What is an Economic Geology’ + Economic Geology is the branch of geology that deals with the scientific study and extraction of Earth's resources like minerals, ores, rocks, ground water etc. It leads us in the search of new mineral deposits and in their detailed investigations (Pohl, 2011). + The discipline of ‘economic geology’ covers all aspects pertaining to the description and understanding of mineral resources. It is also the discipline that underpins the training of professional Earth scientists working in the minerals and related industries of the world’ (Robb, 2015).By using techniques like “ Geochemistry + Mineralogy + Geophysics * Petrology > Structural Geology Or all of these... Therefore, “Economic Geology helps us to know HOW? WHY? & WHERE? minerals are concentrated in specific rocks, structures & tectonic settings with the Earth's Crust.”Then what is Ore Geology? + Inore geology we study metals only * But in case of economic geology we study both metals as well as non-metals. In other words, Ore geology is a branch of Economic Geology.Why a eral is called as ore? + It's all about Minerals... + For example: Chalcopyrite is a copper iron sulfide mineral (it is naturally occurring and has a fixed chemical composition (CuFeS2), but also an ore of copper; when you find huge quantities of mineral chalcopyrite confined in a place it constitutes an economic mineral or ore deposit of copper.Ore & Gangue Ore is defined as a naturally occurring mineral or aggregate of minerals from which metal/metals could be extracted with profit. Itusually occurs with useless gangue mineral, substance or unwanted substance. Gangue: It is the commercially worthless material that surrounds or is closely mixed with wanted mineral in an ore deposits. The term gangue refers to the impurities like sand, soil that are removed from the ores. SARABeneficiation is a process which removes the gangue minerals from ore to produce a higher grade product. Ore deposits: The mixture of ore mineral and gangue mineral is known as Ore Deposit. The Ore deposit generally found enclosed within the country rock. Host Rock: A rock in which a mineral or an ore body may be contained, Country Rock: A rock which surrounds the ore deposit.Mineral deposit + A mineral deposit may be defined as a rock body that contains one or more elements (or minerals) sufficiently above the average crustal abundance to have economic value. + Mineral deposits can be classified into two broad categories: a) Metallic mineral deposits: (e.g. deposits of copper, lead, zinc, iron, gold etc,), from which one or more metals can be extracted, a) Non metallic mineral deposits: (deposits of clay, mica, fluorite, asbestos, garnet etc.) which contain minerals useful on account of their specific physical or chemical properties.Common metals and their ore minerals = [tm Cosstete [Ode 50, ra ‘Copper ‘Native Copper | Native Pure Cu ‘Upto 100% Cu Cnacoprie | Supe [eS | mSuGU SH] ——[Oromwsi [Estoy [Companion | Teor caaaeme | sna ox oe x ee foo iw _/ Jo Bomio (Supe [GuFeS: | 63.3%G0 1 Costin |r. one [Feoow _—[easnre Comite |sutie __|o8 C5 aes! [omens [re00s ae Malactte [Hyd Capone [CuCOxOH) | 574% Cu [Pete supe [Fes wonre Aawste Hyd Gabon [CusCOXOH | 553% Cu Manganese | Pyrtuste [Oxido | Ms % Mn 7 [toad Galena ‘Suptide Ps: 55%PD 7 Bante | Ode won [ese mn | | [ere Sohalente | Suphise [2S 72 Palomas [Rr Oso [MO (0.67% Me Srihconto [Carbonate | 200, (S242 ems [crore [eos eee | Ta [ronato [sae | ums ac ome wear | a nenne__[powite fwwe 7 Mire of) ‘Sulphur ‘Arsonopyrite | Sulphide FeasS 48.0% AS 0 (Opinent—_|Suphido | Ans orm he Reaigar | Suiphide | Asse To. As 11 | Gold Native god | Native hu. Ag (60-98 % AuCommon non-metallic or industrial minerals ‘Agate Gypsum Andalusite Jasper Baryte Kaolin ‘Asbestos Laterite Limestone Mica, Halite Ochre Garnet Pyrophyilte ‘Corundum Quartz Diaspore Quartzite Dolomite Glass Sands Graphite ‘Shale Wollastonite ‘Magnesite Feldspar Slate Fireclay ‘Steatite / Talc / Soapstone Industrial Diamond PhosphateReserve and Resource Reserves are ore that are economically feasible to mine and for which there are no legal or engineering impediments to mining. Resources are ores that may potentially be extracted at sometimes in the future. L Reserves Resources | > Natural resources that The term “resource” refers to | have been discovered & | — the total amounts of a can be exploited profitably’ with existing technology | ‘commodity of particular economic use that is present in an area. These estimates include both extractable and non-extractable amounts of this commodity. > Deposits that we know or believe to exist, but that are not exploitable today because of technological, economical, or political reasonsThe reserves of an ore body are depending on the degree of geologic certainty of existence, commonly classified as measured, indicated, or _ | inferred. Identified, _sub-economic 4 materials in a mineral deposit constitute. 