Control of Ore Localization The ore localization is controlled by the following factors : (i) Chemical and physical characters of host rock : + This determines the location, shape and size of opening. For example carbonate rocks permit solution openings and brittle rocks shatter more readily to localize fractures or breccias. ity which is necessary in rock for passage of solution and ore localization, is caused + Permeal due to pore spaces, fissibility, cleavage planes/brecciation, joints, fractures etc. (ii) Structural features : + Structural features like fissures, shears, folds, faults, bedding planes, lamination and unconformity serve important localizers of hydrothermal deposits. (ii) Intrusive: + Intrusive being source of ore-bearing fluid, constitute ore loci on a regional scale.Oxidation & Supergene Enrichment Ore Deposits: Definition: It’s an upgrading of primary (inferior) ore deposit into highly enriched economically valuable ore deposits.Process + If an ore deposit is exposed to the ground surface, it undergoes weathering. + The surface water oxidizes and dissolves the ore minerals from the weathered zone and carries them downward. * As the cold, dilute, leaching solutions trickle downwards, they may lose a part or all of their metallic content within the zone of oxidation to give rise to oxidized ore deposits above the water table. . * If they penetrate the water table, their metallic content may be precipitated in form of secondary sulfides - zone of secondary or supergene sulfide enrichment. + Inthis way a low-grade primary ore deposit may be enriched to form a valuable ore deposit + The lower, unaffected part of the deposit is called Primary or Hypogene deposit.The zones have been recognized in the oxidation & supergene enrichment deposits: i. Gossan: * It is the cap-rock of an ore deposit. * A"gossan" is a ferruginous and porous looking residue that forms a superficial cover over an oxidized sulfide deposit. + The porous nature of gossans is caused by the removal of the soluble materials. Thus may be used as clues to the existence of subsurface ore deposits ii. Leached Zone: * The groundwater contains dissolved oxygen and carbon dioxide, and as it travels downwards it leaches out the minerals in the rocks to forms sulfuric acid, and other solutions that continue moving downwards.iv. Oxidized Zone: * The region above the water table in an ore deposit is known as oxidized zone as it is the zone of oxidation of the primary ore minerals. v. Water Table: * At the water table the environment changes from an oxidizing environment to a reducing one. vi. Enriched Zone or Supergene Enrichment Zone: + This zone lies below the water table. ore deposit where metals are deposited by fluid + It is the richest part of an one and concentrating in a narrow reducing percolating downwards from oxidized 2 band just below the water table. Primary Zone: The primary zone contains unaltered primary minerals. vii.idation and solution in the zone of oxidation + The oxidation by the surface water containing dissolved oxygen causes alteration of minerals, obliteration of structure and leaching of metallic substances. + Most metallic minerals contain pyrite, which yield in sulfur to form iron sulfate and sulfuric acid: 2FeS2 + 2H20 + 702-> 2H2SO«+ 2FeSOs + The ferrous sulphate readily oxidizes to ferric sulphate and ferric hydroxide. 6FeSO«+ 30 + 3H20 - 2Fe2 (SOx), + 2Fe (OH); * The ferric sulphate hydrolyzes to ferric hydroxide and sulfuric acid: Fe,(SOs), + 6H20 -> 2Fe(OH); + 3H2SO« * The ferric sulfate and sulfuric acid act as solvent for the ore minerals. * They both attacks pyrite and other sulfides to yield more ferrous sulfate: Fe2(SOa), + FeS2 > 3FeSOa+ 2S+ The ferric hydroxide forms limonite, which form a porous covering over the oxidized zone known as a gossan cap or iron hat. + The part played by ferric sulfate as a solvent can be seen by the following reactions: Pyrite FeS2 + Fe,(SOs)>-> 3FeSO:+ 25 Chalcopyrite CuFeS, + 2Fe,(SO:),-> CuSO.+ SFeSOs+ 2S Chalcocite Cu,S + Fe,(SO:), -> CuSO, + 2FeSO,+ CuS Covellite Cus + Fe,(SO,),-> 2FeSOs+ $ Sphalerite ZnS + 4Fe,(SO,), + HzO -> ZnSO, + 8FeSO:+ 4H2SOs Galena PbS + Fe,(SO,),+ H20 + 30 > PbSO, + 2FeSO,+ H2SOs Silver 2Ag + Fe,(SO,), > Ag.SO,+ 2FeSO, * Most of the sulfates formed are readily soluble, and these cold dilute solutions slowly trickle downwards through the deposit till the proper Eh-pH conditions are met to cause deposition of their metallic content.Deposition in the zone of oxidation * Solutions traveling downward from the leached zone react with other primary minerals in the oxidised zone to form secondary minerals such as sulfates and carbonates, and limonite, which is a characteristic product in all oxidised zones. The ore deposits are called “oxidized ore deposi ntly concentrated, it + When the oxidized zone is well developed and the secondary minerals suffi isa highly profitable zone to mine as the processing is much cheaper and easier and the metals more concentrated. * The most common minerals found in oxidized zones are: Copper: malachite, azurite, chrysocolla Gangue minerals: quartz (usually cryptocrystalline), baryte, calcite, aragonite Iron: goethite, hematite Lead: anglesite, cerussite Manganese: pyrolusite, romanechite, rhodochrosite Nickel: gaspeite, garnierite Silver: native silver, chlorargyrite Zine: smithsoniteDeposits in the zone of supergene enrichment The ore minerals in solution which are not precipitated in the zone of oxidation, trickle down below the water table, here all the pores of rocks are saturated with water therefore no air is available for oxidation where they are deposited as secondary sulfides. This deposition of secondary sulfide minerals occur as a result of reaction between the primary sulphides and the percolating solution of the metallic sulphates. The ore deposit formed in this way is called "supergene sulfide deposit". In the supergene zone metals are concentrated in a narrow band just below the water table. * Below this zone is the primary or hypogene zone which remains altogether unaffected.