Photolithography

 Identify the basic steps of a photolithographic process  Dose and dose to clear,
 Classify cleanrooms using both ISO and US FED  Light intensity,
standards  Resist sensitivity, and
 Describe the differences between positive and negative  Contrast
photoresist  Calculate sensitivity and contrast for both positive and
 Explain why photolithography requires a clean environment negative resist
 Describe the process of a RCA clean  Explain the shape of resist profiles and calculate the slopes
 Describe the process of applying resist via spinning and of resist layer
calculate the resulting resist thicknesses  Explain the need for and use of alignment masks
 Describe, compare and contrast the exposure processes of  Explain how photo masks are produced
 Contact printing
 Proximity printing
 Projection printing
 Calculate the resolutions of the above processes and
explain what they depend on and why
 Define and calculate depth of focus and explain how it is
related to resolution in projection printing
 Define the terms
Microsystem Fabrication
Microsystem Fabrication
Microsystem Fabrication
 MEMS Technologies

Three dominant MEMS

fabrication technologies —
philosophically different in
their approach — are
currently in use:
1. LIGA (Lithographie,
Galvanoformung,
Abformung)
2. Bulk micromachining
3. Surface
micromachining

The basic concepts of each of the three fabrication approaches.

 MEMS Technologies
The evaluation and selection of a fabrication process appropriate for an application requires the assessment of a number of factors:
 Feature size: the smallest dimension that can be fabricated with the technology
 Device thickness: influences the mass and stiffness of the MEMS device; this is related to the aspect ratio capability of the fabrication
technology
 Lateral dimension: how large a device can be made by the fabrication technology
 Precision: the technology precision (i.e., dimensional accuracy/nominal device dimension) that can be achieved
 Materials: the materials that can be utilized in the fabrication technology
 Assembly requirements: assembly required to produce a functioning MEMS device (i.e., piece part vs. assembled system)
 Scalability: whether the fabrication technology can produce large quantities of devices if required
 Ability to be integrated with microelectronics: the ability of the technology to be integrated directly with microelectronic circuitry on the
same die
 MEMS Technologies

Comparison of MEMS Device Capabilities within the Three Types of MEMS

Fabrication Technologies
 Microsystem Fabrication

Procedure
 Microsystem Fabrication
Procedure
 Microsystem Fabrication
Procedure
 Microsystem Fabrication
Procedure
Lithography
System
Lithography
Lithography
 The photolithography
 Microsystems fabrication uses several layers to
build devices. These layers typically consist of
thin films of metal, bulk silicon, silicon dioxide or
nitride, or polysilicon.
 The graphic illustrates the layers of a MEMS
linkage assembly. Each layer is a different
component of that device. Each layer requires a
different pattern.
 Photolithography is the process step used to
define and transfer a pattern to its respective layer.

For some layers, the resist pattern is used as a mask for a

deposition process. In such cases, the patterned resist would
identify the areas that receive the deposited material and the
areas that do not. Patterned photoresist is also used as a hard
mask for some etch processes. The photoresist is used to protect
the areas of the film that are not to be etched.
 Reminder of the photolithography steps in the μ-machining process

Unexposed photoresist removed

by developer
Exposed photoresist becomes less
soluable
Mask
SiO2

Opaque
Silicon wafer region
Glass Spin on photoresist
plate
 Reminder of the photolithography steps in the μ-machining process
Photolithography is the process that
The steps in transferring a pattern using photolithography: defines and transfers a pattern onto a
thin film layer on the wafer. In the
photolithography process a light
source is typically used to transfer an
image from a patterned mask to a
photosensitive layer (photoresist or
resist) on a substrate or another thin
film. This same pattern is later
transferred into the substrate or thin
film (layer to be etched) using a
different process called etch.