4 potential resources (materials that may 9 - be profitably mined in the future), which may be further subdivided into Figure 1.1. Classification of ore reserves based on degrees of geologic certainty and economic feasibility Paramarginal and submarginal categories on the basis of economic feasibiIdentified Not Identified A visual definition of resources and reserves.Tenor: * The term tenor describes the metal content of an ore. * Tenor of ore is the lowest permissible metallic deposit in an ore. * The tenor of ore is the lowest amount of metal that an ore can contain + Itis generally expressed in percentage of the metal.Grade: (It is subject matter of Industrial Classification) + Itis the average concentration of a desired material in a mineral deposit. + Used interchangeably with tenor. It is usually expressed as weight percentage or parts per million (ppm) or ton/oz for metal contents. + The grade of ore is classified as © High grade o Medium grade o Low grade Cut-off grade + The minimum concentration required to achieve the break-even point for a mineral or metal to be economically mined.Important Terminologies: + Ore magma: This term is used for the abnormally rich magma that crystallises out into an ore most often in case of sulphide or oxide ore minerals. Ore guides: are structural or other features and conditions which serve as clues to the location of ore body. The most practical and definite type of guides are those that are capable of representation on maps, sections or models. + Ore genesis: The ore deposits are formed by variety of geological processes and the process of their formation is called ore genesis. + Hypogene: It refers to mineralization caused by ascending hydrothermal solutions. + Supergene: It refers to mineralization caused by descending solutions. Generally it refers to the enrichment processes accompanying the weathering and oxidation of sulfide and oxide ores at or near the surface.Metallogeny: It is the study of genesis of mineral deposits, with emphasis on their relationships in space and time to geological features of the Earth’s crust. Metallotect: It refers to any geological, tectonic, lithological, or geochemical feature that has played a role in the concentration of one or more elements in the Earth’s crust. Metallogenic epoch: It refers to a unit of geologic time favourable for the deposition of ores. In other words, it is the geological period which is characterized by a particular assemblage of a mineral deposit Metallogenic province: It is a regi racterised by a particular assemblage of mineral deposit types.Industrial minerals: They have been defined as any rock, mineral or other naturally occurring substance of economic value, exclusive of metallic ores, mineral fuels and gemstones but are used in the industries based on their physical and/or chemical properties. Typical examples of industrial rocks and minerals are limestone, clays, sand, gravel, diatomite, kaolin, bentonite, silica, barite, gypsum, and talc, Syngenetic deposit is the ore deposit which has formed by the same process and at the same time as the enclosing rock in which it occurs is sometimes part of a stratigraphical succession, such as an iron-rich sedimentary horizon. Epigenetic deposit is the ore deposit which has formed after the formation of host rock in which they occur, e.g, vein. These ore minerals have been introduced into preexisting country rock after their formation.Stratiform Ore: + As the name indicates the deposit reflect stratification, i.e. in the form of a bed or in the form of lamination. + Example : Stratiform Copper Deposit, Kupferschiefer Type Deposit * Most of the concordant mineral deposit can be considered as stratiform. + Stratiform deposits can be sulphides, oxides and sulphates. + They can occur in sedimentary as well as in