
(4) Teacher should not have sense of superiority,
(5) Teacher-students establish right relationship,
(6) Teacher should put comparison and measurement aside to make
the relationship direct,
(7) Based on affection,
(8) To have direct relationship, there should be fewer number
students,
(9) Communion between teacher and students,
(10) Relationship is a process of learning,
(11) Relationship requires a great deal of intelligence.

Discipline
J. Krishnamurti considers discipline as an easy way to control a child,
but he asserts that it does not help him to understand the problems
involved in living. For him, discipline means conformity, imitation, and
obedience. It means to do what you are told. He believes that where
there is discipline, there is fear; so discipline is not the way of love.
That is why, he believes, discipline at all costs should be avoided. If
the classes are small and the teacher can give his full attention to
each child, observing and helping him, then compulsion or
domination in any form is obviously unnecessary.
J. Krishnamurti expresses his ideas about discipline through the 8
idea units, key words. They are:

(1) Discipline has become important for political and industrial

reasons,
(2) Discipline doesn’t help the individual to understand the problems,
(3) No discipline without love,
(4) Discipline means the art of learning,
(5) Society insist us to believe that discipline is necessary,
(6) Discipline means to adjust our thinking to what other people say,
(7) Discipline is not creative but destructive,
(8) Discipline means conformity, imitation, and obedience. It means to
do what you are told.

Conclusion: J. Krishna murti give completely novel, revolutionary,

humanitarian, non- violent ideas to the world to learn, to know, to
implement and to follow.

5.3 PROGRESSIVE EDUCATIONAL THOUGHTS

OF WESTERN PHILOSOPHERS

CONTRIBUTION OF PESTALOZZI
Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi, Swiss social reformer and educator, is
known as the Father of Modern Education. The modern era of
education started with him and his spirit and ideas led to the great
educational reforms in Europe in the nineteenth century.
Pestalozzi believed in the ability of every individual human being to
learn and in the right of every individual to education. He believed
that it was the duty of society to put this right into practice. His beliefs
led to education becoming democratic; in Europe, education became
available for everyone.
Pestalozzi was particularly concerned about the condition of the poor.
Some of them did not go to school. If they did, the school education
was often useless for their needs. He wanted to provide them with an
education which would make them independent and able to improve
their own lives.
Pestalozzi believed that education should develop the powers of
‘Head’, ‘Heart’ and ‘Hands’. He believed that this would help create
individuals who are capable of knowing what is right and what is
wrong and of acting according to this knowledge. Thus, the wellbeing
of every individual could be improved and each individual could
become a responsible citizen. He believed that empowering and
ennobling every individual in this way was the only way to improve
society and bring peace and security to the world. His aim was for a
complete theory of education that would lead to a practical way of
bringing happiness to humankind.
Pestalozzi saw teaching as a subject worth studying in its own right
and he is therefore known as the father of pedagogy (the method and
practice of teaching, especially as an academic subject or theoretical
concept). He caused education to become a separate branch of
knowledge, alongside politics and other recognised areas of
knowledge.
Pestalozzi’s approach has had massive influence on education, for
example, his influence, as well as his relevance to education today, is
clear in the importance now put on:
The interests and needs of the child
A child-centred rather than teacher-centred approach to
teaching
Active rather than passive participation in the learning
experience
The freedom of the child based on his or her natural
development balanced with the self-discipline to function well as
an individual and in society
The child having direct experience of the world and the use of
natural objects in teaching
The use of the senses in training pupils in observation and
judgement
Cooperation between the school and the home and between
parents and teachers
The importance of an all-round education – an education of the
head, the heart and the hands, but which is led by the heart
The use of systemised subjects of instruction, which are also
carefully graduated and illustrated
Learning which is cross-curricular and includes a varied school
life
Education which puts emphasis on how things are taught as well
as what is taught
Authority based on love, not fear
 Teacher training
Pestalozzi’s influence over the spirit, the methods and the theory of
education has continued into the twentieth and twenty-first centuries
and most of his principles have been assimilated into the modern
system of education.
EDUCATION IN THE 19TH CENTURY
The foundations of modern education were established in the 19th
century. Swiss educator Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi, inspired by the
work of French philosopher Jean Jacques Rousseau, developed an
educational method based on the natural world and the senses.
Pestalozzi established schools in Switzerland and Germany to
educate children and train teachers. He affirmed that schools should
resemble secure and loving homes.

Like Locke and Rousseau, Pestalozzi believed that thought began

with sensation and that teaching should use the senses. Holding that
children should study the objects in their natural environment,
Pestalozzi developed a so-called "object lesson" that involved
exercises in learning form, number, and language. Pupils determined
and traced an object's form, counted objects, and named them.
Students progressed from these lessons to exercises in drawing,
writing, adding, subtracting, multiplying, dividing, and reading.

Pestalozzi employed the following principles in teaching: (1) begin

with the concrete object before introducing abstract concepts; (2)
begin with the immediate environment before dealing with what is
distant and remote; (3) begin with easy exercises before introducing
complex ones; and (4) always proceed gradually, cumulatively, and
slowly. American educator Henry Barnard, the first U.S.
Commissioner of Education, introduced Pestalozzi's ideas to the
United States in the late 19th century. Barnard also worked for the
establishment of free public high schools for students of all classes of
American society.

German philosopher Johann Herbart emphasized moral education

and designed a highly structured teaching technique. Maintaining that
education's primary goal is moral development, Herbart claimed good
character rested on knowledge while misconduct resulted from an
inadequate education. Knowledge, he said, should create an
"apperceptive mass"--a network of ideas--in a person's mind to which
new ideas can be added. He wanted to include history, geography,
and literature in the school curriculum as well as reading, writing, and
arithmetic. Based on his work, Herbart's followers designed a five-
step teaching method:

(1) prepare the pupils to be ready for the new lesson,

(2) present the new lesson,
(3) associate the new lesson with ideas studied earlier,
(4) use examples to illustrate the lesson's major points, and
(5) test pupils to ensure they had learned the new lesson.

Emphasizing education in practical skills, he advocated a curriculum

featuring lessons in five basic human activities:
(1) those needed for self-preservation such as health, diet, and
exercise;
(2) those needed to perform one's occupation so that a person can
earn a living, including the basic skills of reading, writing,
computation, and knowledge of the sciences;
(3) those needed for parenting, to raise children properly;
(4) those needed to participate in society and politics; and
(5) those needed for leisure and recreation. Spencer's ideas on
education were eagerly accepted in the United States. In 1918 the
Cardinal Principles of Secondary Education, a report issued by the
National Education Association, used Spencer's list of activities in its
recommendations for American education.

PESTALOZZI PRINCIPLE OF TEACHING

His theories laid the foundation of modern elementary education. He
was director (from 1805) of an experimental institute established at
Yverdon on his principle that choice of pedagogical method should be
based on the individual's development and concrete experience. He
opposed memorization learning and strict discipline, and pioneered in
the use of tactile objects in the teaching of natural science. He also
promoted broad liberal education followed by professional training for
teachers.

• Pestalozzi's theory of education is based on the importance of a

pedagogical method that corresponds to the natural order of
individual development and of concrete experiences. To
Pestalozzi the individuality of each child is paramount; it is
something that has to be cultivated actively through education.
• He opposed the prevailing system of memorization learning and
strict discipline and sought to replace it with a system based on
love and an understanding of the child's world. His belief that
education should be based on concrete experience led him to
pioneer in the use of tactile objects, such as plants and mineral
specimens, in the teaching of natural science to youngsters.
Running through much of Pestalozzi's writing is the idea that
education should be moral as well as intellectual.

Never losing his commitment to social reform, Pestalozzi often

reiterated the belief that society could be changed by education. His
theories also influenced the development of teacher-training
methods. Although he respected the individuality of the teacher,
Pestalozzi nevertheless felt that there was a unified science of
education that could be learned and practiced. His belief that teacher
training should consist of a broad liberal education followed by a
period of research and professional training has been widely adopted
throughout Europe and the United States.

Sussan Isaacs Educational Thoughts

Susan Isaacs was a British psychologist and educationalist whose
work spanned the first half of the twentieth century. She came to
education with a background in philosophy and psychology and this
influenced much of her work with young children. Smith (1985) writes
that ‘she probably did more than anyone else to integrate the
increasing theoretical knowledge of child psychology with practical
methodology in both education and child rearing practices’ (p.17).
Isaacs was known for the accessibility of her work to practitioners and
to parents. She wrote for a varied audience, including academic
papers, books and columns in parenting journals. Isaacs’ child-
centred theories expanded on the work of other educationalists, such
as Froebel’s approach to active learning and Dewey’s emphasis on
social interaction, making them accessible to those working with
children.
Isaacs’ Theories
The Value of the Nursery School
Isaacs had a passionate belief in the place of nursery education in
society. She felt that attending a nursery school should be a natural
part of a child’s early life: ‘Experience has shown that it can be looked
upon as a normal institution in the social life of any civilised
community’ (Isaacs, 1952, p.31). The early years setting was a place
that should both mirror the family through love and warmth, as well as
offering new and exciting opportunities and resources that might not
be available at home. Isaacs was clear that ‘the nursery school is an
extension of the function of the home, not a substitute for it’ (ibid,
p.31). Above all, the nursery setting provided social experiences and
companionship that Isaacs believed were vital to a child’s
development.

The Environment
Isaacs planned the Malting House School carefully in order to best
facilitate children’s development. The indoor space was richly
resourced to stimulate learning through play. It included dressing up
clothes, art and craft materials, beads, blocks, a typewriter and other
play equipment. Like Montessori’s schools, the tables, chairs and
cupboards were low down and easy to transport. There were
mattresses and rugs for quiet play and resting. The main room
opened onto the garden, where there was a play house, sand pit, tool
shed, plots for gardening and one of the first climbing frames in
Britain (Pound, 2005). Isaacs also believed in taking the children out
of the setting. These trips were always purposeful and initiated by the
children. Smith writes that a great deal of thought was put into all the
resources: ‘None of the equipment was chosen haphazardly, for it
was all intended to stimulate the child’s powers of inquiry and
curiosity, and thus they would learn’ (Smith, 1985, p.64). Children
were given the space to set up games and, where appropriate, to
sustain them over long periods, rather than be rushed to tidy them
away. Isaacs felt that this promoted focus and patience. The children
were expected to take responsibility for the nursery environment,
including planning the lunches, setting the table and washing up. As
Isaacs explained, ‘children learn to exercise responsibility by having
it’ (Isaacs, 1971, p.102).
The Role of the Adult
Isaacs’ felt that the adults working in the nursery school were as
much a part of the environment as the space and the resources:
‘Children use reality as a ‘canvas’ on which to project their feelings,
and since that reality included both people and things, the whole
environment had to provide for successful projection’ (Smith, 1985
p.70).
Isaacs believed that this ‘projection’ of feelings, or self-expression,
was a vital part of a child’s emotional and social development. Her
psychoanalytical background influenced her theories on the social
behaviour of young children. She used the term ‘super ego’ to denote
the uncompromising need for self-expression demonstrated by the
children in her care: Smith explains that the adult’s role was to
‘promote this social development by acting as the good parent, as the
positive side of the super ego of the children’ (Smith, 1985, p.107).
Isaacs’ understanding was that very young children did not know, for
example, how to make amends for something they should not have
said or done. The adult’s task was to ‘help them to be good’ (Isaacs,
1951, p.175). Boundaries were clear and consistent, but
demonstrated rather than imposed, so that children could begin to
understand the consequences of their actions. In this way, a safe,
secure, and loving environment was created, which Isaacs felt was
key to successful development and learning: ‘Without security as a
background to his life he cannot dare to explore or experiment, to
express his feelings or to try out new relations to people’(Isaacs,
1952, p.21).
She advocated a detailed knowledge of each child in order that the
practitioner could respond appropriately to individuals in any situation.
Like other educational theorists before her, she believed that this
knowledge came from observation. In her customary desire to create
user-friendly systems, she produced record cards for teachers to use
in their classrooms, designed to build up a picture of the whole child.
As well as these more studied and practical roles, Isaacs also
encouraged the teacher to enter the magical world of childhood,
without interfering in it: ‘By patient listening to the talk of even little
children, and watching what they do…we can wish their wishes, see
their pictures and think their thoughts’ (Isaacs, 1971, p.15).
The Importance of Play
Isaacs used her psychoanalytical knowledge to underpin her
understanding of the role of play in a child’s development. She
explained that children’s play was a form of self-expression that
enabled them both to release their real feelings safely and to
rehearse ways of dealing with a range of emotions.
Play was the vehicle for development, the ‘breath of life to the child,
since it is through play activities that he finds mental ease, and can
work upon his wishes, fears and fantasies so as to integrate them into
a living personality’ (Isaacs, 1951, p.210).
Isaacs felt that one of the most valuable contributions of the nursery
environment was that it provided opportunities for cooperative play.
Children could explore relationships with family and friends and
develop positive social interactions. As well as the emotional benefits
of play, Isaacs also saw it as a means for children to discover and
experiment with the world around them.
Play allowed emotional and imaginative development to coexist
alongside practical inquiry. Children’s play was to be respected and
left free to evolve on their own terms because, as Isaacs explained,
‘play has the greatest value for the young child when it is really free
and his own’ (Isaacs, 1971, p.133).
Linking Isaacs’ theories to today’s practice
Isaac’s theories on education have a contemporary feel to them, even
though she began working on them almost a century ago (Smith,
1985). This is partly due to her progressive ideas, and partly to her
concise and approachable style. Isaacs’ creative use of the outside
space at the Malting House School will be familiar to early years
settings, who are using their outdoor areas more and more. Then
there is the debate about how best to record observations and inform
planning for individual children, which is still, perhaps remarkably, a
very current issue. According to Smith, another of Isaacs’
contributions to modern practice lies in her data and analysis of child-
centred practice and play. She gave weight to this approach,
contributing to its longevity and giving confidence to practitioners who
were already following these ideas. These theories are now woven
into the fabric of modern early years teaching, as demonstrated by
the EYFS guidelines:’
While playing, children can express fears and relive anxious
experiences. They can try things out, solve problems and be creative
and can take risks and use trial and error to find things out’ (Learning
and Development – play and exploration). Isaacs’ understanding of
the need for emotional security to support learning is also present in
the EYFS: ‘To mentally or physically engage in learning, children
need to feel at ease, secure and confident’ (Learning and
Development – active learning). On a grander scale, Isaacs’ vision for
nursery attendance for all young children has become a reality.