Note the pattern is the opposite of that on the

mask. This is true for negative photoresist.
For some layers, the resist pattern is used as a mask for a deposition process. In such cases, the patterned resist
would identify the areas that receive the deposited material and the areas that do not. Patterned photoresist is also
used as a hard mask for some etch processes. The photoresist is used to protect the areas of the film that are not to
be etched.
 Steps of Photolithography
 Environment requirement:
Clean room environment: Class 1-
10,000, (0.5 μ m particles/cubic foot),
defects 10% each layer yield 50%
functional devices after 7 mask process.
 Process steps:
1. Surface cleaning
2. Barrier layer formation
(Oxidation)
3. Spin coating with photoresist
4. Soft baking
5. Mask alignment
6. Exposure
7. Development
8. Hard baking
9. Post process cleaning
Steps of Photolithography
 Steps of Photolithography - Wafer Cleaning:
 Goal: to remove:
1. Particulate matter (airborne bacteria,
dust, abrasive particles: SiC, Al2O3,
diamond power),
2. Traces of organic (Grease, Wax from
cutting oil or physical handling, finger
print, plasticizers from containers and
wrapping materials)
3. Light metal ion (Na, K... from etchant
impurities)
4. Heavy metal impurities (Ca, Co, Hg, Cu,
Au, Fe, Ag, Ni…electrodeposition from
etchant)
5. Native oxide (~ 50 Å)
 DI Water (deionized water, 18 MOhm-cm
at 25∘C, with no particles >0.25 μm, <1.2
colonies of bacteria/mL)
 Silicon wafer cleaning procedure:
1. Organic removal by Solvent:
a. Immerse in boiling trichloroethylene (TCE) for 3 min
b. Immerse in boiling acetone for 3 min
c. Immerse in boiling methyl alcohol for 3 min
d. Wash in DI water for 3 min
2. Removal of Residual Organic/Heavy metal impurities
a. Immerse in a (5:1:1) solution of H2O-HH4OH-H2O2 at
75-80∘C for 10 min. (RCA I)
b. Quench the solution under running DI water for 1 min.
c. Wash in DI water for 5 min
3. Hydrous Oxide removal:
a. Immerse in a (1:50) solution of HF-H2O for 40-60 sec
b. Wash in running DI water with agitation for 30 sec.
4. Light-metal-ion contamination removal:
a. Immerse in a (6:1:1) solution of H2O-HCl-H2O2 for
10 min at temp of 75-80∘C
b. Quench the solution under running DI water for 1
min.
c. Wash in DI water for 20 min
 Steps of Photolithography

There are three basic steps to photolithography:

 Coat - A photosensitive material (photoresist or resist) is
applied to the substrate surface.

 Expose - The photoresist is exposed using a light

source, such as Near UV (Ultraviolet), Deep UV or X-
ray.

 Develop - The exposed photoresist is subsequently

dissolved with a chemical developer. The type of
photoresist (positive or negative) determines which part
of the resist is dissolved
 Keeping it clean
 Photolithography can be the “bottle neck” in terms of how small you can make a MEMS
structure.

 Dust particles on masks behave as extra opaque regions and transfer unwanted patterns.

 As when dust particles adhere to the surface of a photomask, they behave as unwanted
opaque patterns on the mask. Thus, unintended patterns are transferred to the wafer.

 Photolithography must be done is a very clean environment.

 The major way to combat this problem is to fabricate MEMS in a clean room, a space
intentionally kept at a certain level of cleanliness.
 HEPA (High Efficiency Particulate Air) filters are commonly used to control the
contaminant content in clean rooms.
 The temperature and humidity of clean rooms are also tightly controlled, and the
environmental pressure is typically kept higher than surrounding rooms.
 Clean rooms

 Designed, built, and operated to provide cleanliness, control, and/or isolation

 Built with smooth, hard, cleanable surfaces
 Air filtration system is critical – HEPA filters (High Efficiency Particulate Air)
 Strict procedures control operation: personnel, process and materials
Why have a Cleanroom?
 To protect the product or process from contamination
 To restrict access to the product or process
 To contain hazards located within the cleanroom
What is Contamination?
Contamination is anything (material, substance, or energy) which corrupts the process or
makes the product impure by either touching or mixing with it
 Solid / Liquid / Gas
 Organic / Non-Organic
 Airborne / Surface
 Chemical Makeup
 Size and Shape
 Static Charge + / -
Clean rooms
 How is Cleanroom Contamination Measured?
• Measured in microns or micrometers
• 1 micron = One millionth of a meter
• There are 25,400 microns in an inch
• A human hair is approx. 75 microns in diameter
• Human eye can see particles down to about 50 microns
• Bacteria is approx. 2 to 10 microns in size

Cleanrooms are measured in the amount of ½ micron

size particles in one cubic foot of sampled air.
 Clean rooms
Clean rooms are classified based on how many particles of a certain airborne exist within a certain volume:

Class 10 is defined as less than 10 particles with diameter larger than

0.5 m per cubic foot.

