PROCESSESOF FORMATION OF ORE DEPOSITS

The geologicalprocesses that yield mineral depositsare as follows:

"1. Magmatic Concentration
" 2. Sublimation
3. Pegmatitic Ore Deposits
" 4. Hydrothermal Processes
" 5. Oxidation and Supergene Enrichment
" 6. Contact Metasomatism
" 7. Metamorphism
" 8. Residual and Mechanical Concentration
" 9. Sedimentation
"10. Evaporation
Magmatic Concentration
" The magmatic deposits are formed during different stages of magma crystallization.
Magmaticore deposits are characterized by their close relationship with
intermediate or deep-seated intrusive igneous rocks.
Temperature varies in between (Formation of Deposits): 1500°C - 300°C
"
major groups -
" Magmatic Concentration deposits are divided into two
1. Early MagmaticDeposits
2. Late Magmatic Deposits
 Type Process Examples
Disseminated Crystallization 1. Diamond Pipesin Kimberlite in Panna (M.P.)&in Vajrakarur village,
Dissemination (Without concentration) Anantpur district (A.P.)
2. Corundum in Syenite near Sivamalai in TamilNadu
1. Chromite Deposits of Bushveld Complex of S.A.
Early Magmatic Segregation 2. Chromite Deposits of Sukinda Ultramafic Complex, Orissa
(Crystallization, differentiation
and accumulation) 3. Nuggihalli&Byrapur chromite deposits in Karnataka.
Injection (Crystallization, differentiation 1. Magnetite vein deposits of Kiruna in Sweden.
and Injection) 2. Magnetite-Pyrrhotite vein deposits in Godavari district of A.P.
1. Titaniferous magnetitic bands of Bushweld Complex of S.A
Residual liquid 2. Titaniferous magnetite of Hassan District, Karnataka
Segregation
3. Vanadiferrous magnetite deposits of Mayurbhanj, Orissa
Crystallization differentiation and
1. Apatite-magnetite, veins of Kasipatnam in Vizag district of A.P.
Residual liquid residual magma accumulation 2. Titaniferous magnetite deposits of Nuggihalli in Karnataka.
Injection. same, with filter pressing and
injection
Late Magmatic Immiscible 1. Lead-Zinc-Copper Sulphide deposits of Hesatu-Belbathan Belt,
liquid Bihar.
segregation Immiscible liquid separation and 2. Insizwa, S.Africa
Immiscible accumulation, same with 1. Nickel deposits of Norway.
liquid injection injection 2. Nickeliferous Chalcopyrite Pockets associated with altered basic
schists of Singhbhum-Copper belt.
Early Magmatic Deposits
" They are formed during the early stageof magmatic crystallization. In this case the
ore minerals crystallize earlier than the rock silicates.
The minerals of Ni, Cr, &Pt are usually found as early magmaticdeposits.
The Early magmatic deposits have been classified into three groups:
i. Dissemination Deposits
ii. Segregation Deposits
ii. Injection
1, DisseminationDeposits:
(Dissemination Crystallization without concentration)

When a magma crystallizes under deep seated conditions, a granular igneous rock is
formed.

In such a rock earty formed, crystals of ore minerals may occur in dissemination.
Here grains of ore are found scattered more or less evenly throughout the rock
mass.

Hence the whole rock mass constitutes the ore deposit.

The dissemination deposits occur in the shape of a dyke, pipe or small stock like
mass.

Examples:
1. Diamond Pipes in Kimberlite in Panna (M.P.) & inVajrakarur village,Anantpur
district (A.P.)
2.Corundum inSyenite near Sivamalai in Tamil Nadu
2. Segregation Deposits:
(Crystallization, Differentiation & Accumulation)

They are formed as a result of gravitative crystallization

differentiation.
" In such cases, the ore minerals which crystallize early, get
concentratedin particularly lower part of the igneous mass.
The segregation depositsare generally lenticular in shape and of
relativelysmall size.

Example:
1.Chromite Deposits of Bushveld Complex of S.A.
2.Chromite Deposits of Sukinda Ultramafic Complex, Orissa
3.Nuggihalli &Byrapur chromite deposits in Karnataka.
 3. Injection
(Crystallization, differentiation and Injection)