Educational Philosophy of Jean

Jacques Rousseau
Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)
Rousseau’s Philosophy
He is known as a revolutionary philosopher, who wrote against the
contemporary social and political set up, hypocrisy, artificiality, cruelty,
correlation, despotism prevalent at that time. The key notes of his
philosophy is termed Naturalism, It contains his concepts of “Natural
state”, “Natural man” and Natural civilization.
“Natural state is a simple farming community or state without the evils
of large cities corrupt rulers, social classes and luxury. He believed
that ‘Goodness was innate and evils as acquired’. About natural man
he says,” Man is born free, but everywhere he is in chains” In the
words of Rousseau, “Civilized man borns, lives and dies in a state of
slavery”
Natural man according to Rousseau is governed and directed by the
laws of his own nature rather than those of social institutions. He
believed the man would have been happier if he had been allowed to
remain in his natural stage. He was against so called Civilization.

By natural civilizations he meant the simple farming life. Rousseau

“God makes all the things good; man meddles with them and they
become evil” He declared” Everything is good as it comes from the
hands of the Author of nature, but everything degenerates in the
hands of man”.
Rousseau remarked,” Leave the child alone. Let him be a natural
man rather than a civilized man. Let him have a state of nature rather
than artificial surroundings that stunt the proper growth and arrest his
natural development”. Natural civilization id free from artificial
surroundings and rigid barriers that pollute the goodness of our
nature. ‘Return to nature ‘was his method to cure all troubles human
nature his natural heritage is essentially good and must be given the
full opportunities for fee development. He advocated the concept of
liberty, equality and fraternity.
He has given three fundamentals of the Nature considering them the
best sources of education.
1. Isolation from society should be isolated from society and
brought up by laws of nature. He should not be allowed to acquire the
evils of the society.
2. Innate Tendencies of the child: In the words of Rousseau, the
innate tendencies to primitive emotions, instinctive judgment and
natural instinct are more reliable bases for action than the experience
gained from the society. In this sense education means the
spontaneous development of these innate tendencies of the child.
3. Contact with Natural Environment is to make contact with the
natural environment i.e. hills, trees, plans birds, animals, woods,
stones and physical forces. Thus, the child should be brought up in
natural environment. As a result of it he will automatically become a
rational being and act according to the voice of his conscience.
Educational philosophy of Rousseau/ Concept of
Education
His educational philosophy is born out of his philosophy i. e
Naturalism there are some characteristics which are as under.
1. Concept of Education: For Rousseau education does not mean
merely imparting information or storing knowledge. It is not accretion
from without. It is the development of the child’s natural powers and
abilities from within. According to nature, Men, Things.
A] Education from Nature: It consists in the spontaneous
development of our endowment and faculties. i. e of child’s natural
tendencies and interests. He gave it the top priority.
B] Education from Man: It consists in influencing our social contacts
and various groups. He did not favour it at least in initial stages.
C] Education from Things: It consists in the acquisition of
knowledge and information through contact with physical
surroundings and our experience of dealings with the things.
Rousseau conviction was that education should be considered as
“the process of development into an enjoyable, rational harmoniously
balanced useful and hence natural life”.
2. Types of Education
A} Negative type of Education: He wanted that the first
education to the child should be given ion negative. During the
age of 5 to 12, the child should be given negative education.
Rousseau held the opinion, “I call negative education that which
tends to perfect the organs that are the instruments of how can I
compare two-digit numbers?

You can compare two-digit numbers by first looking at the tens

digit. Compare the tens digit for each, and see which is the
larger or smaller of the two. The larger of the two would then be
the larger, or greater, number. If the tens digits are the same,
then you must look at the one’s digits. The larger of the ones is
the larger, or greater, number.

The knowledge, and before giving this knowledge directly and that
endeavours to prepare the way for reason by proper exercise of the
sense. A negative education does the time of idleness, far from it. It
does not give virtues; it projects from vice. It does not inculcate truth.
It projects from errors.
Following are the characteristics of negative education.
1. Time saving not favoured: Rousseau said” Do not save the
time but lose it” By running, dancing, playing the child will have
continuous reconstruction of experiences, which is nothing but
education.
2. Book learning not favoured: Rousseau said “Reading is the
curse of childhood.” He hates books, as they are of no value. He
considers them to be the cause of child’s misery and suggest a
remedy from its removal by saying, “By relieving school children of
their courses and books, we can take away the cause of their misery.
3. Formal Lessons Not Favoured: Rousseau did not believe in
the efficacy of verbal lessons. He stated,” Get rid of the lesson and
we get rid of the chief cause of their sorrow”. Rousseau remarked”
give me a child of five who know nothing and at the fifteen I shall
return him to you knowing as much as those who have been under
instruction since infancy with difference that your pupil only knows
things by heart while mine know how to use his knowledge.”
4. Habit Formation Not Favoured: Rousseau holds the views
“The only habit which the child should be allowed to form is to
contract no habit at all.” He did not want the children to be slaves of
their habits. He wished them to be free in their unrestricted activities.
If any habits are to be formed let the children for natural habits.
5. Direct Moral Education Favoured: Rousseau believed that no
moral training should be imparted to the child. Let him get moral
training through natural consequences.
6. Social Education Not Favoured: He held the view that the
society is corrupt and it degenerates him. So he should be protected
from its evil influences.
7. Formal Discipline Not Favoured: Rousseau believed in
discipline according to natural consequences. If the child climbs a
tree, let him fall and learn not to attempt it again.
8. Old Customary Procedure Favoured: Rousseau was
dissatisfied with the prevailing conditions of the country and that is
why he remarked.” Man was once happy, now he is miserable. Undo
what has been done and he will be happy again.”
B] Positive Education: Rousseau “I call positive education
one that tends to form the mind prematurely and to instruct the child
in the duties that belongs to man.” The characteristics of positive
education are
1. Stress on verbalism
2. Stress on duty, morality and religion
3. Stress on strict discipline
4. Stress on Social education
5. Emphasis on formation of habits.
Rousseau revolted against the positive education and also these
characteristics. He termed it as unnatural and inhuman and opposed
it fully. It was in revolt this that he introduced negative education.
Aims of Education
1] Development of child’s inner facilities
Rousseau says that the most important aim of education is the
natural development of the child’s inner faculties and powers. To live
is to work, to develop and to properly utilize the various part of the
body. In his book, Emile’, Rousseau seeks to train Emile in the
profession of living so that he may become a human being before
becoming a soldier, a magistrate, or a priest education aim at making
the child a real human being.
2] Different aim at different stages:
In addition to the above-mentioned aim, education should be different
at each stage in the life of the individual.
A] Development of well-regulated freedom
During the period of infancy i.e. up to 5 years the aim of education is
to develop in Emile a well-regulated freedom according to his
capacities.
B] Develop sufficient strength at childhood stage
At the childhood stage i.e. from 5 to 12 years, the aim of education is
to develop in the child sufficient in order to have well-regulated
freedom. Rousseau’s advice for this period is,” Exercise the body, the
organs, the senses and powers and keep the soul lying fellow, as
long as you can.

C] Intellectual development in Pre- adolescent Period:

At the boyhood stage i.e., from 12 to 15 years, the aim of education is
to develop the intellect of the Emile. Education should help in the
acquisition of knowledge which may enable him to the practical needs
of life.
D] Emotional, Moral and religious development during
Adolescence:
During the fourth stage i.e., from 15 to 24 years Emile, should learn to
live for others and to live together in social relationships. His
emotions should be sublimated. Moral and religious bias should be
given to education. In short, during this stage, education should aim
at emotional, moral and religious development of the Emile.
Jean Jacques Rousseau’s Views on
Women Education: -Rousseau’s idea on women education is
mirrored in the last part (v) of his book ‘Emile” by focusing on
education of an imaginary girl, ‘Sophy’. He said, “women are the
chaste guardians d our morals, and the sweet security for our
peace.” He further maintained that men and woman are not and
ought not to be constituted alike in character and temperament.
Therefore, they ought not to have the same education.
The education of a woman should be relative to man because he
believed that woman is made specially to please man. Towards the
man, “The duty of woman is to train him in childhood, to tend
him in manhood, and to counsel him throughout his life.” He
prescribed passive and repressive training for the girl. He allows no
individuality to woman and considers her as simply supplementary to
the nature of man.
She has to be kept under restraint and should be taught to be
obedient and docile. Rousseau suggests that girl should learn ethics
religion in place of science and mathematics, for he considers women
mentally inferior to men incapable of abstract reasoning. He said,
“The search for abstract and speculative truths, for principles and
actions in science, for all that tends to wide generalization is beyond
a woman grasp.”
He intensified his feeling towards woman education, when he
extensively declared, “I would a hundred times prefer a simple girl,
rudely brought up, to a girl of learning and who would come establish
in my house a literary tribunal of which she should make herself the
president. A woman of wit is the scourge of her husband, her
children, and her friends of everybody.”
He further says that a woman does not require knowledge but taste
and propriety of manners. Literacy education will not suit her and will
not help her in realizing her life’s aim. “A woman of culture is the
plague of her husband, her children, her family, her servants-
everybody.”
Jean Jacques Rousseau’s Aims of Education
Rousseau found that the prevailing system of education was un-
naturalistic and useless.
He identified the following as the chief aims of education:
(i) He said that the chief aim of education was the attainment of fullest
natural growth of the individual, leading to balanced, harmonious,
useful and natural life.
(ii) The real aim of education is to help the child to lead an enjoyable,
useful and natural life. He says, “To live is not merely to breathe. It
is to act, to make use of our organs, senses, our faculties and of
all those parts of ourselves, which give us the feeling of our
existence.”
(iii) Education aims at making an individual a ‘man’ first, for a man is
sure of success in multifarious fields of life.
(iv) Physical development is another aim of education which means
helping the child develops a strong physique-a necessity for
operation of mind.
(v) It is another aim of education to train bodily sense organs which
are the gateways to knowledge.
(vi) Intellectual development is another important aim of education
according to Rousseau.
(vii) Rousseau says that education should aim at development of
social, moral and spiritual aspects of the child. Therefore, education
should aim at cultivation of social, moral and spiritual values in the
child.
(viii) Another aim of education is to prepare a child for meeting
contingencies and challenges in future life.
Jean Jacques Rousseau’s Concept of Education
As a votary of naturalistic education, he sounded a death knell to the
pattern of education aimed at imparting information or doses of
knowledge artificially. On the contrary his conception of education
emphasizes development of the child’s natural powers from within,
not an accretion from without, in a spontaneous manner in a free
atmosphere. More precisely, it is the expansion of natural powers.
In ‘Emile’ Rousseau marked three teachers of education of a man-
Nature, Men and Things. These are called three sources of
education.
He writes in ‘Emile’, “The internal development of our organs and
faculties is the education of nature; the use we are taught to
make of that development is the education given us by men; and
the acquisition made by our own experience on the objects that
surround us consists our education from things.”
“Nature” as the chief teacher consists of natural tendencies or
capacities unaltered by habit or prejudices. The education from
nature consists in the spontaneous development of natural
endowments and capacities. It implies enfoldment of natural powers.
The influence of social contacts and various institutions and groups
forms the source of education for man, i.e., social environment by
education from things, he understood physical environment by the
help of which man acquires knowledge and gain experience.
Rousseau says that the mélange of all three sources constitutes an
ideal system of education. But, in order to have a perfect harmony
education from man and things should be subordinated to that of
nature, for we have no control over nature; it is the main tutor.
Education is a natural and a life-long process stressing on natural
development of the child.

Jean Jacques Rousseau’s Theory of Negative Education:

Besides his naturalistic approach to education his education was
chiefly negative. It should consist not in the teaching of virtue or of
truth (positive education) but in the preservation of heart from vice
and the mind from error.
In his own words, “I call a positive education one that tends to
form the mind prematurely and to instruct the child in the duties
that belong to man. I call negative education one that strives to
make perfect the organs that are the instruments of knowledge
and endeavors to prepare for reason, by the proper exercise of
the senses.” Since at the earlier stage mind is premature to receive
direct knowledge, he introduced negative education.
Negative education consists of the following
characteristics:
(i) Rousseau did not think it proper for the children to save time for an
intensive study of books. Let them run, jump, hop and play all day
long so that they would acquire knowledge in right opportune
moment.
(ii) ‘No book learning’ is another feature of negative education.
Rousseau did not believe in imparting education with the aid of
books.
He said, “I hate books because they are a curse to children. They
teach us to talk only that which we do not know. Instead of making
the child stick to his books, I keep him busy in the workshop; his
hands will work to the profit of his mind.” He wanted children learn by
their own efforts and their experience-the real master of man and
children.
(iii) Rousseau was against any formal lessons in the class, for they
are useless burden on the memory of the children and they are
treated as educational waste.
(iv) Rousseau was against habit formation of the child. The child
should not be a victim of habits. He says, “The only habit a child is to
form is not to form any habit at all.” Young children should be
discouraged to be made slaves of rigid habits. Discarding social
habits, he favored natural habits and let the child form natural habits.
(v) Since society was corrupt, Rousseau wanted children to remain
isolated from the evil influence of it and to educate them amidst
nature till their power of reasoning and judgement would come to the
acme of perfection.
(vi) Rousseau convinced that the child is the purest in nature and as
such there is no berth for any type of moral teaching. Let the child be
left to act and learn what is right or wrong by the consequences of his
own action.
He says, ‘‘Much more harm than good is done by your ceaseless
preaching and moralizing.” He says that morality is something which
is beyond the grasping power of children and the child will not commit
any immoral act.
(vii) Rousseau favours free and positive discipline. Let the children
learn by the result of their own actions without the intervention of
human beings. For example, if ‘Emile’ breaks a window pane, let him
suffer the resulting inconvenience or it is better for him to have a cold
as a result of his folly. If he climbs a tree, let him fall down and learn
not to repeat the act.
(viii) Rousseau was aversive to the prevailing system of education
which damped down the natural powers of the child. He
cried, “Follow the reverse of the current practice and you will
almost do right.”
He continued saying, “Give me a child of twelve who knows nothing
at all. At fifteen, I will restore him to you, knowing as much as those
who have been under instruction from infancy, with the difference that
your scholar only knows things by heart, while mine knows, how to
use this knowledge.”
Rousseau’s Philosophy: Naturalism
Naturalism was a negation of the Renaissance. The naturalistic
movement was a revolution in the educational theory and practice. It
was a landmark in the history of evolution of educational ideas. It
ended the one phase and marked the beginning of another. It was the
overthrow of the Renaissance concept of education which was formal
and bookish.
It was a revolt against the formalism of the 18th century and
especially against the artificiality of the French life. It was also a revolt
against the absolutistic tendency of the 18th century. There prevailed
an absolutism in every aspect of life — in politics, in religion, in
thought and in action.
Rousseau’s philosophy was influenced by three things — the state of
time, extremely varied experience of his life, and his emotional
nature. His philosophy was a reaction against the contemporary
social and political set-up which was saturated with formalism,
despotism and hypocrisy. Rousseau condemned the contemporary
systems and denounced civilization in most unequivocal terms.
He held society responsible for all evils, religion for all superstitions,
and social life for all snobbery and hypocrisy that pervaded all
around. All governments, he declared, were despotic and tyrannical,
and man was a victim of prejudices and conventions.
The keynotes to his philosophy are his concepts of “State of Nature”,
“Natural Man”, and “Natural Civilization”. “Civilized Man”, says
Rousseau, “is born, lives and dies in a state of slavery.” Rousseau
wanted men to be free from the bondage of society by educating
them not for citizenship but for manhood. He believed that civilization,
the arts and all human institutions had pernicious effect.
Man, he believed, would have been happier if he had been allowed to
remain in his primitive stage as a creature of feeling. Man had
brought misery to himself by his own inventions. Rousseau, therefore,
stated that these inventions should be scrapped off and the man
would become happier.
Rousseau’s philosophy is usually termed “Naturalism”. He contended
that all the ills and miseries of civilization are due to a departure from
a state of Nature. “Everything is good as it comes from the hands of
the Author of Nature; but everything degenerates in the hands of
man” — declared Rousseau in the opening sentence of Emile.
Return to Nature, therefore, was his method to cure the world of
troubles. Life according to Nature was genuine. It recognized the
worth of the individual on his own merits. His ideal of the State of
Nature was, “a simple farming community or state without evils.”
Tradition believed that human nature was evil and must be disciplined
or changed. Rousseau said that human nature is essentially good
and should be allowed to develop freely. Education, therefore, must
be in harmony with original and unspoiled human nature. By nature,
here Rousseau meant native instincts, tendencies and capacities.
He held that learning takes place best when the child is free to
develop and grow according to his natural impulses. He was
convinced that the child’s original nature is good and pure. But since
the child is immature and unable to care for himself, education is
necessary.
The function of education is to preserve the child’s goodness and
purity without stain from the world. Human restraints and discipline
should be discarded. Rousseau was a hater of imposed authority. His
appeal is always to Nature as against artificial society. His naturalism
holds that the best learning comes from dealing with natural objects.
The catch-words of naturalism are freedom, growth, interest and
activity. All these words are well-known in the field of modern
progressive education.
Rousseau’s concept of Discipline
Rousseau opposed imposed discipline ‘leave the child free’. It is only
in free atmosphere that the child can develop his innate powers. No
punishment should be given to the child for improving his behaviour.
He advocated discipline by natural consequence. He remarked,”
Allow the child to suffer the natural results of his acts.” For example,
of the child puts his hand into fire, let him burn his hand and learn by
consequence”.
Jean Jacques Rousseau’s Views on Discipline:
Rousseau viewed discipline from the two angles.
Firstly, he strongly supported full freedom for the development of
innate potentialities of the child. He did not support any form of
external discipline. In other words, punishment was not the remedy to
correct the behaviour of the child for the child does not have right
conception of why punishment is given.
Secondly, this idea of Rousseau is corollary to the second meaning of
discipline, viz. discipline by natural consequence. In other words,
discipline should arise from the consequence of the conduct in a
natural way. For him, nature is a great teacher.
If children commit mistakes and violate the principles of nature, they
naturally invite the retribution of it. This is his idea of discipline by
natural consequences He made it clear by saying, “children should
never receive punishment as such; it should always come as natural
consequences of their fault.” Therefore, he cried “Leave him (child)
alone.”
CONTRIBUTION OF DR. MONTESSORI IN
EDUCATION

What is Montessori Education?

Montessori is a method of education named after Dr. Maria
Montessori. She was the first woman in Italy to obtain the degree of
Doctor of Medicine. Because she was a doctor, Maria Montessori
looked at education from a scientific level. She believed that
education should prepare a person for all aspects of life. She
designed materials and techniques that would promote a natural
growth of learning in students. They are common to all Montessori
classrooms. Working with these materials and techniques forms a
pattern that children carry over naturally to reading, writing, and
mathematics. Each skill is developed to interlock with another.
From the American Montessori Society:
The Montessori Method of education, developed by Dr. Maria
Montessori, is a child-centered educational approach based on
scientific observations of children from birth to adulthood. Dr.
Montessori’s Method has been time tested, with over 100 years of
success in diverse cultures throughout the world.
It is a view of the child as one who is naturally eager for knowledge
and capable of initiating learning in a supportive, thoughtfully
prepared learning environment. It is an approach that values the
human spirit and the development of the whole child—physical,
social, emotional, cognitive.
Montessori education offers our children opportunities to develop
their potential as they step out into the world as engaged, competent,
responsible, and respectful citizens with an understanding and
appreciation that learning is for life.
Each child is valued as a unique individual. Montessori
education recognizes that children learn in different ways, and
accommodates all learning styles. Students are also free to
learn at their own pace, each advancing through the curriculum
as he is ready, guided by the teacher and an individualized
learning plan.
Beginning at an early age, Montessori students develop
order, coordination, concentration, and
independence. Classroom design, materials, and daily routines
support the individual’s emerging “self-regulation” (ability to
educate one’s self, and to think about what one is learning),
toddlers through adolescents.
Students are part of a close, caring community. The multi-
age classroom—typically spanning 3 years—re-creates a family
structure. Older students enjoy stature as mentors and role
models; younger children feel supported and gain confidence
about the challenges ahead. Teachers model respect, loving
kindness, and a belief in peaceful conflict resolution.
 Montessori students enjoy freedom within limits. Working
within parameters set by their teachers, students are active
participants in deciding what their focus of learning will be.
Montessorians understand that internal satisfaction drives the
child’s curiosity and interest and results in joyous learning that is
sustainable over a lifetime.
Students are supported in becoming active seekers of
knowledge. Teachers provide environments where students
have the freedom and the tools to pursue answers to their own
questions.
Self-correction and self-assessment are an integral part of
the Montessori classroom approach. As they mature,
students learn to look critically at their work, and become adept
at recognizing, correcting, and learning from their errors.
Montessori Philosophy Basic Principles-The
Montessori education approach is now being successfully employed
among preschools and elementary schools in nearly every country of
the world. Its principles are relevant for all preschool kids irrelevant of
their abilities and special needs.
Here are basic principles for guiding essential child’s development:
Freedom is the key to self-discipline
Each child is a unique human being with specific skills, capacities and
interest. Respect for kids’ freedom to choose the way they learn and
follow their inherent impulses is the most crucial principle in
Montessori education. Kids are wrongly believed to be innately
unruly. Remarkably, child’s self-discipline comes from freedom.
Kids act independently and work with materials that appeal to him/her
and as much time as they want without need to get on with other kids.
Montessori preschoolers are free to walk across the classroom at
their own wish and interact with peers when they need to share their
exciting ideas, or even take on activities to learn for themselves.
Learning comes through intrinsic joy and self-correction
There is a widespread viewpoint that children learn through reward.
In the Montessori classroom, teachers appreciate and encourage
children’s input in tasks they perform, but they implicitly motivate
children to independently value results of their work. In other words,
kids should get intrinsic joy from realization that they have learnt
something new.
In the same way, Montessori teachers do not baldly show children’s
errors, but help them realize them. Moreover, the majority of sensorial
materials are designed to help children instantly identify and fix
mistakes while they happen.
Sensitive period is a source of natural development
We have already spoken about kids’ sensitive periods, when they are
especially susceptible to engage in some kind of activities and,
consequently, discover new skills. As a result of such activities, they
learn how to speak, use hands to perform desired tasks, express
thoughts and draw conclusions. Sensitive periods are limited time,
and the role of a teacher (or a parent) is to recognize it and ensure
children with a properly arranged environment for successful learning.
Learning is hands-on experience
The best way to help kids makes sense of the world is to get them
involved in practical activities meant to resemble routine tasks. As we
know, children are prone to imitate activities they have observed.
Therefore, the goal of Montessori education is to show how to
perform tasks, so that children develop their way to implement them
on their own. During practical life classes, preschoolers learn how to
brush teeth, get dressed, prepare snack, clean up after themselves,
and so on. These skills help them become confident and get ready for
the life of adolescence.
Nature inspires children
Nature is a source of inspiration for the little ones. That’s why the
Montessori classroom is a place, where natural materials prevail –
wooden pyramids and tablets, paper cards, reeds, geometry metal
items and so on. According to Dr. Montessori, nature helps children
perceive reality. There is a great number of active learning and
adventure sessions at the Montessori preschool that take place in the
fresh air rather in the classroom.
 Social environment prepares children for life among people
Montessori sessions are held in multi-age groups. In the traditional
education model, children are grouped by age, whereas during
Montessori classes, they constantly interact with younger and older
kids. Younger preschoolers learn from those who are older, and older
children reinforce their skills by showing what they have already
grasped to younger ones. It is not completion, but cooperation that
dominates in such mixed groupings. Social interaction is supported
by a well-arranged environment, where a kid satisfies various
developmental needs.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Montessori
Education
There have been many early childhood education types of research
over the years. It is known that children have different mind and they
learn differently, so there would be various methods and theories of
education teachers can engage in their classroom. Among these
methods, one popular method is Montessori Education. It was
established by Dr. Maria Montessori in 1907. It is a child-centric
education method that includes child-oriented activities, classrooms
with children of different age groups and educators who inspire
freedom among their learners.
The Montessori education system is founded on the belief that
children learn best in their own way and at their own pace. To allow
them to do this, Montessori schools of nursery allow children to
discover a set of educational games and toys as they choose in an
unstructured manner. Each class contains children with three-year
age group so that older children and younger children can learn from
one another. A Montessori education may be the most
suitable primary education for your kids. Defining what method of
education philosophy, you want to adopt can be tough and it is very
significant to consider all features. Look at these Montessori
education’s pros and cons that can help you to start:
1. It provides hands-on learning
Montessori classrooms are to some extent well-known for their
beauty. In this classroom design, lots of sunlight and enough space
are important in the design of the classroom. All this for providing
children a beautiful and friendly atmosphere as kids can direct their
own learning with the help of exactly intended learning benefits. This
environment helps children to understand complicated vocabulary
and detection of intellectual thoughts through the use of objects
designed for the purpose. One great thing about this education is that
it permits learners to work, grow and learn at their own pace. This
education system helps children to explore activities, lessons, and
things that build upon their expertise, and they develop them as an
individual. All these things provide learners with the chance to
improve their coordination and concentration along with more
traditional academic learning.
2. Enhanced Social Interaction
Kids are captivated by what other kids achieve. Montessori education
provides it by grouping children of different age groups together in the
same environment. Most of the Montessori classrooms are mixed-
age and aimed to develop peer to peer group. The mixed aged
groups authorize children to learn from each another, communicate
one another and improve life skills like acceptance and inclusion.
3. Learning Environment
Montessori education provides a unique learning environment for
children in whom they can learn with fun and interest. The multi-age
learning environment is unique and a key factor to this educational
method. Younger children have a great opportunity to develop their
social, communication, leadership and emotional skills by working
with older children. Older children also benefited from this approach.
4. It develops soft skills
The Montessori philosophy inspires learners to enhance their soft
skills and the countless life skills such as responsibility,
independence, fairness, adaptability, and positivity. Montessori
educators believe that allowing children to describe the ways they
spend time their classroom help them to be self-independent in a
future life. Various researchers show that students of Montessori
nursery students do have superior soft skills in comparison to other
children of their age group displaying better behavior and greater
inclination to cooperate and collaborate with their peers.
5. It provides independence
Montessori education system offers a sense of confidence and
creativity that develops knowledge and skills of students like self-
confidence, sense of freedom and confidence in their abilities.
Students of Montessori education have a tendency to be more
competent to manage them and think freely.
Disadvantages
Obviously, this is not to say that every experience of Montessori
education will be virtuous. On one side, educators, classmates, and
administration can influence your experience for better or for worse.
On the other side, there are some factors of the Montessori beliefs
that can reason concerns for some. These are some disadvantages
of Montessori education:
1. Its Expensive
For Montessori schools, it is very hard to keep their prices low. The
acquisition of many long-lasting and first-class learning materials
along with lengthy and thorough training in the use of such items for
young children is an expensive undertaking. That is why the
programs of Montessori education are so expensive.
2. Independence is not always helpful
Montessori education is very strong in developing a sense of freedom
and self-guided work. But the situations are not always like that. The
mindset it provides can be valuable in some ways but on the other
hand, it can also make it tough to cooperate in groups and work
under a severe authority.
3. There isn’t enough opportunity
It is clear that the interaction in Montessori classrooms is different
from the traditional classrooms. However, the interaction it provides is
far more meaningful. The learning environment used in the classroom
allows kids to interact more freely in comparison to traditional
classrooms. But in contrast, interaction is far less structured and
spontaneous.
4. Small Student Community
In Montessori classroom environment students are in a small
community and spend their time with the same peers. This can
translate to kids to develop amazing friendships or it can be an
obstacle to the development of the social skills. Students have a
limited reach to the social activities in the Montessori education
system. Montessori is a lifestyle and it is not only a method of
education. Before decide to go for Montessori, make sure you will
completely embrace the lifestyle and are willing to make changes to
the environment.