In the US FED STD 209E.

• Class 1  less than 1 particle > 0.5 μm/ft3
• Class 10  less than 10 particles > 0.5 μm/ft3
• Class 100  less than 100 particles > 0.5 μm/ft3
• Class 1000  less than 1000 particles > 0.5 μm/ft3

Outside the US (ISO 14644-1)

• ISO Class 1  less than 10 particles > 0.1 μm/m3
• ISO Class 2  less than 100 particles > 0.1 μm/m3
• ISO Class 3  less than 1000 particles > 0.1 μm/m3

0.18 mm device require higher than Class 1 grade clean room.

Comparison of cleanroom standards
 Comparison of cleanroom standards
100000

ISO class 6 Cn = 10N (0.1 / D)2.08

10000

Equivalency of cleanroom classifications

1000
ISO 14644-1 US FED STD 209E
Number of particles per ft3

ISO 1 -
100 ISO class 7
ISO 2 -
ISO 3 Class 1
10
ISO 4 Class 10
ISO 5 Class 100
1
ISO 6 Class 1000
ISO 7 Class 10,000
0.1

ISO class 1
0.01
0.05 0.5 5 50 ISO = log(US) + 3 US = 10(ISO - 3)
Particle diameter (μm)
 Clean room etiquette and requirements
The suits do not protect the user from mishaps, but rather they
¿Por
protect work pieces from thequé parece
user, as the main source of airborne
dust is human skin. tan amalliro? • Required (main source of airborne
dust is human skin)
• Not constructed near sources of
pollution
• Floors are conductive for electrostatic
discharge.
• Only certain types furniture are
allowed
• Specially designed paper (pens no
pencils)
• No eating and drinking
Only proper clean room attire must be worn while in a clean room • Perfume, cologne and makeup are
discouraged.
Wafer (itself) cleaning

Radio Corporation of America(RCA) clean

Developed by Werner Kern in 1965 while working at

RCA Laboratories

1. 1:1:5 to 1:1:7 by volume solution of NH4OH :

H2O2 : H2O is used to remove organic
contaminants and heavy metals
2. HCl : H2O2 : H2O in a 1:1:5 to 1:2:8 volume ratio
is used to remove aluminum, magnesium, and
light alkali ions

Both steps approximately 20 minutes while gently

heating to 75-85°C on a hot plate
 Standard RCA cleaning H2SO4/H2O2
1:1 to 4:1
120 - 150ÞC
10 min
Strips organics
especially photoresist
procedure
HF/H2O Room T Strips chemical
RCA clean is “standard process” used 1:10 to 1:50 1 min oxide
to remove organics, heavy metals and all contaminants on top of it,
but induces H passivated surface
and alkali ions. (bad)
DI H2O Rinse Room T
Ultrasonic agitation is used to
dislodge particles.
SC: Standard Cleaning NH4OH/H 2O2/H2O 80 - 90ÞC Strips organics,
1:1:5 to 0.05:1:5 10 min metals and particles
RCA: Radio Corporation of America, SC-1 Less NH4OH will reduce surface
now makes TV, stereos… roughness

DI H2O Rinse Room T

HCl/H2O2/H2O
80 - 90ÞC Strips alkali ions
1:1:6 10 min and metals
SC-2 not removed by SC-1

DI water: de-ionized water HF dip added to remove oxide

DI H2O Rinse Room T 30
 Standard cleaning (SC)
SC-1:
NH4OH(28%):H2O2(30%):H2O=1:1:5 - 1:2:7; 70-80C, 10min, high pH.
• Oxidize organic contamination (form CO2, H2O…)
• Form complex such as Cu(NH3)4+2 with metals (IB, IIB, Au, Ag, Cu, Ni, Zn, Cd, Co, Cr).
• Slowly dissolve native oxide and grow back new oxide, which removes particles on oxide.
• But NH4OH etches Si and make the surface rough, thus less NH4OH is used today.