* For Example, copper sulfide is precipitated from the solution by the replacement of primary sphalerite (ZnS) as follows. CuSO, + ZnS = CuS+ ZnSO, * The most common minerals found in supergene zones are: Copper: chalcocite, bornite Lead: supergene galena Nickel: violarite Silver: acanthite, native silver Zinc: supergene sphalerite, wurtziteContact Metasomatism + The contact effects of escaping high-temperature gaseous emanations of intrusive magmas. * These effects have been divided by Barrell into two types: i. The effects of heat, without appreciable accessions ii. The effects of heat combined with accessions from the magma chamber * Contact metasomatism is a process of formation of new mineral by reaction between the contact rock and the escaping high temperature gaseous emanations with other important materials from the magma chamber.How it is different from Contact Metamorphism?? * In Contact metasomatism important accessions from the magma are involved, leads to metasomatic reaction with the contact rocks and forms new minerals under conditions of high temperature and pressure. * In Contact Metamorphism there is no accessions from the magma, only the effect of heat.In Contact Metasomatism the magmatic emanations are highly charged with the constituents of mineral deposits, in such cases result from accession (large volume of material may be added and subtracted from the invaded rocks from the magma) it leads to the formation of contact metasomatic deposits. All magmas do not give rise to contact metasomatic deposits. Mostly felsic intrusive of intermediate composition. such as monzonites and granodiorites yield ore deposits. The resulting mineralogy is thus more varied and complex than that by contact metamorphism alone. The temperature for contact metasomatism may possibly be ranging from 400° to 800° or even higher.Conditions for the formation of contact metasomatic deposits: 1. Composition: + Mostly felsic intrusive of intermediate composition. such as monzonites and granodiorites yield ore deposits. + Usually basic and ultra basic rocks are not suitable, since the felsic material has higher contact of fluid (water) than the mafic magma, so they are best suitable. 2. Size and form of the intrusive: + The intrusive must be of considerable size. + Most contact metasomatic deposits are associated with stocks, batholith etc. Depth of intrusion: + Most of the deposits has probably crystallized at a depth >5000 feet's. + Contact metasomatic deposits are found only with granular groundmass, which indicates relatively slow cooling.4. Relation to composition: + The invaded rocks must be reactive. + Carbonate rocks are most effected by intrusive magmas. + Sandstone are also affected but little affected. Resulted Mineral Deposit: 1. Position: Ore bodies occur at the contact or near the Intrusive. 2. Form & Size: ‘ontact metasomatic deposits are generally irregular in outline & comparatively in small size. 3. Texture: The ores are coarse in texture, containing large crystals. Crustification and bandings are absent. Example: Deposits of Cassiterite, Zinc, Magnetite, Graphite and Sulfides of Galena, Iron, Lead etc.Metamorphism * The word "Metamorphism" comes from the Greek: meta = after, morph = form, so metamorphism means “change in the form” * The Metamorphism is an important process to give rise to many new mineral deposits by altering the earlier deposits/rocks when subjecting a rock to conditions such Pressures, temperatures, and chemical environments different from those under which the rock originally formed. * Itis by recrystallization and reconstitution of pre-existing rock forming minerals that some valuable mineral deposits are formed,The degree to which a parent rock changes during metamorphism is called its metamorphic grade. Valuable nonmetallic mineral deposits are formed from rocks chiefly by recrystallization and recombination of the rock-making minerals. There are three principle types of metamorphism namely. 1) Contact metamorphism 2) Dynamic metamorphism 3) Regional metamorphism1. Contact metamorphism * In the case of contact metamorphism the effect is nearly to the contact of igneous intrusion and away from the intrusion, the temperature gets reduced. * It means the main agent of metamorphism in this type is temperature or heat, it is also called thermal metamorphism. * This type may change the mineralogy without the development of secondary structure like schistosity and foliation.