Performance Specifications

and Compensation Design

Chapter – 7
Prepared By: Radhika Kumari Sah
 Why Compensation??
To obtain the desired performance of the system, we use compensating
networks.
An unstable system is made stable by compensation.
To minimize overshoot.

Note:
These compensating networks increase the steady state accuracy of the
system. An important point to be noted here is that the increase in the
steady state accuracy brings instability to the system.
 How Compensation is done??
By introducing poles and zeros in the system thereby causes changes
in the transfer function of the system.
Due to this, performance specifications of the system change.
Types of compensation

Series/ cascade feedback

compensation load compensation
compensation:

A combination of series and

feedback compensator is
called load compensation
 Compensating Network
A compensating network is one which makes some adjustments in
order to make up for deficiencies in the system.

Compensating devices are may be in the form of electrical,

mechanical, hydraulic etc.

Most electrical compensator are RC filter.

The simplest network used for compensator are known as lead, lag
network.
 Lead Lag Compensation
𝑮𝒄 𝒔

A system which has one pole and one dominating zero (the zero which is closer to the
origin than all over zeros is known as dominating zero.) is known as lead network.
A system which has one zero and one dominating pole ( the pole which is closer to
origin that all other poles is known as dominating pole) is known as lag network.
 Phase Lead Compensation
Standard form of
Transfer function of
compensation

α = α α
=
α

α ( ) ( ) α )
G’ G(s) = = K’
( ) ( )

𝐺 𝑠 G(s)
 Role of lead compensation

 Phase is positive: might be able to increase phase margin (pm)

 Slope is positive: might be able to increase the cross-over frequency, (and the
bandwidth)
Role of lead compensation
 Phase Lag Compensation
Standard form of
Transfer function of
compensation

α= α α
=
α

α ( ) ( ) α )
G’ G(s) = = K’
( ) ( )
 Role of lag compensation
Larger gains at lower
frequencies; have the potential
to improve steady-state error
constants.
However, phase lag
characteristic could reduce
phase margin.

Add gain at low frequencies

to improve steady state error
constants and low-frequency
disturbance rejection without
changing (very much) the
crossover frequency nor the
phase margin
Role of lag compensation
Summary of Lead , Lag and Lead lag compensation
 Designing a Phase Lead Compensation
To design the Lead/Lag compensator by bode plot method we have given
two specifications
1. Velocity error constant
2. Phase margin
Velocity constant helps to find the gain of the compensated system.
Phase margin helps to find the poles and zeros location of compensator.

Step1:Find compensated gain of uncompensated system K’ from given

velocity constant K

 Note: If K K
 Designing a Phase Lead Compensation
Step2: Draw bode plot of given function and find phase margin φ.

Step3: Find φ = φ φ + ε where, φ - specified phase margin

φ - phase margin of uncompensated system
ε - error (generally ε =5)
°
(if φ > two compensator is used)
φ
Step4: Find α from α=
φ
Step5: Calculate ω
α
For this find -10logα, mark the frequency which coincide the magnitude -10logα in
magnitude plot
-10 α = -10 dB (say)

Step6: Find T ω =
√α

Step7: Put the values of T and

α in equation:

(s) =

G’(s) = G(s) (s)

Now, Draw bode plot of G’(s) ω = 2.5
rad/sec
 Example1: Design a lead compensation in cascade with a system whose transfer

function is : G(s) =
K
s(1+0.1s) (1+0.001s)
Such that It will full fill the following specifications
• Phase margin ≥ 45°
• Velocity constant K = 1000

Solution:
G(s) G(s) 𝐺 𝑠

α K
G’ G(s) =
s(1+0.1s) (1+0.001s)

K’ α )
=
s(1+0.1s) (1+0.001s)
 Velocity error Constant

 From we will find compensated gain of uncompensated system i.e. K’

K’ α )
G’
s(1+0.1s) (1+0.001s)

From this expression we will find gain K’

Step 1: First find K’ of G(s) from .
G’(s)

Step 2: Draw bode plot of G(s) ω ∠𝐺(jω)