Making a decision on a Montessori environment needs thought and

commitment, but it will eventually be a beneficial one for children as
well as for their parents. Parents should make a decision after
considering advantages and disadvantages of Montessori education.
It is very important to find the right school as they can vary in different
ways. Make sure to be diligent in your research to find the right
school to help your child achieve success.
The Montessori Method encourages self-directed learning through
exploration and play. We help children learn through a variety of
specially developed materials. These materials may look like fun toys,
but they are designed to help your child learn and master difficult
concepts.
Here are some of the most common learning materials you might see
in a Montessori classroom.
1. Movable Alphabet
Most children learn to read between the ages of four and seven. In
order to become comfortable with reading, children first need to
become comfortable with letters and words.
That’s where the movable alphabet comes into play. Children form
colorful, three-dimensional letters into words. Rather than just seeing
the words on a page, children get to manipulate the letters with their
hands. This hands-on interactive play makes learning easier.
2. Pink Tower
The pink tower is a set of ten blocks in increasing sizes. Children
stack the blocks in size order.
By using the senses of both seeing and touching, children learn how
to compare objects of different sizes and dimensions. This sharpens
early mathematical skills like measuring and comparing.
3. Sound Cylinders
It’s important for children to develop and hone all five senses,
including the sense of listening. Each cylinder is filled with different
materials, some louder than others. Children can shake the cylinders
and place them in order of softest to loudest.
4. Hands-On Tasks
What better way to teach children how to complete daily tasks then
by letting them explore fun hands-on activities? Some common
Montessori hands-on tasks include:
Pouring and scooping
Watering flowers
Ironing
Opening bottle caps
Washing clothes
Gluing paper
Sweeping
Washing a window
These tasks help children learn important motor skills while they
explore the environment around them.
5. Dressing Frames
Learning important motor skills like tying shoes and buttoning buttons
can be difficult for little hands. Montessori Method founder Maria
Montessori created dressing frames that schools still use today.
Some of these dressing frames have buttonholes that children can
practice buttoning and unbuttoning. Others allow children to tie and
untie laces and bows, zip and unzip zippers, and fasten and unfasten
buckles.
6. Puzzle Maps
It can be difficult to learn geography by merely looking at a map. With
wooden puzzle maps, children get to actually move and arrange
different countries, continents, and states. This gives them a
complete view of the world around them.
7. Classification Cards
Classification cards help children learn the names of different objects
in their world. The objects become more advanced depending on the
skill level of the child.
Each object comes with three cards. One card has a picture of the
object, a second card has the name of the object, and a third card
(the control card) has both the picture and the name. Children match
the picture and name together and compare it to the control card.
Classification cards can also help children learn more complicated
concepts, such as the parts of planet Earth.
8. Beads
Beads come in various sizes and arrangements: single beads sitting
alone, rods consisting of ten beads, flats consisting of ten rods, and
cubes consisting of ten flats. When it comes to teaching children
math, beads have a variety of intriguing uses.
One of the most common uses of beads is to teach children about the
decimal system. For example, when children place the cube of 1000
beads in the 1000 decimal spot, they can quickly visualize what this
number represents.
Another use for beads is to teach geometry. Children use the various
bead arrangements to visualize the different aspects of a geometric
shape. For example, the rod represents a line and the cube
represents a solid.
9. Binomial Cube
These ingenious cubes help children develop advanced mathematical
skills. They consist of eight wooden blocks that fit together. They can
teach different math concepts depending on the child’s age.
The youngest children can learn about patterns simply by organizing
the pieces as a puzzle. Older children, however, use the cubes to
visualize algebraic equations. For example, a red cube represents
a3 and a blue cube represents b3. Children use these blocks to create
a visual representation of each equation.
10. Checkerboard
Like the binomial cube, the checkerboard helps children learn
advanced mathematics. In this case, it helps children learn
multiplication. Each row and column represent a different value.
Children place beads on the checkerboard in the correct places. This
helps them visualize the result of each multiplication problem.
In a Montessori classroom, your children aren’t just sitting and
listening to a lecture. They’re actually interacting with their
environment to grow and learn. Make sure your child’s school offers a
variety of different learning materials catered to different ages and
skill levels.
 Contribution of John Dewey to
Education
John Dewey was an American philosopher, psychologist, and
educational reformer whose thoughts have great influence in
education and social reform. Dewey is best known for his writings on
education. But he also has written about many other topics, including
experience, logic, ethics, inquiry, democracy, nature, and art. John
Dewey, one of the greatest American modern thinkers, theorists, and
educators.
John Dewey's Philosophy of Education
Dewey defines education as the ' development of all those capacities
in the individual which will enable him to control his environment and
fulfill his possibilities". It is a process that begins with the very birth of
the child and goes on throughout the whole life. It is a process that
has two sides- one psychological and the other sociological.

The main aims of education as advocated by

Dewey are: -
Social Efficiency: According to Dewey the development of social
efficiency is one of the aims of education. To him, school is a social
institution. The school should be organized in such a way that the
activities of the outer world are reflected.

Education is life: Dewey emphasizes that education is not a

preparation for life, it is life itself. The child lives in the present.
The future is meaningless to him. Hence it is absurd to expect
him to do things for some future preparation.

Education is experience: Dewey favoured an education by, of

and for, experience. Every new experience in education. An old
experience is replaced by a new experience. The human race
he gained experience in its struggle to meet the needs of life.
This ' struggle for existence ' is a continuous process.

Education should combine theory & practice: The aim of

education, according to Dewey should create a balance between
theoretical and practical activities. He has stressed equal
importance to both actions and thought. These two should go
hand in hand.
Dewey on School Curriculum
• Dewey advocates that broader curricular programmes are needed
and emphasis should be placed in the total development of the
person as being equally important as the intellectual and the
academic.
• The teacher is a guide and director he steers the boat, but the
energy that people it must come from those who are learning. The
more a teacher is aware of the past experience of students of their
hopes, desires, chief interests the better will be.
• The teacher is engaged not simply in the training of individuals but
in the formation of the proper social life. In this way, the teacher
always is the prophet of the true God.
Dewey's Method of Teaching
Dewey's method of teaching is based on his pragmatic philosophy.
He is of the opinion that direct experience is the basis of all methods.
Knowledge takes place from concrete and meaningful situations.
Hence knowledge should come from the spontaneous activities of the
children. Dewey's method of teaching is based on the principles of
learning by doing activities in connection with the life of the child.

The project or problem method which Dewey advocated, the child's

interests and purposes are the most important things.

For his problem or project method, Dewey laid down the following five
steps as essential.

(1) The pupil should have a genuine situation of experiences.

(2) A genuine problem should arise from this situation and should
stimulate the thinking of the child.
(3) The child should obtain information or make observations needed
to deal with the problems.
(4) The suggested solution(s) should occur to him.
(5) He should have an opportunity to test his ideas by the application.
Dewey's contribution to educational thought and
practice
(1) Dewey's social theory of education coupled with the logic of the
experimental method has been very influential in the development of
modern education practices.
(2) The greatest change has been in the recognition of the worth of
the expense of the child. The child is no longer regarded as a passive
subject meant for the imposition of external information but is
considered an active living being those interests have to be
stimulated by participation in the socially significant experience.
(3) Dewey has been one of the significant leaders who have tried to
introduce a more human touch in the processes of education.
(4) He has been a powerful influence in interpreting the school as a
common for the realization of the significance of the immediate
experiences and present opportunities of the child if he is to be a
contributor to the march of the social process.
(5) His insistence on activities of diverse kinds in school is also the
other aspect of his social theory of education.
(6) The pragmatic method of instrumentality experimentation reacts
against all kinds of mysticism, transcendentalism, and absolutism.
(7) The supreme contribution of Dewey to a philosophy of education
is the theory of scientific democratic humanism.
(8) Dewey is quite right in pleading for the wide use of the
experimental method of science in education.

Dewey’s Methods of Teaching:

Dewey’s methods of teaching consist of three processes:
(1) Continuance of psychological order in the curriculum;
(2) Retention of problem or project method;
(3) Extension of social opportunity.
The first is natural and, therefore, essential. The second would
enable the pupils to learn “not things but the meaning of things.” The
third would arouse social consciousness. Dewey’s methods of
teaching are based on his pragmatic philosophy.

He is of opinion that direct experience is the basis of all methods.

Knowledge takes place from concrete and meaningful situations.
Hence, knowledge should come from the spontaneous activities of
the children. Dewey’s methods of teaching are based on the
principles of ‘learning by doing’, activities in connection with the life of
the child. In his method, what a child does is the most important thing.

In the Project or Problem Method, which Dewey advocated, the

child’s interests and purposes are the most important things. For his
Problem or Project Method, Dewey laid down the following five steps
as essential:

(1) The pupil should have a genuine situation of experiences;

(2) A genuine problem should arise from this situation and should
stimulate the thinking of the child;
(3) The child should obtain information or make an observation(s)
needed to deal with the problem(s);
(4) The suggested solution(s) should occur to him;
(5) He should have an opportunity to test his ideas by the application.

Dewey’s Conception of Democracy in Education:

According to Dewey, democracy means “equality of opportunity for
everyone; it means the emancipation of the mind as an
individual organism to do its own work.” It means freedom of
thought as well as action. But freedom does not mean unrestricted
freedom.

It includes responsibility also. Dewey wants that education should

reflect democratic rights. They should have some say in matters of
school organization, selection of textbooks, the methodology of
teaching, etc.

The school authorities should not dictate these matters. The students
should also enjoy learning freedom. A democratic system of
education aims at the development of individuality without obstacles
from outside. This development means self-directed development.

In a democratic system of education, the children will be trained to

think, to act, to develop qualities of initiative, independence, and an
intelligent citizen. As regards methods, the children will actively
participate in the learning process. They will not be passive recipients
of knowledge. In a democracy, the child’s views will be honored.
Discipline in a democratic system of education will be free and
through self-government in the school.

JOHN DEWEY ESSAY ON PEDAGOGIC CREED

In My Pedagogic Creed, John Dewey talks about two sides of the
educational process, one psychological and one sociological. Dewey
makes the case that the psychological and sociological sides are
“organically related and that education cannot be regarded as a
compromise between the two, or a superimposition of one upon the
other.” For growth to be healthy, both sides must develop in tandem,
not in isolation or one before the other.
What Dewey refers to as the “psychological” side of the educational
process, we would call individual cognitive development. Dewey felt
that most schools and educators focus exclusively on this
psychological side, while ignoring the sociological side. But in
isolation, individual cognitive development is “barren and formal   —  
that it gives us only the idea of a development of all the mental
powers without giving us any idea of the use to which these powers
are put.” In other words, trying to transform education by doubling
down on cognitive development is only making things worse. What’s
missing from schools is the sociological side of the educational
process.
Dewey spends a lot of time discussing how this sociological side
might be embedded into schools and learning because he’s trying to
correct a perceived imbalance. However, he’s careful to point out that
focusing too much on the sociological side, while ignoring the
psychological side, is equally as bad. Both sides must go hand-in-
hand. As we develop our mental powers, we must have opportunities
to put those powers to real use. And as we run into new and complex
real-world problems to solve, we must have opportunities to develop
the mental powers to meet those challenges. If the sociological side
artificially outpaces the psychological side in school, kids are pushed
beyond their ZPDs, and bad things happen.
Most progressive educators agree with Dewey: for generations,
educators (including researchers and policymakers) have focused
almost exclusively on individual cognitive development, so now we
must bring balance to the educational process by focusing on the
sociological side. But this assumes that all of that research on the
cognitive side has produced useful results, that we know what we’re
doing when it comes to cognitive development. Your article points out
how that isn’t actually the case. While we’ve put most of our energy
into figuring out the cognitive side, the science of cognitive
development is nowhere close to being useful as real science.
Focusing on the sociological side because we assume the
psychological side is already fairly advanced is a huge mistake.
I fully support your vision for pedagogy (paraphrased from John
Shotter):
Oriented toward the future, students and teachers should focus their
joint conceptual horizons at a point in developmental time that can’t
be seen clearly today, but that one can be reasonable expect to
achieve. Because many aspects of this developmental journey are
both precarious and dependence on future actions, this joint vision
can’t be wishful thinking, but must be clearly framed in terms of
privileges and obligations. At its best, this is a methods for making
both student and teacher visible to each other in a way that is
rational, meaningful and conducted in an ontologically responsible
manner; that is, in a way that is true to who we as students want to
become and also to reflect the hopes of our teachers on that
becoming.
But I know that neither students nor teachers have the mental tools to
make this vision a reality—at least without substantial tool
development. And that’s going to require more work on the
cognitive/psychological side, which kind of drives progressive
educators crazy. I see vertical learning as blending Dewey’s
psychological and sociological sides. Meanwhile, progressive
educators fixate on the cognitive components in vertical learning and
can’t fathom why they’re there. They get so pissed off at me, they
assume I must be opposed to Dewey and in thrall to the
psychological side. They can’t see that the sociological side is also
there—and in harmony with the psychological.
Don’t assume that the cognitive development stuff we have now is
close to adequate. Introducing the sociological without putting far
more work into the psychological will simply push everyone beyond
their ZPDs. We currently don’t know how to develop the mental tools
we’d need to make your vision a reality, and those tools won’t
develop just by putting students and teachers in the right sociological
context.
So far, you have a theory, but it isn’t pragmatic. You know nothing
about the context required to make this useful. Vertical learning, on
the other hand, is pragmatic. It exists in the real world in real
contexts. I don’t understand those contexts yet, but I’m studying them
in an effort to figure out the important variables. And this provides me
with some insight into the context we’d need to make your vision a
reality.
John Dewey’s My Pedagogic Creed is written during a period when
the industrial revolution was strong and rampant. The education
system at the time seemed to be aimed at producing as many
workers as possible to increase the wealth of the economy by
teaching a specific set of curriculums that disregarded the child’s
psychological and social needs.
Dewey says that education is comprised of both psychological and
social factors and that it can only be effective if these two factors are
taught synergistically; they are mutually exclusive and one without the
other would be disastrous to the student. Dewey creates an effective
argument through the use of inductive reasoning, which provides his
audience of teachers, administrators, and anyone in a position to
reform the education system, a clear argument that’s easily
understandable. To persuade the audience that education is a
human, psychological, and social experience, Dewey uses repetition,
corrective measures, and a last resort.
John Dewey uses inductive reasoning in many paragraphs and as the
Titles of each article. The first sentence or paragraph acts as a thesis
and states a main point as the body of the paragraph then expands
on that point or idea, breaking it up into smaller segments to provide
the audience some context and understanding into his thinking.