SC-2:
HCl(73%):H2O2(30%):H2O=1:1:6 - 1:2:8; 70 - 80C; 10min, low pH.
• Remove alkali ions and cations like Al+3, Fe+3 and Mg+2 that form NH4OH insoluble hydroxides in basic
solutions like SC-1.
• These metals precipitate onto wafer surface in the SC-1 solution, while they form soluble complexes in SC-2
solution.
• SC-2 also complete the removal of metallic contaminates such as Au that may not have been completely
removed by SC-1 step.
31
 Steps of Surface Conditioning
There are three basic steps to conditioning the wafer’s surface: bake, prime and cool.
 Bake : After the wafer is cleaned (rinsed/dried) and prior to applying a primer, water
molecules present on the wafer surface must be removed. One way is to heat the wafer
to 100° C, the boiling point of water. The wafer is heated or baked in a small vacuum
chamber or on a hot plate to remove water molecules on the wafer surface.
 Prime: Adhesion promoters are used to assist resist coating. Prime is applied to create a
hydrophobic surface. The hydrophobic surface prevents water molecules from re-
accumulating on the surface once the wafer is returned to the environment.
 After the surface is conditioned, the wafer is coated with photoresist.
 Steps of Surface Conditioning
 Resist adhesion factors:
– moisture content on surface
– wetting characteristics of resist
– type of primer
– delay in exposure and prebake
– resist chemistry
– surface smoothness
– stress from coating process
– surface contamination
 Ideally want no H2O on wafer surface – Wafers are given a “singe” step prior to priming
and coating – 15 minutes in 80-90°C convection oven
 Si-Wafer Primers;
– primers form bonds with surface and produce a polar (electrostatic) surface – most are
based upon siloxane linkages (Si-O-Si)
• 1,1,1,3,3,3-hexamethyldisilazane(HMDS), (CH3)3SiNHSi(CH3)3
• trichlorophenylsilane (TCPS),C6 H5SiCl3
• bistrimethylsilylacetamide (BSA), (CH3 )3 SiNCH3 COSi(CH3)3
 Steps of Surface Conditioning
 Cool: After the wafer is primed, it is cooled to room temperature
(sometimes using a chill plate). This brings the wafer to the same
temperature as the resist for the subsequent resist dispense step.

 After the surface is conditioned, the wafer is coated with photoresist.

Photoresist

Photoresist is the “stuff ” of photolithography

• Often called “resist”

• Three (3) components:
1. a base resin, which is a polymer: gives the
resist structure
Usually sensitive to a
2. photoactive compound (PAC): The light- narrow band of
sensitive component ultraviolet (UV) light
3. solvent.
• Comes in two varieties
1. Positive resist Sometimes the post-exposure products generated by the
2. Negative resist reaction of UV light with the PAC are included as a resist
component.
Photoresist
The Photoresist (Resist)
 The Photoresist (Resist)
Positive resist Negative resist
• Exposure degrades the PAC
• Becomes more soluble to the developer after • Exposure increases molecular weight
exposure (MW) of resist or creates new insoluble
• Unexposed regions of the resist are left behind products
after development • Becomes less soluble to the developer
• Developed resist pattern is identical to the after exposure
mask pattern. • Unexposed regions of the resist are
• Alkalis such as NaOH or KOH used as removed after development
developers • Developed resist pattern is the opposite of
• Very sensitive to UV light with wavelength of the mask pattern.
365 nm, called the I-line of the mercury • Organic solvents such as benzene used as
spectrum developers
• Typically a one minute exposure is necessary • Very sensitive to UV light with wavelength
for a 1-m thick film using a Hg-Xe arc lamp as of 405 nm, called the H-line of the
the UV source. mercury spectrum
• Typical resist thicknesses are from 1 to 3 μm • ~ 10 times more sensitive than positive
thick layers when using positive resist. resist
The Photoresist (Resist)
Positive versus negative resist
Example :