<<10Km Scale2. Dynamic metamorphism * Dynamic metamorphism occurs as a result of mechanical deformation, like when two bodies of rock slide past one another along a fault zone. * This is restricted to narrow zones like major Faults and thrust where strong deformation has occurred. *This is accompanied by high strain and range of PT condition.3. Regional metamorphism This develops over a large area. Regional metamorphism is associated with convergent margins & orogenic activities. 2 Regional metamorphism produces som rocks. f the most common metamorphic * In this process, shale is metamorphosed to produce the sequences of slate, phyllite, schist, and gneiss. In addition, sandstone and limestone are metamorphosed into quartzite and marble.Examples 1. 2. Graphite is a product of regional or contact metamorphism. Talc-Steatite-Soapstone is metamorphic product of magnesian-rich minerals in a rock aided by dynamic metamorphism. Andalusite-sillimanite-kyanite deposits are formed due to regional metamorphism of aluminous silicate rocks. Wollastonite comes from contact metamorphosed impure limestones. Garnets are formed by contact metamorphism in calcareous rocks.Residual & Mechanical Concentration Residual Concentration Deposits Residual ore deposits indicate the concentration of ores as residue. It is based on the weathering of rock containing economic minerals. During weathering the rocks undergo mechanical disintegration & chemical decay (usually both). Mechanical disintegration like frost action, expansion or contraction frees the rock sediments for chemical decay by reducing the particle size. The minerals that are unstable under weathering conditions suffer chemical decay; the soluble parts may be removed and the insoluble residues may accumulate, and forms residual concentration deposits.The conditions necessary for the formation of residual mineral deposits are as follows. i. The rock undergoing weathering must contain some valuable minerals. ji. The valuable minerals must be resistant to chemical weathering. iii, Climatic condition must favor chemical decay i.e. tropical and sub-tropical climate. The outcrop surface should have low relief so that gravity and running water cannot remove insoluble (residue) product. Under the above conditions a limestone deposit with ferruginous impurities may give rise to workable iron-ore deposit by removal of limestone in solution and accumulation of iron-oxides as insoluble residues. Examples: Bauxite, Iron, Manganese, Nickel, Clay, Ochre, Tin, Kyanite, Baryte etc.Mechanical Concentration Deposits * The natural separation of heavy minerals from light ones by means of involving water, air or gravity, is call centration". * The mineral deposits formes are called “placers”. * The process of mechanical concentration takes place in two stages. 1. Weathering of the parent rock releasing the stable minerals from the rock. 2. Concentration of the stable minerals.Concentration Of Stable Economic Minerals:- * Concentration takes place only when the economic minerals have important characters such as i. High specific gravity ii. Chemical resistance of weathering iii. Durability. iv. HardnessThe process of mechanical concentration may be summarized as follows. The ore minerals are released from the rock by weathering and disintegration. The disintegrated materials are carried downslope by water, air, etc. Ultimately this material reaches the stream or sea shore. In the moving water or air, the heavier placer minerals sink to the bottom while the lighter material is carried further. Thus, the heavier minerals are separated from the lighter ones. In this way the heavy minerals get concentrated in particular localities to form placer deposits.The conditions necessary for the formation of a placer deposit are: iii, There must be a primary source, such as an ore deposit, a dissemination deposit, or a low-grade deposit which supplies ore minerals. It must be exposed to weathering on a slope from where the disintegrated material may be carried away by water, air, gravity. The ore mineral in the deposit must be of such chemical composition that chemically resistant to weathering. For a mineral to be concentrated as a placer deposit, it must have a higher density than the worthless material with which it occurs.Types of Placer Deposits: The placer deposits have been divided into four groups: i. Eluvial placers: Example: Gold, Tin. The eluvial placer deposits occur along the hill slopes. Here the mineral concentration is caused by gravity. When the debris produced due to weathering of rocks, moves downslope, the heavier particles move more slowly than Lighter ones. In this way heavier minerals get concentrated to form an eluvial placer deposit. The weathered products are washed by rain and wind. This result in the partial concentration of placers.ii, Stream placers: + These occur at various places along the stream. + Here the mineral concentration is caused by running water, the weathered rock material travels with stream water. + The concentration of heavier minerals occurs in those places where the velocity of water slackens. Place of Accumulation: i, AtMeanders ii, Behind the riffles iii, Deposition of placer minerals take place at the confluence, where a tributary meets the main river. Example: * Gold placer deposits of Subarnarekha in Bihar * Kollur in Guntur