1 -95.7
Corner frequencies 5 -116.5
ω = 10 10 -135.63
ω = 1000 50 -171.46
Starting frequency = 1/10 *10 = 1 100 179.9
Starting magnitude 20
ω 150 -184
Where, ω = 1 200 -188.4
500 -205.41
Phase plot
ω =- ° ω) - ω)
System Phase margin φ = °
,
Specified phase margin φ °

3. Find φ = φ φ+ε= °
-0+5= ° Note that: Gain of the compensated system K
= 1000 , so 1/7.51 should be cancelled from
lead compensation
φ
4. α = φ
Step 8: Overall Transfer Function:
α = 7.51

5. Finding ω from -10 α) = -8.75 dB

ω = 170 rad/sec
6. Find T from ω = Step 9:
√α Draw bode plot of overall
T = 0.00214 transfer function
HA: Design a lead compensation in cascade with a system whose transfer

function is : G(s) =
s(s )

Such that It will full fill the following specifications

• Phase margin ≥ 50°
• Velocity constant K = 20

Kc = 10
K’ = 40
PM = °

40(1+0.227s)
G’(S) = s(s = 41.7
)( . ) s(s )( . )
System Phase margin φ = °
, 7. Put the values of α an T in
Specified phase margin φ °
equation in

3. Find φ = φ φ+ε= °
- °
+5= °

G’(s) =
φ s(s ) )
4. α = φ
Step 8: Overall Transfer Function:
α = 4.2 Here G(s) = then,
s(s )

5. Finding ω from -10 α) = -6.23 dB

Gc(s) =
ω = 9 rad/sec )

6. Find T from ω = Step 9:

√α Draw bode plot of overall
T = 0.054 transfer function G’(S)
 Designing a Phase Lag Compensation

Step 1: Find compensated gain of uncompensated system K’.

Step 2: Draw bode plot and find phase margin φ

Step3: Find required phase margin (φ = φ + ε

where, φ - specified phase margin
ε - error (generally ε =5)

Step 4: Calculate ω φ
Step 5 : Calculate α φ
Mark the magnitude in dB at
frequency ω and

Find α from magnitude

-20 α) = 10 dB
( )/
α=

Step 6: Find T
(nearest zero = ( )th of ω )

ω
α
T=
ω = 1.1
rad/sec
 Designing a Phase Lead Compensation
Step 7: Put the value of α and T in
( ) (α )
G’ G(s) = K’
( )

Step 8: Draw bode plot of G’(s)

Example
Design a suitable lag compensating network for
K
G(s) = . To meet the following specifications
s(s+2) (s+20)
K = 20 sec-1
P.M≥ 35°

Given:
K
G(s) =
s(s+2) (s+20)
α = α
Let
K α K′ α
Overall Transfer function G’(s) = * = *
s(s+2) (s+20) s(s+2) (s+20)
1.

2. Draw Bode plot of = Phase margin

s(s+2) (s+20)

3. Find required phase margin (φ = φ + ε = 35° + 5° = 40°

4. Find ω from graph

 40° above
the -180° line i.e. from - 140°.
 Frequency where the line cuts phase plot
is ω
5. Calculate α
 Draw the vertical line from ω , and find
the magnitude (a) where it cuts magnitude
plot.

Here, magnitude = 20dB

20 dB = -20 α)
α = 0.1 φ = 40°
6. Calculate T
Zero is placed 1/10 of ω
7. Put the value of α and T in overall transfer function

20 α
G’(s) = *
s(10+.5s) (1+0.05s)

20 ( )
G’(s) =
s(1+0.5s) (1+0.05s)( )

8. Draw bode plot of G’(s)

HA: Design a lag compensation in cascade with a system whose transfer

function is : G(s) =
s(s )( . )

Such that It will full fill the following specifications

• Phase margin ≥ 40°
• Velocity constant K = 5

5(10s+1)
G’(s) =
s(s
Compensation Design using root locus technique
Compensation Design using root locus technique
 Some remarks

• Adding only zero

 often problematic because such controller amplifies the high-
frequency noise.
• Adding only pole
often problematic because such controller generates a less stable
system (by moving the closed-loop poles to the right).

• Therefore, in compensator design we add both zero and pole!

Root Locus / Lead/Lag Compensator
When to design lead/lag compensator using root locus tool???

when the specification are time domain spec.