The ore mineral is concentrated by the crystallization and

differentiation if the magmatic material is injected into the host
rock.
" Itoccurs as veins and lenses within the ultrabasic and gabbro
Example:
1. Magnetite veindeposits of Kiruna in Sweden.
2. Magnetite-Pyrrhotite vein deposits inGodavari district of A.P.
Late Magmatic Deposits
" The ore depositswhich are formed towards the close of the Magmatic period are called "Late Magmatic
Deposits
The late magmatic deposits contain those ore minerals which have crystallized at rather low temperature
from a residual magma.
The magmawhich is left after crystallization of the early formed rock silicates, is called "residual magma".
The late magmatic deposits are always associated with mafic igneous rocks.
They have been resulted from variations of crystallization, differentiation and gravitative accumulation of
heavy residual liquids and immiscible liquids.
The late magmatic deposits have been classified into four groups:
i. Residual liquid segregation
ii. Residual liquid injection,
ii. Immiscible liquid segregation and
iv. Immiscible liquid injection.
1. Residual liquid Segregation

The residual magma after magmatic differentiation is rich in silica and water.
It sometimescontains iron and titanium remain in residual liquid.
This residual liquid is separated from rest of the magma, crystallizes and segregate in the
form of mineral ore deposit within the parent igneous mass as parallel bands and may form
valuable ore deposits.
The host rocks are commonlyAnorthosites, Norites and Gabbro related mafic rocks.

Example:
1. Titaniferous magnetitic bands of Bushweld Complexof S.A
2. Titaniferous magnetite of Hassan District, Karnataka
3. Vanadiferrous magnetite deposits of Mayurbhanj, Orissa
2. Residual Liquid Injection

It takes place due to earth's disturbance.

The iron rich residual liquidaccumulated as a result of differentiation of mafic magma,

may get injected into the surrounding country rocks.
The ore deposits of Magnetite and llmenite formed in this way, are called "injection
ore deposits".

" Such deposits usuallyoccur inthe form of veins, dykes or sills.

Example:
1.Apatite-magnetite, veins of Kasipatnam in Vizag district of A.P.
2.Titaniferous magnetite deposits of Nuggihalli in Karnataka.
3.Immiscible Liquid Segregation

Sometimes magma of an ore-and-silicate composition breaks down during cooling

into two immiscible fractions.

This separation is similar to that of oiland water.

It has been observed that Sulphur and silica form two hot immiscible liquids. This
immiscible liquidconsists mainly of sulfides of iron, nickel and copper. Upon
consolidation it gives rise to the "sulfide segregation deposit".

Example:
1. Lead-Zinc-Copper Sulphide deposits of Hesatu-Belbathan Belt, Bihar.
2. Insizwa, S.Africa
4. Immiscible Liquid Injection

The sulfide rich immiscible liquid which separates out during the differentiation
of mafic magma, may get injected into the enclosing rock.
" It is subjective todisturbance before consolidation.
On consolidation it formsthe "immiscible liquid injection
deposit".
Example:
1. Nickel deposits of Norway.
2. Nickeliferous Chalcopyrite Pockets associated with altered basic-schists of
Singhbhum-Copper belt.
 Sublimation Deposits
(Sublimation is the transition of asubstance directlyfrom the solid to the gasstate, without passing
through the liquid state.)

" Sublimation deposits contain only those minerals which have been volatilized by heat
and subsequently redeposited in the same form at low temperature and pressure due to
sudden cooling of the vapors.
" This process involves direct transition from solid to gaseous without passing through
the liquid state.
" It doesn't include minerals formed by reactions of gases and vapors.
These deposits are found associated with volcanos, thermalsprings and fumaroles.
Example:
Sulphur Deposits of Italy and Japan.
Sulphur and Borax deposit at Puga area, Ladakh
Sulphur deposits (in yellow) formed due to sublimation process.
Pegmatitic Deposits
The late residual magma which is left in the last stage of
crystallization, commonly contains silica, alkalis, water, carbon
dioxide and high concentrations of rare minerals and metals.
Granite
When this residual magma gets injected into the enclosing rocks
gmatit
"Pegmatite" is formed.
They are formed at about 575° Ctemperature and under great
Granite
pressure that's why Pegmatites are characterized by extremely
coarse-grained texture.
The coarse-grained texture develops due to slow cooling of a low
viscous magma characterized by high volatile content.
 Granite