volcanic environment Stratabound Ore: * As the name indicates the mineralization is restricted to a particular lithology. * Stratabound deposits, refers to any type(s) of ore body, concordant or discordant. + Example: MVT Deposit, Zawar Belt, Rajpura-Dariba, Rampura Agucha Note: Hence, stratifors a strataboun* Strategic minerals are those for which a country has to depend upon outside sources as less or negligible resources available within the country, e.g. molybdenum, chromium, graphite, boron, rare earth elements, gypsum, tungsten, gold, antimony and platinum group materials. * Critical_minerals are those for which a country is deficient in supply, but known occurrences are such that irrespective of the cost they can be worked during war time. The critical minerals including germanium, beryllium, rare earths (light and heavy) rhenium, tantalum etc. are used in industries like automobiles, aerospace, cameras, defence, laptops, smart phones, entertainment systems, medical imaging and nuclear energy. + Essential minerals include all those for which known resources are quite large and they are produced in sufficient quantities. It is evident that essential minerals are all those which do not fall under the category of strategic and critical minerals.Styles of Mineralization and Morphology of Mineral Deposits The style of mineralization refers to the pattern of distribution of ore minerals in a host rock, and it varies from being very subtle (even invisible to the naked eye as in some precious metal deposits) to quite pronounced (as in the case of massive sulfide deposits) The shapes of mineral deposits are also highly variable, from concordant tabular and stratiform to discordant veins and breccia bodies. TABLE 1.1. Some commosly wed terms for sil of mineaition ad morphology of miner deposits Disseminated Ore inerals dispersed hough the stock Stockwork Massive Tabular Veia-rype Sirtiform Sirea-bound ‘An imestacing network of stall and narrow (commosty ‘earored sa centimeters), close-spaced oFe-bearing ‘inlets waversing the hos ook Mineralization comprising >50% of he ost rock ‘Am ore zo0e thats extensive intro dimensions, but has 2 ‘stricted development nis hid dimension Migeralization in veins, commonly discordant tothe bast ‘rock layering (depositional) Mineralization confined to a specific bed and, thus, ‘broadly’ conformable w the hast rock "Tayeding (depositional) Mineralization discordant 10 host rock layering joni), but vetted 10 8 particular oe (Gepstiona bu ested 10 «pacar spo ‘Typical examples Dit in Linas ie Festal steraion zoe of ‘emt mane tole depose ce 10.1, 10.4) = Voleani-houed massive ile ems Gor ig 104) Sanc wranium ‘ponte Gee ign 14 147) precious metal straliform copper Gee Fig 128) “Mineralized beecia bodies ia Spots P13)Classification of Mineral Deposits The purpose of any classification is to group similar objects into classes or sets either for convenience. By now, there are many classification schemes available for ore deposits. Most of these classifications are based on genetic concepts prevalent at that time or believed by the authors. Every classification has it’s own advantages and disadvantages.Lindgren’s Classification * Lindgren (1911) was the first in the early part of twentieth century to bring out a detailed genetic classification of mineral deposits which he himself modified later (Lindgren 1922) through his own experience. * It has now become the most widely adopted classification. + Lindgren (1911) classified mineral deposits in two main sub divisions : i. those formed by mechanic centration, and ii. those formed by chemical s in solutions acti * The chief basis of distinction between groups in the classification is the temperature and pressure of formation of deposits.I. Deposits by Meshanical Processes. IL, Deposits by Chemical Proceases. A, To surface waters, ‘Teurenarons °C Pxsssvnr 1 By reactions. 0-70 Medium to bigh 2. Evaporation. 2B. In bodies of rocks. 1. Concentrations of substances contained within rocks: 4. By weathering. o-100 Mediu & By ground water. 0-100 Medium, By metamorphism. 0-400 High 2. By introduced substances ‘a. Without igneous activ. iny 0-100 Mediam 2, Related to igneous ‘ctivty (6) By ascending waters (Q) Bpithermal de- posits. 60-200 Medium (@) Mesothermal epocits. 200-800, High (@) Hypothermal ‘eporita. 300-800 Hight (©) By direct igneous ‘emanations. (2) Pyrometasomatio ‘deposits. 