RABINDRANATH TAGORE’S ESSAY

“My School”
Audio
I started a school in Bengal when I was nearing forty. Certainly, this
was never expected of me, who had spent the greater portion of my
life in writing, chiefly verses. Therefore, people naturally thought that
as a school it might not be one of the best of its kind, but it was sure
to be something outrageously new. Being the product of daring
inexperience.
This is one of the reasons why I am often asked what the idea upon
which my school is based is. The question is a very embarrassing
one for me, because to satisfy the expectation of my questioners.
In the first place, I must confess it is difficult for me to say what the
idea, which underlies my institution is. For the idea is not like a fixed
foundation upon which a building is erected. It is more like a seed,
which cannot be separated and pointed out directly, it begins to grow
into a plant.
Those days were unhappy ones for me I cannot altogether ascribe to
my peculiar temperament or to any special demerit of the schools to
which I was sent. It may be if I had been a little less sensitive. I could
gradually have accommodated myself to the pressure and survived
long enough to earn my university degrees. But all the same schools
are schools. Though some are better and some are worse, according
to their own standard.
The young mind should be saturated with the idea that it has been
born in a human world, which is in harmony with the world around it.
And this is what our regular type of school ignores with an air of
superior wisdom, severe and disdainful. It forcibly snatches away
children form a world full of mastery of God’s own handiwork, full of
the suggestiveness of personality. It is a mere method of discipline,
which refuses to take into account the individual. For according to the
school life is perfect when it allows itself to be treated as dead, to be
cut into symmetrical conveniences. And this was the cause of my
suffering when I was sent to school. For all of a sudden, I found my
world vanishing from around me, giving place to wooden benches
and straight walls staring at me with the blank stare of the blind. I was
not a creation of the school master; the Government Board of
Education was not consulted when I took birth in the world. But was
that any reason why they should wreak their vengeance upon me for
this oversight of my creator? My mind had to accept the tight-fitting
encasement of the school which, being like the shoes of a mandarin
woman, pinched and bruised my nature on all sides and at every
movement. I was fortunate enough in extricating myself before
insensibility set in.
However, it is certain that children did not bargain for this muffled and
screened world of decency when they were ready to be born upon
this earth. If they had any idea that they were about to open their
eyes to the sunlight, only to find themselves in the hands of the
education department till they should lose their freshness of mind and
keenness of sense, they would think twice before venturing upon their
career of humanity. It was a special arrangement for giving lessons.
It could only be suitable for grown up people who were conscious of
the special need of such places and therefore ready to accept their
teaching at the cost of dissociation from life. But children are in love
with life, and it is their first love, all its color and movement attract
their eager attention. Children are not born ascetics, fit to enter at
once into the monastic discipline of acquiring knowledge.
But society has made its own arrangements for manipulating men’s
minds to fit its special patterns. These arrangements are so closely
organized that is difficult to find gaps through which to bring in nature.
There is a serial adjustment of penalties, which follows to the
end one, who ventures to take liberty with some part of the
arrangements, even to save his soul. This is why when I had to face
the problem of my own son’s education, I was at a loss to give it a
practical solution. The first thing that I did was to take him away from
the town surroundings into a village and allow him the freedom of
primeval nature as far as it is available in modern days. He had a
river, noted for its danger, where he swam and rowed without check
from the anxiety of his elders. He spent his time in the fields and on
the trackless sand-banks, coming late for his meals without being
questioned. For which privations I am sure, he was pitied and his
parents blamed by the people for whom society has blotted out whole
world. I for my part believe in the principle of life, in the soul of man
more than in methods. I believe that the object of education is the
freedom of mind, which can only be achieved through the path of
freedom-though freedom has its risk, and responsibility as life itself
has. I know it for certain, though most people seem to have forgotten
it, that children are living beings-more living than grown-up people
who have built their shells of habit around them. Therefore, it is
absolutely necessary for their mental health and development that
they should not have mere schools for their lessons, but a world
whose guiding spirit is personal love. It must be an ashram where
men have gathered for the highest end of life, in the peace of nature;
where life is not merely meditative, but fully awake in its activities.
Where boys minds are not being perpetually drilled into believing that
the ideal of the self-idolatry of the nation is the truest ideal for them to
accept: where they are bidden to realize man’s world as God’s
kingdom to whose citizenship they have to aspire; where the sunrise
and sunset and the silent glory of stars are not daily ignored; where
nature’s festivities of flowers and fruit have their joyous recognition
from man; and where the young and the old, the teacher and the
students, sit at the same table to take of their daily food and the food
of their eternal life.

****

Sheet for Students (Extra Notes)

 6.1 SOCIAL EQUALITY
It means that all citizens in a society must be treated at par with each
other and there will be no discriminatory treatment on the ground of
race, sex, religion, education, caste etc. The Preamble of our
Constitution aims at social equality and the directive principles of
state policy further strengthens our cherished ambition. The division
of society by ‘Mandal’ and ‘Mandir’ is not in conformity with the goal
set by the makers of the constitution. They are used by nasty
politicians to create vote banks for them and to gain cheap popularity
at the cost of national interest.
Characteristics of Equality:
1. Equality does not stand for absolute equality. It accepts the
presence of some natural dissimilarities.
2. Equality stands for absence of all unnatural manmade
inequalities and specially privileged classes in the society.
3. Equality assumes the grant and guarantee of equal rights and
freedoms to all the people.
4. Equality infers the system of equal and adequate opportunities
for all the people in society.
5. Equality means equal satisfaction of basic needs of all the
persons before the special needs', and luxuries of some persons
may be met.
6. Equality supports an equitable and fair distribution of wealth and
resources i.e. Minimum possible gap between the rich and poor.
7. Equality accepts the principle of protective discrimination for
helping the weaker sections of society. In the Indian political
system, right to equality has been given to all and yet there
stands incorporated provisions for granting special protection
facilities and reservations to persons belonging to scheduled
castes, scheduled tribes, other backward classes, minorities,
women, and children.

Specifically, Social equality stands for:

1. Absence of special privileges for any class or caste or religions
group or an ethnic group.
2. Prohibition of discrimination against any one on the basis of
caste, colour, creed, religion, sex and place of birth.
3. Free access to public places for all the people, i.e. no social
segregation.
4. Equality of opportunity for all people. It however accepts the
concept of protective discrimination in favour of all weaker
sections of society.

Contemporary theme of social equality is to eliminate gender

inequality, to ensure equal status and opportunities to the women and
to ensure equal rights of male and female children to live and
develop.
Promoting Equality of Educational Opportunities
in India
India is a democratic country. The success of democracy depends
upon education of its citizens. Education should aim at total
development of individual’s personality. Modem education is a
process of learning from real life and from the pulsating, dynamic
society around us. So, the learning from real life and from the
pulsating, dynamic society around us. So, the learning should be at
the choice and pace of the learner. It is only in this way that education
becomes relevant to life. So educational opportunities are to be
provided to individuals to develop their personalities into the fullest
extent.
The Constitution of India also writes for the provision of educational
opportunities to all peoples of the country. Since education is one of
the most important means for development, it is through education
that one can aspire to achieve higher status, position and emolument.
So, every individual should have similar opportunities for getting
education.
Ordinarily, equality of opportunity means to give equal chance to
every individual for the development of his capacity. The concept of
equality of opportunity can be interpreted in two ways such as
horizontal equality and vertical equality. The horizontal equality treats
all constituents in equal manner whereas the vertical equality requires
special consideration to bring about equality of opportunity.
There is a great need for emphasizing the equality of opportunity
in education due to the following reasons:
1. It is needed for the establishment of an egalitarian society.
2. It is needed because it is through the education to all people in a
democracy that the success of democratic institution is assured.
3. The equality of educational opportunities will ensure a rapid
advancement of a nation. When the people have opportunities to get
education, they will have a chance to develop their natural talent and
thus enrich the society.
4. The equality of educational opportunity will extend the search of
talent among all the people of a nation.
5. It will help to develop a close link between the manpower needs of
a society and the availability of skilled personnel.
Problems of equality of Educational
Opportunities:
In India there are some reasons which create inequality of
educational opportunities.
These reasons are:
1. Difference in economic status of home.
2. Gender disparities.
3. Regional Imbalance.
4. Physiological difference.
5. Difference in home conditions.
6. Disparity between backward and advanced classes.
7. Non-availability of adequate opportunities.
8. Difference in mental and physical abilities.
Measures taken for Equalization of Educational
Opportunity:
Equalization of educational opportunities has been one of the major
objectives of the successive Five-Year Plans. Considerable works in
this respect has been done through the programme of expansion of
educational facilities at the elementary, secondary and university
stages. For achieving the target of equality of educational opportunity
in India our efforts must be directed in many directions for recognizing
the educational system.
Some of these directions are as follows:
1. Constitutional Provisions:
On the basis of the constitutional provisions we must provide
compulsory elementary education to all children of the country.
Democracy, socialism, secularism, justice and equality are to a be
cultivated through the provision of equalizing educational opportunity
for establishing an egalitarian society.
2. Debarring restriction on admission in educational institutions:
Admission to educational institutions has been made available to all
irrespective of caste and religion.

3. Wide distribution of Institutions:

Educational institutions have been opened in large numbers in order
to provide opportunity to all for getting education.
4. Provision of Pre-school education:
In order to overcome wastage and stagnation in primary education,
Pre-school education is to be given priority. Pre-school education
centres like Balwadi, Anganwadi etc. have been opened and are to
be set up in large scale.
5. Provision of scholarship and other facilities:
Provision of free ship6 and scholarships are being made for the
backward and disadvantaged groups.
6. Special treatment for S.C., S. T. and Other Backward
Communities:
Special treatment as being made for S.C., S.T and Other Backward
Communities in relation to reservation of seats, provision of different
types of scholarships to ensure equality in education.
7. Residential School:
In tribal areas, residential schools or Ashram schools have been set
up. Kanyashram schools have been commissioned in the tribal areas
to facilitate education of girls.
8. Special education of the handicapped:
Steps have been taken for the education and training of blind, deaf,
orthopedically handicapped and educable sub-normal children by the
government and voluntary organizations.
The New Education Policy, 1986 lays special emphasis on removing
disparities and equalizing educational opportunity. To promote
equality, it will be necessary to provide for opportunity to all not only
in access but also in the conditions for success.
1. Major emphasis will be laid on women’s participation in vocational,
technical and professional education at different levels.
2. Numerous incentives, helps, benefits, facilities will be provided to
SC and ST population to equalize them with other developed
communities.
3. People of educational backward areas like rural areas, hill tracks
and desert areas will be given adequate institutional and
infrastructural facilities.
4. Minority community will be allowed to set up and administer their
own educational institutions.
5. Education for physically and mentally handicapped children should
be integrated with the general community as equal partner to prepare
them for normal growth and to enable them to face with courage and
confidence.
Truly speaking in-spite of all attempts in the direction of the national
goal-quality of opportunity, the result is not satisfactory. Hence in
order to accelerate in the progress of providing equality of
opportunity, incentive measures are to be properly implemented and
administrative structure has to be properly streamlined with a strong
will and determination. Various media, methods and materials are to
be utilized to fulfil the special needs of the deprived children of the
country.
 6.2 Social Change
Change means differentiation in anything observation over sometime.
If we feel that there's come alteration, we call it changes. It this
change is in contest to social structure, institution etc., i.e. social
context then it is social change.

According Fictor "Change means variations from previous state or

mode of existence".

Change is a universal phenomenon i.e. it is a law of native. There's

always a change in nature. Society is a part of nature & so society
also changes & static society is unthinkable. Society is on the wheel
of change, which may occur due to various factors (like demography,
ideas etc. If there is any change in Technology etc. there's change in
society) out the change varies in speed & farm.

In some places the change is rapid whereas in other places it may be

slow. These days due to industriation & urbanization the change is
rapid as compared to earlier times. The form may be economic,
political, social (instriation) religious (instriation), change in any part of
society affects all the other parts of society. E.g. an individual is the
fundamental unit of society & there's change in the life of the
individual which is called evolutionary process of social change (birth
to death).

This is a slow process.

According to Morris Ginsberg, “social change is a change in the
social structure.”

Auguste Comte the father of Sociology has posed two problems- the
question of social statics and the question of social dynamics, what is
and how it changes. The sociologists not only outline the structure of
the society but also seek to know it causes also.

Social change is a concept in sociology which talks about a change in

the established patterns of social relations, or change in social values
or change in structures and subsystems operating in the society. The
term social change is used to indicate the changes that take place in
human interactions and interrelations.

Definition of Social Change

Social change may be defined as the process which is discernible in
the alteration of the structure and functioning of a particular social
system. It is a term used to describe variation in, modifications of, any
aspect of social processes, social patterns, and social interaction
within a social organization. Usually social change refers to a
significant change in social behaviour or a change in social system
rather than minor changes within a small group.
Gillin and Gillin, “Social changes are variations from the
accepted modes of life; whether due to alternation in
geographical conditions, in cultural equipment, composition of
the population or ideologies and brought about by diffusion, or
inventions within the group.

Morris Ginsberg, “By social change, I understand a change in

social structure, e.g., the size of the society, the composition or
the balance of its parts or the type of its organization”.