Pegmatit

Granite
" Volatiles such as OH, Fluorine, Boron and H20 promotes ion diffusion and the
developmentof large crystals.
Rare elements such as Li, Be Nb, Ta, Sn and U that are also not readily accommodated
in crystallizing silicate phases end up in the volatile fraction.
" Many such pegmatites form valuable mineral deposits and mostly associated with
felsiclgneous bodies such as Granitic or quartz-diorite rocks.
Pegmatite deposits are closely associated with the veins deposits.
Onthe basis of their mineralogical composition pegmatites are classified as:
1. Simple Pegmatite: It contains quartz, feldspar and mica minerals.
2. Complex Pegmatite: It contains rare minerals in addition to the above minerals.
 The economic minerals which commonly occur in pegmatites are mica, quartz, beryl,
amphiboles,corundum, gemstones and felspars. (also occur within continental plates
and at convergent plate boundaries)
Deposits of Tantalum, Niobium, Tin, Tungsten, Molybdenum and Uranium are also
found in some pegmatites.
Examples:
i. Mica bearing Pegmatites of Bihar, A.P. and Rajasthan,
ii. Wolframites bearing Pegmatites of eastern ghats,
ii. Columbite-Tanlitite Pegmatites of Kadalur in Tamil Nadu,
iv. Monazite bearing Pegmatites of Trivndrum
V.
Illminite-Berylbearing Pegmatites of Rajasthan.
Hydrothermal Deposits
The epigeneticore deposits formed by hydrothermal solutions are called "hydrothermal ore
deposits'".
" Hydrothermal Solution:
The term hydrothermal means "hot water' with possible temperature of 500° - 50C.
The hot, residual watery fluids derived during the later stages of
magma crystallization when
the main rock forming minerals have already been
precipitated.
This fluid hot watery solution carries metals derived from an
intrusive magma, is called
"hydrothermal solution".
The hydrothermal solution move through cracks and
openings present in the rocks and deposit
their dissolved minerals there.
Minerals which have lowest temperatures of crystallization,
migrate very far away while those
having higher temperaturesof crystallization,
precipitate close tothe parent igneous body.
The deposition from hydrothermal solutions is influenced by some factors:
Chemical changes and reactions
" The reaction between mineralizing solution and wall rock gives rise to
chemicalchanges.
Silicate rocks would make them alkaline or more alkaline.

Temperature & Pressure

"The solution in its journey loses temperature and pressure which decreases
solubility and promotes precipitation.
Wall Rock Alteration

" The wal-rock alteration is quite common in case of hydrothermal deposits.

" In essence, hydrothermal fluids chemicallyattack the mineral constituents of the
wall rocks, which tend to re-equilibrate by forming new mineral assemblages that
are in equilibriumwith the new conditions.
The process is a form of metasomatism, iie. exchange of chemical components
between the fluids and the wall-rocks.
Therefore, it is also likely that the fluids themselves may change their composition
as a result of their interaction with the wall rocks.
 The nature of mineralizing solution like its chemical character, temperature and
pressure as well as character and kind of wall rock decide about the nature and
intensity of alteration.
" Alteration include minor color changes to mineral changes and complete
recrystallization. Generally speaking higher the temperature of deposition of
mineral, higher the alteration.
Types of wall rock alteration :
Argillicalteration: This alteration style is commonly subdivided into:
a) Intermediate argillic:
It is characterized by the formation of clay minerals kaolinite and the smectite group
(mainly montmorillonite).
kaolinite replacing plagioclase and montmorillonite replacing amphibole and
plagioclase.
b) Advanced argillic:
This alteration develops from the leaching of alkalis and calcium from feldspar and
mica. It is characterized bykaolinite, pyrophylite, or dickite.
Kaolinite and dickite occur at lower temperatures whereas pyrophylite and
andalusite occur under high temperature conditions (T > 300°c)

Sericitization: During the sericitization of granite, the feldspars and micas may be transformed to
sericite

Propylitic alteration: This is a complex alteration generally characterized by chlorite, epidote, albite
and carbonate (calcite, dolomite or ankerite).
Chloritization: Development of Secondary Chlorite may result from the alteration of mafic mineraks that
are ready present in the country rock. Chloritization is common in the all wall rock alteration Zone of tin
deposit.
Carbonatization: The chemical sequence of carbonatization may take two different forms
Dolomitization of Limestone.
Carbonation of Silicate Rocks.
Potassic Alteration: Potassic (k-alteration) is characterized by the formation of new K-feldspar and/or
biotite, usuallytogether.
Silicification: This involves an increase in the proportion of quartz or crypto-crystalline silica (i.e., cherty
or opaline silica) in the altered rock. Silicification is often a good guide to ore, e-g. the Black Hils,
Dakota.

Feldspathizotion: When potassium or sodium metasomatism has produced new potash feldspar or
albite and is accompanied by other alteration products. Albitization is generally seen adjacent to gold
deposit.
Toumalinization: This is asso ciated with medium to high temperature deposits. The wall rock will have
strong development of tourmaline in the form of veins. e.g., many tin andsome gold vein.
other alteration types...

pyritization, due to the introduction of sulfur which may attack both iron oxides
and mafic minerals.

" hematitization, an alteration type often associated with uranium.

greisenization, afrequent form of alteration along side tin-tungsten and beryllium
deposits in granitic rocks or gneisses.
" fenitization, which is associated with carbonatite hosted deposits.
serpentinization, the allied development of talc, can occur in both ultrabasic rocks
and limestones

zeolitization is marked by the development of stilbite, natrolite, heulandite, etc.