2.

2 PHOTOLITHOGRAPHY
either from the substrates
It is already mentioned that the microcomponents/microfeatures are created
Assume that we are
or from the thin layer(s) of some specific material, say a silicon dioxide layer.
interested in fabricating several simple microstructures such as steps, as shown in the Fig. 2.1. First, the
oxide layer is deposited on the entire substrate. Note that the layer is not entirely used to create the
desired components such as steps. This is due to the reason that atypical MEMS device might contain
many components, which could be built from the same layer. Justifiably, several components are
derived from the single layer(s). Therefore, the deposited layer has to be segmented and subsequently
the selective portions be removed or etched away properly so that many desirable components (e.g.
steps) can be created in respective segments. Depending on what type of components and what kindof
MEMS structure is to be produced the layer at hand is segmented and subsequently etched. The entire
nrocess is usually achieved by a technique calledphotolithography. Photolithography is thus an essential
as well as one ofFthe starting sub-processes used to delineate the shape of MEMS structure in first place.
Simply speaking, segmentation characterizes the removal of some portion from the laver. leaving the
er the substrate. So the portions of the layer which need not be
removed are to be protected by
neans andthis is achieved by the use of a mask, which is prepared in
hase of the photolithography is therefore the preparation of a photomask. Once advance The foremost
prepared. it is then
transferred onto the layer.
Lithoeraphy is a Latin word which neans stone-Writing.
Stone-writing is a process of printing that
Aat inkedsurfaces to create the printed mages. Although,
util the principle is not utilized here in the
context of MEMS design but the very meaninggis similar.
Photolithography is the process of using light
 Micromachining 37

to create a pattern, i.e. mask, and subsequently transfer it onto the substrate (wafer), Photolithography
is an optical means of transferring patterns intothe substrate.
In the meanwhile, the substrate is chemically cleaned to remove particulate matter as well as any
traces of organic, ionic, and metallic impurities on the surface. Sometimes it is necessary topre-process
the substrates by heating them in a chamber maintained at temperature ranging from 950-1100 °C
(depending upon the material and applicability) in order to facilitate auniform etch rate. The wafer
cleaning process and photomask preparation can go alongside. Figure 2.2(a) shows athin film of some
selective material (say, silicon dioxide; depending upon the design requirement, however, other materials
such as metals, alloys, etc. can also be used) deposited on a substrate of some other material (say,
silicon). It is required that some of the silicon dioxide is to be selectively removed so that it only remains
in particular areas on the substrate.
Chromium
Sio, Photoresist
pattern
T Maskd
Glass plate Photoresist (PR)
Sio,
Substrate Wafer (substrate)
(a) (b) (c) (d)
PR PR
Sio, Sio,

() (g) (h)
PR
Sio,

(e) (i) (k)

Fig. 2.2 Photolithography; (a) Asubstrate with SiO, layer, (b) Additional
glass plate with chromium pattern, (d) The mask is on the top of the photoresist layer (c) The mask
uV light falling on the photoresist, () After exp0sed to UV light photoresist-SiO,-wafer
(positive PR), (g)
layers, (e)
photolithography in which the opening portion of the SiO, layer is removed (positiveThird PR
phase of
case), (h)
Final phase of photolithography in which the PR is removed (positive
to UV liglht (negative PR), (j) Third phase of photoresist), (i) After exposed
photolithography
SiO, layer is removed (negative PR case), (k) Final phase of in which the opening portion of the
removed (negative PR) photolithography which the PR is
in
For this we need to produce a mask in first place. As
mentioned, the photomask used in the
photolithographic phase is a key component in the process. The mask is typically a glass plate that is
transparent to ultraviolet (UV) light. The pattern of interest is generated on the glass by depositing a very
thin layer of metal, usually chromium or gold. These
masks are
images of micron and even sub-micron features (Fig. 2.2(c)). capable of producing very high quality
3-50 um. Photomasks are normally prepared by the help Typical width of the mask may vary from
of computer-assisted software
(Fig. 2.3). platform
The next phase of the process is the coating of a
sensitive to UV light. Usually organic polymers aretypical material on the wafer. The material shouldbe
called photoresist. Once the photoresist coating is chosen. This UV light sensitive polymer material is
over, the photomask is placed over the coating as
 38
Introduction to Microelectronechanical Systems (MEMS)