district of Andhra Pradesh + Pariatala diamond placer deposit in Krishna district of Andhra Pradesh.Nose places where the velocity of water slackens,Beach placers: These deposits occur along sea shores where mineral concentration is caused by wave action (or) shore action, shore current etc. The lighter materials move faster and farther than the heavy materials. + The mineral are concentrated on the exposed beaches. Beach sand of Kerala contain important deposits od monazite and ilmenite. Example: ilmenite, Monazite, Zircon etc. of Chabara, Kerala beach Zircon placers along Manavala Kuruchi Near Kanyakumari iv. Aeolian placers: * These placer deposits are formed wind. + They occur only in arid regions. The lighter particles are blown away form the weathered zone by wind and concentrate patches of heavy minerals. Example: Placer Gold deposits of Australian desert.Sedimentation Deposits * The natural processes of sedimentation, which lead to the formation of mechanical, chemical and organic sediments a leading role in the development of deposits of rocks and mineral of economic importance. The processes of formation of deposits of this type are exactly the same as those leading to the development of common sedimentary rock The constituents of such deposits are removed in suspension or in solution from suitable parent rocks, transported to variable distance and deposited in the form of bed, lenses or irregular bodies, where conditions favorable for their precipitation and/or deposition.Process of deposition: iii. During weathering, the materials are released from the source rock. In this process the valuable mineral constituents are taken into solution. The chief solvents are carbonated water, organic acids and sulfate solutions. Most of the valuable substances are transported either in suspension or in solution by means of river water to the sea. In the sea, the valuable material is deposited mechanically, chemically or biochemically. The chemical precipitation of materials in solution is controlled largely by the pH and Eh of the environment. The pH is responsible for the acidic or alkaline conditions and the Eh for the oxidation-reduction potential.Source Material + The materials have been derived mainly from the weathering of rocks and oxidation of former mineral deposits such as Fe, Mn and Cu. Solution and Transportation: + Solution of the constituents of economic sedimentary deposits in large part goes on during the weathering. + The chief solvents are carbonated water, humic and other organic acids and sulphate solutions. Deposition: + The deposition may take place mechanically, chemically or biochemically The manner and resulting products of deposition depends upon: i. The nature of the solvent and the place of deposition. ii, The type of basin of deposition. iii, Agency of deposition.Examples: + Deposits of iron, manganese, copper, uranium and vanadium ores and of sulphur, limestone, dolomite, magnesite, coal, clays, etc Important Indian Deposit Iron ore deposits of Bailadila in Chhattisgarh . Iron Deposits of Donimalai in Karnataka. Iron Deposits of Salem in Tamil Nadu.Evaporation Deposits * Evaporation has been important in producing many valuable types of nonmetallic mineral deposits. ‘ions of land and * Great sections of the oceans may be cut off during slow osci sea and be gradually evaporated to yield deposits of gypsum, common salt and potash. * Ground waters reaching arid surfaces leave behind valuable minerals upon evaporation. * Lakes may disappear under arid conditions to form playas.Process of evaporation 1. The main source of the evaporation deposits is sea water. 2. When a body of sea water is cutoff during oscillations of land and sea its water evaporate. This leads to the concentration of soluble salts. jitated and thus 3. When supersaturation of a salt is reached, that salt is preci evaporation deposits are formed. 4. This evaporation deposits are mostly formed in warm arid climates where evaporation proceeds very rapidly.Conditions: * Evaporation proceeds most rapidly in warm humid climates. + Evaporation of bodies of saline water leads to concentration of soluble salts, and when supersaturation is reached, the salts are precipitated. * Deposition of minerals by evaporation depends on supersaturation, which in turn depends upon other factors, chief of which are: temperature pressure depositional environment iv. seasonal & climatic changesSea water is the prime source of minerals formed by evaporation. About 3.45% of which consists of dissolved salts of which 99.7% by wt. is made up of only seven ions: Nat (30.61), Mgz+ (3.69), Ca2+ (1.16), K+ (1.10), Cl- (55.04), $042- (7.68) HCO3- (0.41) About 45 other elements whose concentration is known in sea water occur as trace minerals in evaporites. Few carbonates occur in marine evaporites as compared to terrestrial evaporites. Calcite, dolomite and magnesite are the chief carbonates of marine evaporites.Examples: * The chief minerals which occur as evaporation deposits are common salt, gypsum, and other salts of K, Na, Ca, and Mg. + Indian Examples: i. Gypsum deposits of salt range in Punjab ii. Gypsum deposits of Trichy dt of Tamil Nadu. iii, Gypsum deposits of Bikaner, Barmer, Jaisalmer etc in Rajasthan. iv. Gypsum deposits of Porbandar and Kutch in Gujarat.