Lundberg, “Social change refers to any modifications in the

established patterns of inter-human relationship and standard of
conduct.”
Ginsberg (By social change I understand a change in the social
structure).

Kingsley Doris "By social change is meant only such

alternations as occur in social organization i.e. the structure &
functions of society".

Merril & Elbridge "Social change means, that large no. of

persons are engaging in activities that differ from those which
they or their immediate fore-fathers engaged in some time
before."

Gillin & Gillin "Social changes are variations from the accepted
mode of life, whether due to alteration in geographical condition,
in cultural equipment, composition of the population. Or
ideologies & whether brought about by diffusion or inventions
within the group."

Jones' "Social change is a term used to describe variations in or

modification of any aspect of social process, social patterns,
social interaction or social organization."

M.D.Jenson – Describes –Social change as "modification in

ways of doing & thinking of people."
Characteristics of Social change
1. Social change is universal or it is an essential law.
2. Change with diff. in speed & form simple society … change was
slower.
3. Change is unpredictable in general Revolt is a process of social
change. What speed & in what form the change takes place is
not easily predictable.
4. Social change is change in community
5. Social change generally changes in direction. There are 3
patterns of social change.
a. linear failure change generally leads to progress (change for
good) can't cycle –car – train –plain
b. Fluctuating change – the change may be upward &
downward. The demographic change is such also economic
change,
c. Cyclical change – the change is in a cycle. Fashion,
sometimes also in economical aspect (Karl max gave this
idea. He says earlier there was no private property & we
may go back to it).
Factors of Social change

Biological
1. Demographic factors – Population plays an important
role in society it there is change in the composition of pop
there is change in society by composition we mean the
structure i.e. sex ratio. For balance in society the sex ratio
should be 1:1 and if there is change in the ratio there is
change in society if there are more females than the
status & position goes down (because in Polygene more
wives & the hubby now their status goes down). In the
other case the females position rises. The bride –price
increases (in the tribunal society).
2. Age group – childhood, adulthood, old age. If the
population of children is most then increase of population
will be slower. If adults more than there will be rapid
change in society cause they are the most regulative. In
case of old more there is conflict in society they don't wish
for change.
3. Marital status in production of children. If girls are
married young there will be over population & he health is
also in danger. Status of women becomes lower. And if at
too late a stage – a girl is married fertility is less. Changes
in demography – Birth rate & Death rate. Higher birth rate
creates a lot of problems. Malthus theme of population –
Economics. Over population-poverty unemployment
increases. Death – rate – man – power decreases.
4. Immigration & Emigration – 1 is coming into country, 2
– going out of the country. Causes cultural problems
leads to over population. 2 – Brain – drain is the problem.
5. Natural factors – now native affect society – National
calamities, floods, epidemics affairs society in its social
relationships (i) structure. People become selfish as
during scarcities they are more bothered feeding
themselves.
6. Technological factors
 7. Mechanization & social change – machines bring about
this gave women the chance to work gave rise to
women's tib.
a. Unemployment & such problems arose these affected
cottage industries. Urbanization – changed job
opportunities. Transport gave rise is social contacts.
Communication gives rise to greater awareness & is
beans of recreation too.
b. Atomic Energy & change

Cultural Factors
Write about concept of cultural tag by w.f Ougbourn book –
social change brings change. He says material & non – material
change. Usually non-material can't cope up with material changed &
gives rise to cultural lag.

Change in values ideas & custom's changes society

(Habits).
In handbook of Sociology, he said if may so happen that
material behind education, etc., too brings change in marriage system
etc.

1. ‘Development’, ‘evolution’ and ‘progress’ are the different modes

of change and whenever we speak of social change the
importance of each of these modes has to be assessed, for the
changes brought about by each of these processes will have
distinct impressions upon the functioning’s of social
phenomena. It has been understood that social change as a
term shall signify such changes as affect the nature and
structure of social groups and institutions and the social relations
between the individual, the group and the institutions in a
society.
2. External sources of social change are events that originate
outside of a society to bring about change to social institutions or
structures Internal sources of social change are those factors
that originate within a specific society that singly or in
 combination with other factors produce alterations in social
institutions and social structure. Social change can originate
from either within a society, or from outside of a society.

Characteristics of Social Change:

(1) Change is Social
(2) Universal
(3)Continuous
(4)Inevitable
(5)Temporal
(6)Degree or rate of change is not uniform
(7)Social Change may be planned or unplanned
(8)Social change is multi-causal
(9)Social change creates chain-reactions
(10)Prediction is uncertain

(1) Change is Social: Social change means a change in the

system of social relationship. Social relationship is understood in
terms of social process, social interactions and social organizations.
In any variation of social process, social interactions and social
organizations social change-takes place. In another instance it is
found that society is like an organization, which never dies. New
civilizations and societies come up by replacing old societies and
thereby retaining some of its elements in its change. Thus, social
change is different from individual change. Its cause and
consequences are always social which make it social.

(2) Universal: Social change is universal. Because it is present in all

societies and at all times. No society remains completely static. The
society may be primitive or modern, rural or urban, simple or
complex, agrarian or industrial, it is constantly undergoing change.
The rate or the degree of change may vary from society to society
from time to time but every society keeps on changing. A changeless
society is an unreality.

(3) Continuous: Social change is a continuous process but not an

intermittent process. Because the changes are neither stopped nor
the societies are kept in museum to save them from change. It is an
on- going process without any break. In the process of change every
society grows and decays, where it finds renewal and accommodates
itself to various changing conditions. The sources, direction, rate and
forms of change may vary time to time but it is always continuous.

(4) Inevitable: Change is inevitable. It is the human nature that

desires change and also it is his tendency to bring change and to
oppose or accept change. Human wants are unlimited which always
keep on changing. To satisfy these wants social change has become
a necessity not only to him but also to the society.

(5) Temporal: Social change is temporal. Change in anything or any

object or in a situation takes place through time. Sometimes some
social changes may bring about immediate results while some others
may take years to produce results. Similarly, some social changes
spread rapidly and also disappear rapidly. Movements, style, fashion
and cults are the examples of this type

(6) Degree or rate of change is not uniform: Though social change

is an ever-present phenomenon, its degree or rate or what we call the
speed is not uniform. It varies from society to society and even in the
same society from time to time. Sometimes the degree of change is
high and sometimes low depending upon the nature of society like
open and close, rural and urban and traditional and modern etc. For
example, in the rural social structure the rate of change is slower
because the rate of change is not governed by any universal law,
whereas it is quick in the urban societies.

(7) Social Change may be planned or unplanned: Social change

takes place sometimes with planning and sometimes without
planning. Social change which occurs in the natural course is called
the unplanned change. The unplanned changes are spontaneous,
accidental or the product of sudden decision. Usually the change
resulting from natural calamities like flood; drought, famines, volcanic
eruption, etc. are the instances of unplanned changes.
Here in this unplanned change there is no control on the degree and
direction of social change. It is the inborn tendency of human beings
that they desire change. So sometimes plans, programmes and
projects are made effective by them to bring change in the society.
This is called planned change. As it is consciously and deliberately
made, there is every possibility to have control on the speed and
direction of change. For example, the five years plan made by the
government.

(8) Social change is multi-causal: A single factor may cause a

particular change but it is always associated with a number of factors.
The physical, biological, demographical, cultural, technological and
many other factors interact to generate change. This is due to mutual
interdependence of social phenomenon.

(9) Social change creates chain-reactions: Social change

produces not a single reaction but chain-reactions as all the parts of
the society are inter-related and interdependent. For example, the
economic independence of women has brought changes not only in
their status but also a series of changes in home, family relationship
and marriages etc.

(10) Prediction is uncertain: We can see some elements for

prediction in social change. But the prediction we make is uncertain.
It is because of three reasons. They are:

(a) There is no inherent law of social change,

(b) The forces of social change may not remain on the scene for all
times to come, and
(c) The process of social change does not remain uniform. Apart from
the above characteristic features it may be said that social change
can be qualitative or quantitative. It is a value free term as it does
imply any sense of good or bad, desirable or undesirable. It is a
concept distinct from evolution, process and development which are
regarded as key concepts in the literature of social change.

Main factors of Social Change:

Demographic Factors: Demography plays an important role
in the process of social change. The term “demography” has been
derived from two Greek words, ‘Demos’ and ‘Graphs’ meaning the
“people” and to “draw” or “write” respectively which means scientific
study of human population, primarily with respect to their size,
structure and their development. In the study of social change
demographic factors have been viewed from two different angles.
They are the qualitative and quantitative.

Qualitatively speaking it refers to physical potentialities, mental

abilities etc. that are determined by genetic order, though the
hereditary quality of successive generation play some role in cultural
determination, it cannot be ascribed the place of a deterministic
cause of social change. But the demographic factor in its quantitative
aspect has been playing the most decisive role in causing social
change.
Biological Factors: Accordingly, biological factor plays an
important role in the causation of social change. An ordinarily
biological factor refers to those which are concerned with the genetic
constitution of the human beings. Human beings use animals, birds,
plants and herbs according to the direction of his own culture. At the
same time human beings protect themselves from different harmful
elements. If there is increase or decrease of these animals, birds,
plants etc. it will bring a number of changes in human society.

Rapid population growth influences our environment causes poverty,

food shortage and multiple health problems and thereby brings
changes in society. Migration accelerates the process of urbanization.
Urbanization creates multiple problems like slum, quality of health
and life style. Similarly, the nature and quality of human beings in a
society influences the rate of social change.

Cultural Factors: In sociology the word ‘Culture’ denotes

acquired behavior which are shared by and transmitted among the
members of the society. Man learns his behavior and behavior which
is learnt is called culture. Singing, dancing, eating, playing belong to
the category of culture. It includes all that man has acquired in the
mental and intellectual sphere of his individual and social life. It is the
expression of our nature, in our modes of living and thinking, in art, in
literature, in recreation and enjoyment. The basic elements of culture
like language, religion, philosophy, literature, faith and values will take
long time to change due to the influence of another culture. The co-
existence of two different cultures for a long period can cause cultural
diffusion leading to changes in both. India, for example, discarded
age long customs like Sati and Child marriage because of her contact
with the Europeans.

Technological Factors: The technological factors also play

important role in causing social change. It implies an appropriate
organization and systematic application of scientific knowledge to
meet the human requirements. Technology is a product of utilization.
When the scientific knowledge is applied to the problems of life, it
becomes technology. Technology is fast growing. Modern age is the
“Age of Technology”. Technology changes society by changing our
environments to which we In turn adopt. This change is usually in the
material environment and the adjustment that we make with these
changes often modifies customs and social institution initiates a
corresponding social change. Developments in the field of
transportation and communication reduced the social distance which
gave momentum to cultural diffusion and thereby to social change.

Environmental Factor: Due to floods, earthquake, excessive

rain, drought, change of season etc. We can find imbalance in
population which directly affects the social relationship and these are
modified by such natural occurrences. Variation in the availability of
water resources and mineral resources can also affect social change.
If we think about a person or an individual who is growing under the
roof of a particular society and he lives among different kinds of
people. So, the environment of society affects himself and as we
know that an individual is a part of society who brings social change.
Thus, environment factor brings social change.
Psychological factors: Some writers notice a psychological
process in the formation of society and, according to them, human
relations based on the considerations of the individual mind and the
group mind shape and mould social systems. Therefore, when
physical forces like floods, earthquakes and epidemics are
considered as factors causing social change, the importance of the
psychological factor in that regard cannot be ignored. Change in
attitude of society towards family planning, dowry, caste system,
women's education etc. which brought about radical changes in
society are primarily psychological in nature.

Other factors: In addition to above mentioned factors other

elements such as wars, ethnic tensions, competition for resources,
trade unionism, banking system, human rights movement, enhanced
environmental awareness etc. have resulted in wide spread social
variation and modification.

Necessity of Social Change

In a rapidly changing world, there is a growing awareness that we are
facing fundamental problems. In spite of all the economic growth of
the last forty years, the gap between the richest 1.5 billion and the
majority of the world’s people is actually growing, with over a billion
people in deep poverty and many hundreds of millions more living on
the margins. In such an era of an increasingly constrained and
divided world the need for progressive social change is obvious.
Indeed, unless we can adapt creatively and compassionately, then
prospects for a peaceful and stable world will rapidly fade.

EDUCATION AND SOCIAL CHANGE

Introduction- Change is the law of life, and changes in society are
always taking place. Changes may be slow, so slow that people may
not even perceive them, there are times when they are so rapid and
drastic. In all spheres of life things are changing in the economic
sphere, in the political fields, in the sphere of education and so on.
Social changes to a great extent are brought about through the
process of education.
Concept of Social Change- According to Davis: "By social change
is meant only such alterations as occur in social organization, that is,
structure and functions of society."
According to Gillin and Gillin : "Social changes are
variations from the accepted modes of life; whether due to
alterations in geographical conditions, in cultural
equipment, composition of the population, or ideologies and
whether brought about by diffusion or invention within the
group."
According to Jones: "Social changes are a term used to
describe variations in, or modifications of any aspect of
social processes, social patterns, social interaction or social
organization."
According to Fairchild: "Social change means variations or
modifications in any aspect of social processes, patterns or
form."
According to Jenson: "Social change may be defined as
modification in the ways of doing and thinking of people."
According to MacIver and Page: "Change in social
structure is social change." Social structure is the network
of relationship in a society involving social status, social
roles and social norms.
According to Dawson and Getty’s: "Cultural change is
social change, since culture is social in its origin."
According to Merril and Elbridge: "Social change means
that large number of persons are engaged in activities that
differ from those which they or their immediate forefathers
engaged in sometime before. When human behaviour is in
the process of modification that is only another way of
indicating that social change is occurring."
According to Ginsberg's view: "By social change I
understand change in social structures such as the size of
 a society, the composition or balance of its parts or the type
of its organization."
In the light of above definitions social change cannot be
defined as a new fashion or mode in the life of people or in the
operation of a society. Social change includes modification in social
techniques, relationships, behaviour patterns, folkways, more and
institutions, sometimes leading to change in philosophic outlook. In
other words, social change refers to change that occurs in the
structure and functioning of the social system comprising the
following areas:
· Social structures and institutions
· Roles performed by individuals
· Social relationships among people
· Patterns of social interactions
· Values and norms, and
· Functions of different groups and institutions.
· Hence, social change signifies social Growth, Social
Development, Social Evolution, Social Progress, Social Revolution,
Social Reform etc.
Role of the teacher in bringing social change:
Teacher is the central figure in any formal educational system.
He must respond to the duty. He is regarded as an effective agent of
social change. Any social change without teacher is a mere figment
of imagination. The teacher should know well the needs of the society
and the nature and direction of social change. The present
democratic society expects that the teacher should really act as an
agent of social change. Regarding his role, the following points need
special mention:

Model of modernity: In the process of social change

important role can be performed successfully by the teacher only
when he makes himself a model of modernity i.e., when he
himself imbibes modern values and allows them to manifest in
his own conduct. In other words, the following qualities should
be imbued in the behaviour of the teacher: scientific attitude,
rational thought, empathy, mobility, democratic style, sentiment
of respect for individual personality, secularism, faith in change
and transformation.