shown in Fig. 2.2(d). Then the UV light is allowed to fall on the mask. When UV light falls on the
photoresist (Fig. 2.2(e)) through the mask, asimilar pattern is developed onthe photoresist layer. This
Phenomenon is called mask transformation or pattern transformation, as a similar mask or pattern is
eveloped on the imagable photoresist laver. The transformation is achieved by the combined effect of
UV light and the
composition of the photoresist. Photoresist can be either soluble or insoluble after being
posed to UV light (Fig. 2.2 () &). Accordingly, there exist two types of photoresist; positive and
hegative photoresist, respectively. The soluble photoresist becomes weaker when exposed to UV light,
on the other hand the opposite occurs to insoluble photoresist (negative type). In practice, the photore.
SISt 1s washed away in the portion where the light was struck; conversely, the negative photoresist is
not. This assures that resist which was not exposed to UV light is washed away forming a negative
mage of the mask.The process of washing away the material is called etching (more details later).
The photoresist is coated on the surface of the Sio, layer (in this typical example) by aprocess called
spin coating which is described in Section 2.5.
In the third phase, the portion of the oxide layer that is now exposed through the openings of the
photoresist is removed by some chemical processes (Fig. 2.2 (g) &G). Finaly the photoresist is
removed leaving the desired segmented oxide layer (Fig. 2.2 (h) &(k).The result of Fig. 2.2 (). (g) &
(h) has undergone the process in which the positive photoresist is used and that of Fig. 2.2 (i), ) &(K)
undergone the process in which the negative photoresist is used. Figure 2.3 summarizes the
photolithography process described above. Figure 2.2(h &k) shows steps, which are built using
photolithography process.
Constraints on Exposing Energy UV light is known as the exposing energy. The source for UV
light is a mercury arc lamp, called radiator, which has an output with spectral energy peaks at particular
wavelengths. Depending upon the feature complexity, the thickness and the property photoresist
SCANNING
(during mask making)
SCANNING/EXPOSURE
(Pattern transformation)
Electron generator Mercury lamp
Computer
(Radiator)
assisted
mask-making
software Focusing system
Deflecting plates
Mask
MASK photoresist
thin film
wafer

PR coating
Wafer Layer (Spin coating) Photomask
deposition (Figure 3.2) placement UV light Washing
of PR layer
Etching
cleaning

Fig. 2.3 More details on

photolithography
 Micromachiningl 39

materials, the exposing may be performed once or several times; accordingly we have
fabrication and multi-exposure fabrication process. The feature size of the single-exposure
becomes smaller than that of its top after the development. This may cause thebottom the structure
of
their bottom. Therefore, accurate dose of UV light is of features to break near
additional exposure may cause large
paramount importance. Sometimes the
internal stress in the resist layer leading to a poor adhesion between
the resist layer and the substrate. The internal stress may lift-off the
structures from the substrate
during the subsequent processes. Therefore, a compromise is sought. Light may fall on the entire
of the photoresist in one go or in sequence by employing scanning technique. Scanning is area
moving a small spot of light over the desired area of photoresist. achieved by
2.3 STRUCTURAL AND SACRIFICIAL MATERIALS eoeh ba
MEMS components and structures are manufactured through micromachining. The materials from
which the microcomponents are built are called structural materials. The components and
structures are
micromachined in two ways; indirect and direct ways. When a microcomponent or structure is built
from a previously micromachined micromold then the method is called indirect method (see soft
lithography section). A mold is a 3D geometrical structure used for making its 3D image using other
molten material. The process of shaping the material using a mold is called molding.
On the other hand, when the structures are created without using the molds, the micromachining
process is called direct method. Whatever may be the ways, the structures are built from the selective
materials called structural material. There exist several types of structural materials. Depending upon the
application, e.g. whether the MEMS structure is for RF (radio frequency) application, biomedical
application, fluidic application and so on, the structural materials are chosen. Some structural materials
are SiO, SiN and Polysilicon. o
Sacrificial layer is a layer, which isdeposited on a specificregion and later on is removed so that
microstructures or features can be created. In Fig. 2.4, SiN is used as the structural material for
SiN SiN
Sacrificial layer
SiNlayer (structural material)