The mask shown in the figure is used to transfer a pattern to a silicon wafer. Sketch the
resulting pattern on the wafer after exposure and development for both positive and
negative resist.. Also sketch the profile from the side of the wafer.
Mask

Side view
of wafer

Positive resist Negative resist

Applying resist
The Photoresist (Resist)
 Applying resist
Three main requirements:
 First, the resist should adhere well to the
surface; Three steps
 second, the thickness of the resist layer
should be as close to uniform across the
wafer as possible; 1. A pre-bake to reduce water (water can the reduce
 and third, the applied thickness should be
predictable from wafer to wafer.
adhesion of resist)
The molecular water can be effectively reduced 2. Spin on the resist
by:
1. the layer beneath the applied photoresist will • To apply the resist, the wafer is first mounted onto a
be an oxide layer. SiO2.
2. pre-bake in which the wafer is placed in an vacuum chuck.
oven at 200-250°C for roughly 30 minutes.
• Pour it onto wafer
• Spin wafer to distribute the solution across surface

3. A post-bake to remove the solvent

Photoresist can also be sprayed (which may or may not get

around uniformity issues)

After baking, substrates are often treated with an adhesion promoter,

such as hexamethyl disilazane (HMDS) for SiO2 surfaces. Adhesion
promoters undergo chemical reactions with the substrate to help
remove any remaining molecular water from the surface.
Applying resist

An empirical relation often used to predict the film thickness is given by KC  

T 

• T is the film thickness
• C is polymer concentration,
• η is viscosity,
• ω is rotational spin speed, and
• K, α, β, and γ are experimentally determined constants that vary
from system to system.
Typical values of α, β, and γ , are . 1Τ2 , 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 1, respectively
Coating step poses the largest danger from a dust contamination.

Spinning creates a slight vacuum along the plane of

the wafer entraining airborne dust particles
Example:

With a given spinner and photoresist formulation, a spin speed

of 4000 rpm gives a resist thickness of 0.7μm. How would you
create a resist layer

a. 0.8 μm thick?
b. 1.0 μm?
 Spinning Artifacts
• Striations:
– ~ 30 nm variations in resist thickness due to non-uniform drying of solvent during spin coating
– ~ 80-100 mm periodicity, radially out from center of wafer

• Edge Bead
– residual ridge in resist at edge of wafer
– can be up to 20-30 times the nominal thickness of the resist
– radius on wafer edge greatly reduces the edge bead height
– non-circular wafers greatly increase the edge bead height
– edge bead removers are solvents that are spun on after resist coating and which partially dissolve
away the edge bead

• Streaks
– radial patterns caused by hard particles whose diameter are greater than the resist thickness
 Exposure and pattern transfer
Once the photoresist has been adequately prepared, the wafer is ready for mounting in either a contact aligner
(or standard mask aligner) or a projection printer in order to transfer the pattern from the mask.
Two basic types of machines :
Contact aligner Projection printer

Contact aligner from University of Alabama Center for Projection “stepper” from Cornell NanoScale
Materials for Information Technology Science and Technology Facility
 Exposure and pattern transfer
 Once mounted, the mask and the wafer onto
which the pattern is to be transferred first
need to be carefully aligned with each other
in order to transfer the pattern to the correct
location on the wafer. Table 3.1 Ultraviolet light regions
 Photoresists are manufactured to absorb
ultraviolet light of specific wavelengths. In
most cases, the UV light is monochromatic,
or occurring at only one wavelength. Most
modern optical transfer equipment uses a
high-pressure mercury-xenon vapor lamp to
produce the UV light.
 Ultraviolet light is usually divided into four
regions. In order of decreasing wavelength
these are called near UV, UV, deep UV, and
extreme UV.
Ultraviolet light spectrum
• Photoresist made to be sensitive to ultraviolet (UV) light.

• Hg-Xe lamps often used as light source. has peaks at

certain wavelengths and gives off relatively little radiation
at others.
These peaks are commonly referred to as spectral lines, some of
which are in the visible range. Many of these lines are identified
by letters, including the E-line (546 nm), the G-line (436 nm),
the H-line (405 nm), and I-line (365nm).