Competent and skilled: The teacher should be

competent and skilled because he is to lead the younger
generation, the future citizens of tomorrow.

Psychological climate: The teacher must prepare the

psychological climate favourable to new attitudes and values.

Reorientation: The teacher should reorientation himself to

accelerate the process of social change.

Suggestions for change: The teacher should come

forward with his wise suggestions of bring about social change.
He has to be ready for bringing about an implementing social
change. Apart from giving wise suggestions, the teacher should
welcome the positive changes taking place. He should welcome
what science and technology has bestowed on mankind and
inculcate proper attitudes and values in students. He is to
encourage non-formal education, technical education,
population education, inclusive education, adult education,
women education, education of the backward classes and
participate, actively in these activities in the larger interest of
social change.
Remove obstacles: The teacher is to help remove the
obstacles in the way of implementation of social change. The
Government wants social change by implementing family
planning. The teacher should help the Government by breaking
down the resistance of people to this programme.

Scientific attitude among students: The teacher

should develop a rational, curious, thoughtful, positive,
constructive and scientific attitude in his students by
encouraging debate and discussion in the class-room as well as
in co-curricular activities.

Secular attitude: The teacher should have secular attitude.

He should have respect for all religions. He should eschew all
caste, community and class considerations in dealing with
students and colleagues. If the teacher can modernize the entire
atmosphere of the school, he can give powerful impetus to the
process of social change because the students of today will
become the pillars of society of tomorrow.

National and international outlook: The teacher

should have national and international outlook. He should try to
inculcate emotional integration, national integration and
international understanding in the students.

Pupil-centered and community-centered

education: The teacher should impart pupil-centered, life-
centered and community-centered education. He should provide
opportunities for the maximum and best development of the
pupils. He should constantly strive to improve community life
 through the best possible use of material and human resources
of the school and community.

Use of modernized instructional

technology: The teacher should make effective use of
science and technology in the routine activities of the school and
in this way habituate students to their use and give them
practice in applying science and technology in other situations.
Kit-based instruction for teaching of science, language
laboratories for teaching languages, programmed learning for all
subjects, wise exploitation of radio and television lessons and
educational journals etc. to supplement class-room teaching are
essential steps.

Thus, it can be concluded that the teacher through his

multifarious roles and activities, can accelerate the process
of social change in a very powerful way. To quote E.W.
Gordon, "It is the task of the teacher to educate for change,
to educate through change and to educate for orderly
planned revolution, and if necessary, to educate through
revolutionary action.
Education as an instrument of social change:
Education is the most powerful instrument of social change. It
is through education that the society can bring desirable changes and
modernize itself. Education can transform society by providing
opportunities and experiences through which the individual can
cultivate himself for adjustment with the emerging needs and
philosophy of the changing society. A sound social progress needs
careful planning in every aspect of life– social, cultural, economic and
political. Education must be planned in a manner which is in keeping
with the needs and aspirations of the people as a whole
Indian Education Commission (1964-66) observed that
realization of country's aspirations involves changes in the
knowledge, skills, interests and values of the people as a whole. This
is basic to every programme of social and economic betterment of
which India stands in need.
The functions of education in the sphere of
social change are outlined as under:

Assistance in changing attitudes: Education helps to change

the attitudes of people in favour of modern ways of life and
develops attitudes which can fight prejudices, superstitions and
traditional beliefs. It can bring about a change in attitudes of
people in favour of small family towards rising above orthodox
values and socio-cultural barriers of caste and class and towards
religion and secularism. Education interacts with the process of
social development which is another name of social change.

Assistance in creating desire for change: Education creates a

desire for change in a society which is pre-requisite for any kind
of change to come. It makes people aware of social evils like
drinking, dowry, gambling, begging, bonded labour etc. and
creates an urge to fight and change such things. Education
makes under-privileged, down-trodden and backward people
aware of their lot and instills a desire to improve their conditions.
Thus, education creates a desire for change.

Assistance in adopting social change: Whenever some social

change occurs, it is easily adopted by some people while others
find it very difficult to adjust themselves to this change. It is the
function of education to assist people in adopting good changes.

Overcoming resistance to change: Certain factors create

resistance in the way of accepting social change. Education
helps in overcoming resistance.
Analysis in change: Education invests the individual with the
capacity to use his intelligence, to distinguish between right and
wrong and to establish certain ideals. Education determines the
values which act as a criterion for the analysis of social change.

Emergence of new changes: Education initiates, guides and

controls movements for social reform. Education helps in
agitating public opinion towards the abolition of many social
changes.

Leadership in social change: Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Swami

Dayanand Saraswathi, Swami Vivekananda, Mahatma Gandhi,
highly educated and enlightened Indians, made all efforts at
conscious level to bring about the social changes. Mahatma
Gandhi designed Basic Education to fight the ills of mass
illiteracy.

Advances in the sphere of knowledge: New researches and

inventions depends upon education, because only the educated
individuals can search for new things in every field. Thus,
education contributes to social change by bringing changes in
knowledge.

Perceptualizing eternal values: Education protects the eternal

values, promotes knowledge and acceptance in such a manner
that in spite of social changes, people in general keep faith in
these values.

Transmission of culture: Education is the creator, generator

and director of all social change. In short, education is a
preservative, consolidating, establishing and creative force.
 Stabilizing democratic values: Education is a weapon of
democracy. It can help in developing democratic attitudes and
values for better living. Democratic values such as liberty,
equality, fraternity, justice, tolerance, mutual respect, feeling of
brotherhood and faith in peaceful methods are stabilized through
education in free India. These values are helpful in bringing
about social change.

National integration: Education can prove very useful in

bringing about national integration which is the basis for unity
among people.

Economic prosperity: Education is the most important factor in

achieving rapid economic development and technological
progress and in creating a social order founded on the value of
freedom, social justice and equal opportunity.

National development: Education is the fundamental basis of

national development. Education is the powerful instrument of
economic, political, cultural, scientific and social change.

6.3 SOCIAL CONFLICT

Definition of Conflict
Conflict is an ever-present process in human relations. It has been
defined by A. W. Green “as the deliberate attempt to oppose, resist or
coerce the will of another or others. According to Gillin and Gillin,
“Conflict is the social process in which individuals or groups seek
their ends by directly challenging the antagonist by violence or threat
of violence.”
As a process, it is the anti-thesis of cooperation. Almost any human
action is likely to toward the hopes or interferes with the plans of
someone else. Such action becomes conflict, however, only if the
deliberate attempt is lo oppose. When a candidate secures a job, it
implies that the job is denied lo others.
But in the action of the successful candidate there is no deliberate
intent to oppose, resist or coerce and it cannot, therefore, be called a
conflict situation. Conflict is, in other words, a competition in its more
occasional, personal and hostile forms. It is a process of seeking to
obtain rewards by eliminating or weakening the competitors.

Through it, one party attempts to destroy or annihilate or at least

reduce to a subordinate position the other party. Further, though
normally violence is associated with conflict, it can occur without it.
Civil disobedience and nonviolent satyagraha with which Gandhiji
fought the British Imperialism are the best illustrations on the point.

According to Mazumdar, Conflict is opposition or struggle involving

(a) an emotional altitude of hostility as well as (b) violent interference
with one’s autonomous choice.
Briefly, the following characteristics of conflict
may be noted:
(i) Conflict is a conscious action. It is a deliberate intent to oppose.
(ii) Conflict is a personal activity.
(iii) Conflict lacks continuity.
(iv) Conflict is universal.

Characteristics:
On the basis of foregoing discussion, the following
characteristics (nature) of conflict, in brief, may be cited:

1. It is a universal process found in every society.

2. It is the result of deliberate and conscious efforts of individuals or
the groups.
3. The nature of the conflict is personal and direct. In conflict the
incumbents or participants know each other personally.
4. It is basically an individual’s process. Its aim is not directly
connected with the achievement of the goal or an objective but is
rather directed to dominate others or to eliminate the opponent.
5. Conflict is of brief duration, temporary and intermittent in character.
But, once begun, the conflict process is hard to stop. It tends to grow
more and more bitter as it proceeds. Being temporary, it gives way to
some form of accommodation.
6. It is a process loaded with impulsiveness of human emotions and
violent passions. It gains force and then bursts open. Unlike fighting
of animals, generally in human groups, the spontaneous fighting is
inhibited. It is often avoided through the process of accommodation
and assimilation.
7. It may be latent or overt. In the latent form, it may exist in the form
of tension, dissatisfaction, contravention and rivalry. It becomes overt
when an issue is declared and a hostile action is taken.
8. It is mostly violent but it may take the form of negotiations, party
politics, disputes or rivalry.
9. It is cumulative; each act of aggression usually promotes a more
aggressive rebuttal. Thus, termination of conflict is not easy.
10. It tends to be more intense when individuals and groups who
have close relationships with one another are involved.
11. Groups previously in conflict may co-operate to achieve a goal
considered important enough for them to unite despite their
differences.
12. It may emerge as a result of opposing interests. It is layered in a
history of binary perceptions: exile/homeland, outsider/insider,
us/them, patriotic/unpatriotic.
13. It has both disintegrative and integrative effects. It disrupts unity
in a society and is a disturbing way of setting issues. A certain
account of internal conflict, however, may serve indirectly to stimulate
group interaction. External conflict can have positive effects by
unifying the group.

Causes of Conflict:
Conflict is universal. It occurs in all Limes and places. There has
never been a Lime or a society in which some individuals or groups
did not come into conflict. According to Malthus, reduced supply of
the means of subsistence is the cause of conflict. According to
Darwin, the principles of struggle for existence and survival of the
fittest are the main causes of conflict.

According to Freud and some other psychologists the innate instinct

for aggression in man is the main cause of conflicts. Thus, various
causes have been mentioned leading to conflicts. It arises primarily
from a clash of interests within groups and societies and between
groups and societies. Conflicts also ensue as a result of the
difference between the rate of change in the moral norms of a society
and men’s desire, hopes, dissatisfactions and demands.

The moral norms that children should obey their parents have
persisted in our country since times immemorial but now the younger
generation wants to go its own way. In consequence, there is more
parent—youth conflict than even before. Sometimes the moral norms
are so broad in scope that conflicting parties can often claim similar
norms to justify their separate demands.

For instance, the employees would justify their strike on the plea of
deserving high wages in this age of inflating prices whereas the
management would justify its stand of reducing them by advancing
the excuse of its deficits in this age of competition.

Briefly stated the causes of conflict are:

Many people try to avoid conflict at all costs. Others tend to blame
someone or something else for causing it. These responses do not
resolve conflict and may make the situation worse.

Conflict is a normal part of life and there are many issues that could
cause conflicts to arise within community organizations. Conflict can
occur between employees, committee members, ordinary members,
volunteers, clients or the community.

If not resolved, conflict can be highly destructive. However,

committees can take steps to minimize potential situations of conflict
before they arise or to resolve conflict constructively.

Individual Differences: No two men are alike in their nature,

attitudes, ideals and interests. On account of these differences
they fail to accommodate themselves which may lead to conflict
among them.

Cultural Differences:
Culture is the way of life of a group. The culture of a group
differs from the culture of the other group. The cultural
differences among the groups sometimes cause tension and
lead to conflict. The religious differences have occasionally led
to wars and persecution in history. India was partitioned in the
name of religious differences.

Clash of Interests:
 The interests of different people or groups occasionally clash.
Thus he interests of the workers clash with those of the
employers which leads to conflict among them.

Social Change:
Social change becomes a cause of conflict when a part of
society does net change along with changes in the other parts.
Social change causes cultural lag which leads to conflict. The
parent-youth conflict is the result of social change. In short,
conflict is an expression of social disequilibrium.

H. T. Majumdar has mentioned the following

positive functions of conflict:
(i) Conflict ‘tends to stiffen the morale and promote the solidarity of
the in-group.
(ii) Conflict, concluded with victory, leads to the enlargement of the
victor group.
(iii) Conflict leads to redefinition of value systems.
(iv) Conflict may lead to the working out of non-violent techniques for
resolving crises.
(v) Conflict may lead to change in the relative status of the conflicting
parties.
(vi) Conflict may lead to a new consensus.

Types of Social Conflicts:

In the struggle to change the structure of society, or to resist such a
change, conflict takes various shapes.

Some common types of social conflicts are:

Social movement: A strong sense of unjust suffering readily

provides the rationale for a social movement, such as Gujjars’
Andolan (2007 and 2008) for reservation in ST category in
Rajasthan or Namak Andolan of Gandhiji.

Riots and rebellions:

Riot is a situation in which a large crowd of people behave in a

violent and uncontrolled manner, especially when they protest
about something. Rebellion is an organized attempt to change
the government/leader of a country using violent methods.

Civil politics:

In modem democratic societies there is an effort to bring conflict

into the political institution, to get people to work ‘inside’ the
system instead of ‘outside’. It is a principle of liberal politics that
all classes and groups should have access to the political
process and be encouraged to pursue their goals through
conventional political means.