lum thick SiN

300 um
#1 um

Fig, 2.4 Amicrostructure showing the role of structural material and sacrificial material (a) Before etching
(b) After etching.
40
Introduction to Microelectrontechanical Systems (MEMS)

micromachining
couldbe used as
two bridge
resonator in structures Table 2.2 Physical properties of the SU-8 photoresist
RF
MEMS
applications and Aerogel as the sacrificial Characteristic Value
material, which is etched away at a latter Absorption coefficient 2-40 cm!
stage in order to obtain the
bridges (resonators). Amongfreestanding
sacrificial
Breakdown voltage 1.1 10°V/m
materials SU-8 and Aerogel inherit good
Coefficient of thermal expansion 20-50 ppm/°K
physical, chemical and mechanical Degradation temperature -384.5°C
properties for which they are very popular. Density 1.2g/cm
Although, the primary
and Aerogel are to applications of SU-8 Film stress 19-16 Mpa
act as 1N 5°C~250 °C
material, they can also be used assacrificial
structural
Glass temperature
Loss tangent 0.08-0.14
material for micromolding applications. Max sheer 0.009
2.3.1 SU-8 Max stress 34 Mpa
SU-8 is an epoxy-resin negative photoresist Modulus of elasticity 4.02 4.95 GPa
widely used for fabricating MEMS struc Poisson ratio el osAtc 0.22
tures. Figure 2.5 shows comb-like and Refractive index 1.575-1.8o8
gear-like structures, developed by the pro Relative dielectric constant bas 345
cess of photolithography, in which SU-8 is Shrinkage 7.5%
used as structural material in Fig. 2.5(a)
and as the sacrificial material in Fig. 2.5(b),
Thermal conductivity 0.2 W/mK

respectively. Viscosity 0.6-15 pa.s

The advantage of using SU-8 photoresist is that high aspect ratio of approximately 20:1 3D
structures can be built. Aspect ratio is a measure of geometry of 3D structure, micro
width to height. Inherited with excellent chemical and mechanical properties thisquantified as a ratio of
opened up wide number of novel applications in the field of MEMS. Structurespolymerizedwith resist has
resist can normnally have a thickness of several hundred micrometers. fabricated SU-8
Recently the SU-8 2000 series,
which are formulated in cyclopentanone solvent have been introduced. These
coating and adhesion properties. In order to use SU-8 as the structural new series have improved
material it should be cured
beforehand. Some important physIcal parameters of SU-8 photoresist is presented in Table 2.2.
2.3.2 Aerogel
Aerogel, a new class of material, nvented n the 1950s but recently refined by NASA.can be
fabrication of thin films in MEMS applicaions. Aerogels are highly porous used for
nanostructured materials
typically prepared by sol-gel processing. 1hey poSsess the following unique characteristics
" Lightweight " Low dielectric constant
" Hígh relative surface area " Low
thermal conductivity
Aerogel is virtually weightless solid measuring0.00011 lbs per cubic inch. Note that thin air weighs
about O.00004 1bs per cubic inch. Chemicallysimilar to glass, the mass of a
by 70-90%, increasing the resonant frequency and shock micromirrorcan be reduced
surface area. Low density makes it useful as a resistance, while
lightweight structural material, preserving the optical
surface area makes it a super-insulating solid and its super-highinternal
material. Further, aerogel has high
which it requires small etch-time as compared to other non-porous ettoch selectivity for
materials. Because of this property