500-800 Hight (2) Sublimates. 100-600 Law @ medio, . In magmas by diferentiation, 1. Magmatic deposita. 700-1800 High + 2. Pegmaties, 615 & Hit1. The classifications, divisions, and subdivisions do not themselves constitute appropriate names by which the deposits within them may be designated; for example, deposits of class NA1, or “Deposits produced by chemical processes of concentration in bodies of surface waters by interaction of solutions,” could be more satisfactorily and briefly called sedimentary deposits, which, except for bog iron ores, are all that are described under this grouping. 2. The terminology of class IIB2b (a), or “deposits produced by hot ascending waters of uncertain origin, but charged with igneous emanations,” which are more generally known as hydrothermal deposits. 3. The Lindgren classification does not apply to many zoned deposits. for example ,The Butte, Mont., deposits, are classed as mesothermal, yet the Gagnon vein extends from the central or higher-temperature zone, through the intermediate and into the outer or lower-temperature zone.Lindgren in 1922, recognizing the disadvantage of concise terminology in his classification, proposed additional terminology as follows: Derosrrs or Onion Derenvent upon THE ERvprion ov Iaxeous Roczs A. Hydrothermal deposits. @. Epithermal. 8. Mesothermal. ¢. Bypothermal. B. Emanation deposits. a. Sublimates. &. Exudation veins, surface type. c. Pyrometasomatic deposits. . Exudation veins, deep-seated type. C. Magmatic deposits. 4. Orthotectic. 1. Differentiation in aitu. 1. Differentiation in situ, 2. Injected.This arrangement met with objection because it distinguished emanation deposits formed from magmatic vapors from deposits formed from liquid solutions. Unfortunately, conclusive criteria for recognition of deposits formed by vapors are not available. This revision was not adopted by Lindgren in the later editions of his Mineral Deposits. HARiqgli’s Classifiaction In 1925 introduced a new major separation on the basis of “plutonic” and “ volcanic,” similar to that made for igneous rocks. His classification is: 1, Plutonic: (A) hydrothermal, (B) Pegmatitic pneumatolytic, (C) ortho-magmatic. : Il. Volcanic: = (A) exhalative to hydrothermal, (B) pneumatolytic, (C) ortho-magmatic.Schneiderhohn’s Classification In 1932 A more extended genetic classification was introduced. A. Magmatic rocks and ore deposits. (@) Intrusive magmatic. I. Intrusive rocks and liquid magmatic deposits. LI. Liquid magmatic-pneumatolytic. ‘IL Pneumatolytic. 1. Pegmatite veins. 2. Pneumatolytic veins and impregnations. 3. Contact pneumatolytic. II-III. Pneumatolytic-hydrothermal. Ii. Hydrothermal. (®) Extrusive magmatic. I. Extrusive-hydrothermal. II. Exhalation. B. Sedimentary deposits. 1, Weathered zone (oxidation and enrichment); 2, placers; 3, residual; 4, biochemical-inorganic; 5, salts; 6, fuels; 7, descending ground water de- posits C. Metamorphic deposits. 1, Thermal contact metamorphism; 2, metamorphic rocks; 3, metamor phosed ore deposits; 4, rarely formed metamorphic deposits.Comat memoriam | peters” | |eaeeer ae 2 Mh omen | Srila and Neamt hah Jensen and Bateman’s (1981) classification of ore deposits * Bateman (1942) proposed a classification of mineral deposits which was few decades later modified and elaborated upon (Jensen and Bateman 1981) This classification is a simplified version of Lindgren's, but subdivisions are according to processes of deposition and form | of deposit.Conclusion... * Formation of mineral deposits is a complex process, and most of the processes grade into each other by changing variables of the system such as temperature, pressure, host rock, fluid composition. Thus the classifications of mineral deposits should be flexible, and should allow gradations or intermediate classes. liggli, Schneiderhohn, Lindgren, and Bateman classifications are essentially similar; genesis or nature of the ore-bearing fluid is the basis of the primary subdivision in all of them. * Niggli and Schneiderhohn classifications include subdivisions for mineral associations or metal content of the deposits. So, they may be used in the field. Lindgren tried to place physical and chemical processes in depth temperature zones. Bateman classification is the simplest; it emphasizes the process of formation and the form of the deposit.