Revolution:

A revolution is the ultimate form of struggle against the

prevailing social structure, in which the intent is to alter the
society’s institutions and create a whole new social order based
on a radically different set of principles. It is a sweeping, sudden
and comprehensive change in the basic practices and ideas of
an institution or society.
Nature of Conflict in India:
In India, the following main forms of conflict are found:
1. Communal conflict (communalism)
2. Caste conflict (casteism)
3. Regional conflict (regionalism)
4. Rural-urban conflict
5. Class conflict
6. Value conflict
7. Inter-group conflict
8. Inter-generation conflict
9. Reservation conflict
10. Gender conflict

Role (Functions) of Conflict:

1. Conflict determines the status of the individual in the social
organization. Rivalry, war and other forms of personal struggle
determine superiority and subordination of men and groups.
2. Conflict is not always an unmitigated evil everywhere as it is
generally assumed. It is a chief means of group contact, and it has
played an important role in the development and spread of culture.
3. Conflict may eventuate in peace through victory of one contestant
over others.
4. Conflict helps to define social issues and brings about a new
equilibrium of contending forces. It may lead to the working out of
non-violent techniques for resolving crises. The end result of conflict
is that the issues are resolved at least for a time.
5. Conflict tends to stiffen the morale, promotes unity and cohesion
within the group and may lead to expanding alliances with other
groups.
6. Conflict keeps groups alert to members’ interests.
7. Conflict generates new norms and new institutions. It happens
mostly in economic and technological realms. Economic historians
often have pointed out that much technological improvement has
resulted from the conflict activity of trade unions. It leads to
redefinition of value systems.
8. Conflict within and between bureaucratic structures provides
means of avoiding the ossification and ritualism which threatens their
form of organization.
9. According to Marxists, conflict leads not only to ever-changing
relations within the existing social structure, but the total system
undergoes transformation through conflict.
10. Conflict between vested interests and new strata and groups
demanding share of power, wealth and status have proved to be
productive of vitality.
11. Conflict may lead to a new consensus.
12. Conflict theorists (e.g., Coser, 1956) believe that conflict is
necessary for progress. They contend that society’s progress to a
higher order only if oppressed groups improve their lot.

6.4 SOCIAL AUTHORITY

Introduction
 Authority is that form of power which is legalized and
legitimized. Authority is a form of power e.g. a statute
giving power to a minister. If a person has power due
to a special office, he occupies, this is known as
authority.
Example- Police Commissioner has authority to issue
order and get them obeyed by virtue of authority he
occupies.
Power + legitimacy = Authority.
Authority consists of two important components:
power and legitimacy.
Authority means legitimate power which has been
approved by the people or power in accordance with
the constitution or the law of the state.
A government officer is competent to use authority-
his authority is clearly defined.
Meaning
In English, the word 'Authority1 can be used to mean
power given by the state.
According to Michael in the Encyclopedia of social
sciences, authority is the capacity, innate or acquired
for exercising ascendancy over a group.
Weber defined domination (Authority) on the chance
of commands being obeyed by a specific group of
people.
Origin of the Word 'Authority’: The word 'Authority’s
derived from the Latin word 'austoritus’ meaning
‘invention‘, 'advice', 'opinion', 'influence' or 'command'
in English
Authority means power given by the state in the form
of government, judges, police officers etc. The word
'Authority’ is used in the name of an organization, the
name usually refers to the governing body upon which
such authority is vested.
Meaning of the Word 'Authority' in Different Spheres:
Government: In government the term 'authority' is
often used interchangeably with the term 'power'. Here
 authority refers to a claim of legitimacy, the justification
and might to exercise that power.

Nature
Authority is institutionalized and legal power inherent
in a particular job, function, or position that is meant to
enable its holder to successfully carry out his or her
responsibilities.
Authority is power that is delegated formally. It
includes a right to command a situation, commit
resources, give orders and except them to be obeyed,
it is always accompanied by an equal responsibility for
one's actions or a failure to act.
In government, the term authority is often used
interchangeably with power in political philosophy, the
jurisdiction of political authority, the location of
sovereignty, the balancing of freedom and authority.
Since the emergency of social sciences authority has
become a subject of research in a variety of empirical
settings.

Max Weber Typology of Authority

Max Weber (1864 -1920), German sociologist and political economist,

he is best known for his thesis of the ‘Protestant Ethic’ and for his
ideas on bureaucracy. He explained typology of authority concept in
his book the theory of social and Economic organization 1971.

Weber divided legitimate authority into three types.

Traditional Authority: It is derived from long

established customs, habits and social structures.
When power passes from one generation to another
generation, then it is called traditional authority. The
best example is the right of hereditary monarchs to
rule a country.
 Charismatic Authority: Here, the charisma of the
individual or the leader play the important part. It is the
authority which is derived from the gift of grace or
when the leader claims that his authority is derived
from a "higher power"
(e.g. God or natural law or rights) or "inspiration", and
followers accept this and are willing to follow this
hitherto or inspired authority, in the place of authority
that they have hitherto been following.
For example, N. T. Rama Rao, a idol whose charisma
made him one of the most powerful Chief Minister of
Andhra Pradesh & Mr. Narendra Modi (Present PM of
India).

Legal Rational Authority: it is the form of authority

which depends for its legitimacy or formal ruler and
established laws of the state, which are usually written
and often are complex. The power of the rational legal
authority is mentioned in the Constitution. Modern
societies depend on legal-rational authority and
Government officials are the best example of this form
of authority.

CHARACTERISTICS

Legitimacy: It determines the effectiveness of authority. Hence

it is the hall mark of the concept of authority. According to Robert
Dahl “A commands B and B feels A has perfect right to do so
and to which he has complete obligation to obey. Power of this
kind is often said to be legitimate………. Legitimate power is
often called authority.”
Dominance:

Authority is capacity of the individual to command others. An

individual or a group which possesses authority exercises
dominance over other individuals. Authority is a command of
superior to an inferior.

An informal power:

It is not a formal power as it lacks characteristics which are the

main features of power. According to Fredrick “Authority is not a
power but something that accompanies power.” It is the quality
in men and things which adds to their power, something which
creates power but it is not itself power.

Rationality:

This is the main characteristic of authority. In the words of

Fredrick, ‘The man who has authority possesses something that
I would describe as the capacity for reasoned elaboration for
giving convincing reasons for what he does or proposes to have
others to do.” Evidently the basis of authority is logic or reason.

Accountability:

The individual or a group of individuals who possess authority

are responsible to some higher authority. In a democratic system
accountability is the most significant characteristic of authority.
 Authority Kinds Important Kinds of
Authority
Some of the most important kinds of authority are: (a) authority based
on force (b) constitutional (c) charismatic authority (d) religious
authority (e) divine right authority (f) ancestral heritage authority (g)
authority of the elite (h) traditional authority and (i) rational legal
authority.

(a) Authority based on force:

Authority based on force is an illegitimate authority. It is not exercised
according to law and constitution. Brute force is the sanction behind
it.

(b) Constitutional:
If a person derives authority from the constitution, it is constitutional
authority. Authority of President and Governor according to Indian
constitution is constitutional.

(c) Charismatic authority:

If the right to rule emerges from the dynamic qualities of leader, it is
charismatic authority. In the words of Max Weber “charismatic
authority rests on the devotion to the specific and exceptional
heroism or exemplary character of an individual person.”

(d) Religious authority:

Religious authority is also attributed to those who hold top position in
some religious seat. For example, Shah Imam of Shahi Mosque,
Delhi and Jathader of Akal Takht enjoy the envious position of
authority.

(e) Divine right authority:

If the authority is derived from God it is called Divine Right authority.
James I of England and Louis XTV of France considered themselves
as the deputies of God. In the present era this concept of authority is
not significant.
(f) Ancestral heritage authority:
If father transfers authority to the son, it is known as ancestral
heritage authority. This system of authority exists in monarchical form
of government.

(g) Authority of the elite:

It is the authority possessed by a small group of individuals on the
basis of their personality, knowledge or riches.

(h) Traditional authority:

Traditional authority is that authority which is based on ancient
customs, traditions and conventions. The British political system
earmarks authority to the organs of government through conventions.

(i) Rational legal authority:

This authority is based on the laws of the land and exists mainly in a
democratic system.

****
Sheet for Students (Extra Notes)
REFERENCE QUESTION
PAPERS

2012 - 2019
 B.EL. ED - Examination-2019
BASIC CONCEPT ON EDUCATION
 Section-A
खण्ड - अ (Short Answer Type Questions)
( लघ◌ु उ रीय श्न )
Note: Attempt any seven questions. Each question carries 4
marks. 7x4 = 28
नोट : िक ी◌ं सात ो◌ं क◌े उ र दीिजए। ेक श्न 4 अंकों

1. What do you mean by human nature?

मानव कृति◌ स◌े आप ◌ा समझत◌े है ◌ं ?
2. What is learning?
अिधगम ◌ा ह◌ै ?
3. What are the philosophical basic assumptions about knowledge?
ान क◌े िवषय मे◌ं दाशिनक बुिनयाद◌ी मा ताए◌ं ◌ा है ◌ं ?
4. What is body of knowledge?
ान क◌ा व ◌ु पक्ष ◌ा ह◌ै ?
5. What do you mean by child's construction of knowledge?
ब ◌े ार◌ा ान क◌े सृजन क◌े िवषय स◌े आप ◌ा समझते
6. What is curriculum?
पा म ◌ा ह◌ै ?
7. What is socialization?
सामाजीकरण ◌ा ह◌ै ?
8. “Teaching is a professional activity.” Justify it.
" िश ण एक ावसाियक गितिवधि◌ है । " इसक◌ी पु ि◌ कीिजए।
9. What is progressive Educational thoughts of Montessori? .
मा े सर◌ी क◌े गितशील शैि क िवचार ◌ा है ◌ं ?
10. What is the conflict?
Note: Attempt any two questions. Each question
carries 21 marks.
 21x2=42
नोट : िक ी◌ं द◌ो ो◌ं क◌े उ र दीिजये। ेक
श्न 21 अंको◌ं क◌ा है ।

11. What do you understand by Tagore's Philosophy of Education?

How can his educational principles solve the present important
problem of India?
टै गोर क◌े िश ◌ा दशन स◌े आप ◌ा समझत◌े है ◌ं ? उनक◌े शैि क
िस ान्त वतमान भारत क◌ी मुख सम ाओ◌ं क◌ा समाधान कहा◌ं तक
कर सकत◌े है ◌ं ?

12. Evaluate the contribution of Rousseau in the principles and

behaviour of education.
िश ◌ा क◌े िस ान्त तथ◌ा वहार मे◌ं स◌ो क◌े योगदान क◌ा
मू ां कन कीिजए।

13. Socialization is result of learning, justify it.

सामाजीकरण अिधगम क◌ा प रणाम है । इसक◌ी पु ि◌ कीिजए।

14. Education brings equality and minimizes the social conflicts.

Explain in detail.
िश ◌ा समानत◌ा लात◌ी ह◌ै और सामािजक संघर् ष क◌ो कम करत◌ी है ।
इस कथन क◌ी िव ृत ा ◌ा कीिजए।
 GLOSSARY
Accountability: the fact or condition of being accountable;
responsibility.
Affection: a feeling of liking and caring for someone or
something: tender attachment: fondness she had a
deep affection for her parents.
Authority: Authority is the legitimate power that one person or
group possesses and practices over another.
Competency: the ability to do something successfully or
efficiently.
Conducive: making a certain situation or outcome likely or
possible.
Curriculum: Totality of experiences that a pupil receives
through the manifold activities that go on inside & outside of the
classroom.
Dominance: control; authority; rule; supreme influence. The
condition of being dominant, or having the authority to influence
or control.
Education: Education is a social process that intends to modify
the behavior of the pupil in socially desirable direction through
learning.
Educational philosophy: Application of principle of philosophy
in the field of education to solve various educational issues.
Empathy: the ability to understand and share the feelings of
another
Epistemology: Study about Knowledge.
Humour: the quality of being amusing or comic, especially as
expressed in literature or speech.
Learning: Process of acquiring new or modifying existing
knowledge/skills/behaviors through experience or training.
Legitimacy: conformity to the law or rules.
 Philosophy: Philosophy is a critical examination of reality
characterized by rational inquiry that aims at the Truth for the
sake of attaining wisdom.
Rebellions: attempt to remove government or leader by force;
refusal to obey your leader.
Repertoire: a list or supply of dramas, operas, pieces, or parts
that a company or person is prepared to perform.

REFERENCES
Chandra S. S., R. Sharma, Rejendra K (2002) " Philosophy of
Education." New Delhi, Allantic publishers.
Chakraborty A. K. (2003)." Principles and Practices of
Education."
Meerut, Lal Book Depot.
Gupta S. (2005). “Education in Emerging India. Teachers role in
Society." New Delhi, Shipra Publication.
Seetharamu, A. S. (1989). Philosophy of Education. New Delhi, '
Ashish Publishing House.
Taneja, V. R. (2000). “Educational Thought and Practice." New
Delhi,
Sterling

FURTHER READING
Kneller, George F. Introduction to Philosophy of Education,
John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York.
Ozman, Howard A., & Craver, Samuel M., Philosophical
Foundations of Education. Allyn & Bacon. Boston.
Chandra S. S., R. Sharma, Rejendra K (2002) “Philosophy of
Education.” New Delhi, Allantic publishers.
Chakraborty A. K. (2003).” Principles and Practices of
Education.” Meerut, Lal Book Depot.
 Gupta S. (2005). “Education in Emerging India. Teachers role in
Society.” New Delhi, Shipra Publication.
Ananda, C.L.et.el. (1983). Teacher & Education in Emerging in
India Society, NCERT, New Delhi.
Dewey, J. (1916/1977): Democracy and Education: An
introduction to the philosophy of education. New York:
Macmillan.
Peters, R.S. (ed), (1975). The Philosophy of education. Oxford
University Press, London.
Ranjan Dash, Nikunja. (2015). "Philosophical Foundation of
Education." Bhubaneswar.

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