Ultraviolet light regions

Emission spectrum for an Hg-Xe lamp

 Ultraviolet light spectrum
 In general smaller wavelengths result in a better resolution, which in this context refers to
the smallest distinguishable feature size of a transferred pattern.
 For this reason the I-line is widely used in the semiconductor industry, as small feature
sizes are a must.
 When dealing with short wavelengths, however, less energy is available to expose the
photoresist, much of it being absorbed by the optical equipment.
 And so, for very short wavelengths one must be sure to use a resist with sufficient
sensitivity or employ another light source capable of supplying higher energies at the
required wavelength. Excimer lasers are often used for this purpose.
 During exposure the term aerial image (image in air) is often used to refer to the image of
the unmodified mask pattern projected onto the surface of the photoresist by an optical
system.
 The reproduction of the aerial image in the resist layer itself as a spatial variation of
chemical species is called the latent image.
 During exposure, the resist absorbs a portion of the entering light energy in order to form
this latent image.
 Ultraviolet light spectrum

 A certain minimum amount of optical energy is required to expose the resist so that it
completely develops away (positive) or remains (negative).
 The term dose to clear (Dp for positive resist and Dg0 for negative) denotes this amount
of energy.
 The dose to clear is the amount of energy per unit surface area required to expose a
layer of photoresist down to the layer beneath it.
 The dose to clear is a function of the photoresist itself, information about which is
supplied by the resist manufacturer.
 The dose, D is simply the actual amount of energy per unit surface area seen by the
wafer during exposure (on the order of 10-100 mJ/cm2).
 The energy delivered to the surface during exposure comes in the form of light
intensity, I, which has dimensions of power per unit surface area.

𝐃 = 𝐈𝐭 𝐞𝐱𝐩𝐨𝐬𝐮𝐫𝐞 , where 𝐭 𝐞𝐱𝐩𝐨𝐬𝐮𝐫𝐞 is the exposure time

 After the resist is exposed it undergoes another bake, a post-exposure bake.
Contact and proximity printing

Both contact and proximity

printing are called shadow
printing methods because
both rely on the opaque and
transparent regions of the
mask to directly transfer the
mask pattern to the resist. In
essence, the combination of
the light source and the mask
cast a shadow on the resist. Proximity printing
Contact printing

Contact printing and proximity printing create features in the photoresist that more or less look
just like the mask.
 Projection printing
• In projection printing, by contrast (no
pun intended), the mask image finds its
way to the wafer by means of a
projection system containing numerous
optical components. Once mounted in the
projection system, mask lifetime is
virtually unlimited, banning operator
mishandling that is.
• One big advantage of projection printing
over shadow printing methods is its
ability to change the size of the projected
image via the lenses contained in the
A generic lithographic projection system
system. Typically the mask image pattern
is reduced by a factor of 4× to 10× on the
wafer.

In projection printing the size of the features on the resist can be different that on
the mask itself.
Projection printing

Photolithography is an optical printing process

1 1 1
s s'
 
f f s s f
The objective lens is often
a combination of twenty or
more lenses, the purpose
of which is to reduce any
geometrical deviations to a
point where their effect on
the image is negligible.
Producing high quality
images therefore results in
lenses that are very
expensive and heavy.
Example:

A projection printing system is to reduce the size of mask

features by a facture of 5. If the objective lens is kept 60
mm from the surface of the wafer, what should the focal
Ans.: 50 mm
length of the objective be?

s s'
f f
𝑥 Τ5
60−𝑓= 𝑥𝑓
∴ 𝑓 = 50𝑚𝑚
Example:

Estimate the resolution and depth of focus of a state-of-

the-art excimer laser stepper using a KrF light source (λ=
248 nm) with a NA= 0.6. Assume k1= 0.75 and k2= 0.5.
Ans.: R= 0.31 m
DOF=0.34 m
Dose, dose to clear, and

I D
- Light intensity - Dose
- Optical power per unit surface area - Optical energy per unit surface area
- [W/m2]
- D = Itexposure

Dose to clear
- Dose required to expose the resist so that it
completely develops
- Dp for positive resist (completely develops
arial image away)
- Dg0 for negative resist (completely remains)

latent image
 Development and post-treatment
This step represents a chemical reaction in which a chemical
called a developer reacts with only selected regions of the
resist, removing them from the wafer.

Developer

Positive resist Negative resist

• Exposure degrades the PAC • Exposure increases MW of resist or creates new
• Becomes more soluble to the developer after insoluble products
exposure • Becomes less soluble to the developer after
• Unexposed regions of the resist are left behind exposure
after development • Unexposed regions of the resist are removed after
• Developed resist pattern is identical to the mask development
pattern. • Developed resist pattern is the opposite of the
• Alkalis such as NaOH or KOH used as mask pattern.
developers • Organic solvents such as benzene used as
developers
Development and post-treatment
 Development and post-treatment

Pattern transfer can occur using either a “wet” technique or a “dry” technique

Wet Technique
 This simply involves dipping the wafer into an
Dry Etching Technique
organic solvent.
For very small features.
 When the printed features are not too small.
 This method can cause resist swelling because
of absorption. The effect is significant for
negative resist but minimal for positive resist.

After development, there still remains some unwanted exposed/ unexposed

resist on the wafer. A mild oxygen plasma treatment removes this resist. After
this step, another postbake (also called a hard bake) is done to further harden
the resist.
 Development and post-treatment

After exposure, a mild oxygen plasma can be used to remove leftover exposed/unexposed resist.

A post-bake follows, hardening resist even more. Plasma ashing

After the resist has done what it needs to do (act as a mask for doping, or for the etching of the
layer below, e.g., ) resist needs to be removed completely  stripping

Two methods are available, wet stripping and dry stripping. The “wet” in wet stripping refers to the use of
aqueous or organic solutions, whereas the “dry” in dry stripping indicates the lack of such solutions.
Positive resist Negative resist

• Wet stripping usually used • Harder to remove

• Chemical solvent such as acetone or • Use of acids and/or chlorinated hydrocarbons;
methylethylketone (C4H8O) e.g., H2SO4 and H2O2 at 150°C (“piranha”
• Often requires T ~ 80°C clean)
• Can ignite with O2! • Sometimes a plasma ash required.
• Safety important
 Resolution
Diffraction in contact and proximity printing

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Constructive  dsin(θ) = m·λ

Destructive  dsin(θ) = (m + ½ λ)
http://www.colorado.edu/physics/phys2020/phys2020_sum98/lab_manual/Lab5/Image2091.gif
 Resolution
Resolution: smallest distinguishable feature size of a transferred pattern

The smallest width b that can be successfully transferred to

Contact and proximity printing the resist layer is the resolution of the printing process.

z
intensity

3  z
R  bmin   s   s is the gap distance between the bottom
2  2 of the mask feature and the resist surface,
λ is the vacuum exposure wavelength, and
z is the resist thickness.
position
Resolution
Projection printing

 Want a wide lens

close to the image
plane
1 1 1
 
s s f

sf
s 
s f
Resolution
where k1 is an experimentally determined parameter for

k1 a given system that depends on the photoresist, projection

R system optics and process conditions, and NA is the

numerical aperture of the optical system, a dimensionless
NA number that characterizes the range of angles over which
the system can accept or emit light.

Numerical aperture
NA = nsin(θmax)
= D/2F

where F = f/D (effective f number)

0.16 < NA < 0.6

Relationship of numerical aperture to other quantities 0.3 < k1 < 1.1

where, n is the index of refraction of the imaging medium, usually air, D is the lens diameter and
F is the ratio of the lens’s focal length to its diameter (sometimes called the effective F number).
 Resolution

k1
R
NA

3  z
R  bmin   s  
2  2

Contact/proximity ◄ How do you increase resolution? ► Projection

• Make s small (s0 is contact printing  • Make numerical aperture big
short mask life) • Big lenses and costly optics
• Make resist layer thin • Other trade-offs
• Too thin and will not serve as good ion • Make λ small
implantation mask, etc.
• develop away
• Make λ small
Resolution

smaller wavelengths  better resolution

¡Eso es la razón que usamos luz ultravioleta!

Ultraviolet light regions

Emission spectrum for an Hg-Xe lamp

 Resolution—Depth of focus

Depth of focus: the distance across which the aerial image is in focus.
k1
R
k2 k2 R 2 NA
    2
k2 is an experimentally
NA 2
k1 
determined constant
depending on contrast

resist
aerial image
δ δ
 Resolution—Depth of focus

Variations in the height of surface features must

be less than the depth of focus.

structural or For the best results surfaces

sacrificial layer should be planar (flat).
δ

resist
Sensitivity and resist profiles

Positive resist Negative resist

sidewalls not
vertical
Optical exposure causes a photochemical reaction to take place in a layer of resist. Not all the
radiation is incident at the same angle, however, and some of the energy scatters as it moves through
the resist towards the wafer.
Sensitivity and resist profiles
Positive resist
The dose required to completely clear out the
resist down to the underlying layer after
100 development—that is, the dose to clear—is
defined as the lithographic sensitivity, Dp.
The reference dose Dp0 in Figure is that at
which the developer first begins to attack the
Dp
irradiated film. The slope of the curve formed
50
by these two doses helps us define the resist
contrast, γp
Dp0

(+) 0
10 100

dose, D (mJ/cm2)

Dp 1
1   D p 
- Dose to clear p  
0  ln

0 
- Lithographic sensitivity ln D p  ln D p   D p 
 
Contrast High γp  sharp images
 Sensitivity and resist profiles

Negative resist For negative resist a critical

100 dose Dgi is needed to start the
polymerization processes within
the resist in order to decrease
Dgx solubility.
50
Dg0

0
10 20
Dgi dose, D (mJ/cm2)

For negative resist

- dose to clear ≠ sensitivity 1
- sensitivity = Dgx 1  D 0

n   ln 
g

ln Dg  ln Dg   D
0 i i
g


These curves give the amount of resist remaining on a wafer after exposure and development as a function of the dose, D. Since positive
resist becomes more soluble after exposure whereas negative becomes less soluble, the slopes of the curves have opposite signs.
Modeling of resist profiles

For positive resist:

dz 2 NA

dx  (a  t ) D p 1  kk 2 
2

To get vertical sidewalls:
• Small wavelength
• Small absorbance
• Small dose to clear
• Small k2 (small δ)
• Large NA
- λ, wavelength
- a and α are related to resist
absorbance
- Dp, dose to clear
- k2, process dependent contrast (same
as in δ)
- k, depends on coherence of light
Mask alignment

Mask alignment also called registration

alignment
mark

• Good to use asymmetry with alignment

marks
• Arrows (flechas) are often used to make
alignment marks easier to find

alignment
mark
Processed wafer Mask
Mask types

Phase shift masks are used to enhance resolution

Make thicker
or thinner

Alternating phase shift

Attenuating phase shift

Binary mask Phase shift mask Make less

transparent
Mask materials

glass

• Emulsion is photosensitive.
• Mask produced by photolithography
High resolution emulsion
(gelatin)
or

Thin (l000-2000 Å) metal,

• Glass first coated with metal.
usually Cr • Photoresist coated on top and
patterned.
• Metal etched through photoresist
mask and resist is stripped.
Creating masks

Typically both processes use a projection printing machine called a stepper.

 Alternate Nanolithography Techniques

 „ icro-contact Printing
M
 „Nanoimprint Lithography
 „Scanned Probe Lithography
 „Dip-pen Lithography
Our Class Process
Diode & Resistor Fabrication

Top view of an integrated pn diode.

Our Class Process
Diode Fabrication (cont.)

(a) First mask exposure (b) Post-exposure and development of photoresist

(c) After SiO2 etch (d) After implantation/diffusion of acceptor dopant.
 Our Class Process
Diode Fabrication (cont.)

(e) Exposure of contact opening mask, (f) after resist development and etching of contact openings, (g) exposure of metal mask,
and (h) After etching of aluminum and resist removal.
 Homework 4

Answer Questions and problems in your textbook

Chapter 9