• damping ratio (ζ)
• natural frequency (ω )
• dominant closed loop poles
• rise time ( )
• Settling time ( )
• Maximum overshoot(
Lead Compensators Design with an example
Example 1: Design a suitable lead compensator for a system whose open
loop transfer function is

To meet the following specifications:

• damping ratio (ζ) = 0.5
• natural frequency (ω ) = 4
• Velocity error constant (

Solution:

Step 1: Draw the root locus for uncompensated system G(s)

Step 2: Find closed loop dominant ( )pole using formula:
-ζω ω 1-ζ
-2
Step 3: Find angle of deficiency:

φ °
= -180°
φ= °
Step 5: Find poles and zeros from graph
In the root locus graph plot the closed loop
dominant pole .
Join P and 0.
Draw the horizontal line PS.
Bisect angle SPO
φ
Draw angle = ° on both side of bisector line.
In lead compensator point nearer to origin is
zero and farther point is pole.

From graph nearer point to origin(s1) = -2.9,

And far point (s2) = -5.4
Step 6: Find using Magnitude condition:
Step 7: Draw Root locus of the compensated system
Lag Compensators Design with an example
We know that in lead compensator 0<α<1, so we use β instead of α

Design principles:
 Don’t reshape the root locus
 Adding the open loop pole and zero from the compensator should only result in a
small change to the angle criterion.
 Angles from compensator pole and zero to any (important) point on the locus must
be similar.
 Pole and zero must be close together.
 Lag Compensators Design with an example

Design a lag compensator to achieve damping coefficient ζ = 0.5 and velocity

error constant Kv ≥ 5sec, settling time (ts) = 10
Solution:

Step 1: Draw root locus of uncompensated system G(s)

Step 2: G’(s) = G(s)Gc(s) = =

Lag Compensators Design with an example
Given: ζ = 0.5, ts = 10
ts = ω
ζω
-ζω ω 1-ζ
= - 0.4
Step 2: Find K’ using magnitude condition.

= 1  K’ = 2.664
S = -0.4+j0.69
Step 2 continue or incase if only ζ given
ω
Draw a line for ζ = 5 from cos
= °

Draw ° line from negative real axis and

note the distance from the intersection point to
each pole and zeros.
𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡/𝑠𝑑
𝐾′ =
𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡/𝑠𝑑

K’ = 0.8*0.9*3.7 = 2.664
Step 3: Find β from Kv

 β = 7.507

Step 4: Find T

Generally, pole of the compensator design is placed at 1/10th distance of nearest

pole of the system.

 = 1/10th * -1 = - 0.1

 = 0.1* = - 0.0133
Tβ .
 . ( . )
G(s)
( )( )( . )
 Lag Compensators Design with an example
1
G(s) =
s(s+2)
Design a lag compensator to achieve damping coefficient ζ ≈ 0.45 and
velocity error constant Kv ≥ 20.
Solution:

Step 1: Draw root locus of uncompensated system G(s)

Step 2: Find G’(s)

=
s(s+2)
Step 3 : Find Gain K’
Draw a line for ζ ≈ 0.45  cos
°
 =
°
Draw line from negative real axis
and note the distance from the intersection
point to each pole and zeros.

K’
K’ ≈ 5
Step 4: Find β using kv:

∗( )
20 =
( )( )
Tβ
∗
=β β=8
Step 5: Find T
Generally, pole of the compensator design is placed at 1/10th distance of nearest
pole of the system.
 = 1/10th * 2 = 0.2
 = 0.2* = 0.025
Tβ
 Proportional, Integral, and Derivative (PID) controllers
P-controller

I-controller

D-controller

PI controller

PD- controller

PID -controller on Transient response specifications and error

Applications of all the above controller in control system

History and Background of PID Control
 PID controllers use control loop
feedback in industrial and control
systems applications.

 The controller first computes a

value of error

 It then tries to minimize the error

by increasing or decreasing the
control inputs or outputs in the
process so that the process variable
moves closer to the set point.
History and Background of PID Control
why feedback systems??
feedback makes the process variable close to the setpoint in spite of disturbances
and variation of the process characteristics.

PID is simply an equation that the controller uses to evaluate the controlled
variables.

The control physical variables may be temperature, pressure, flow rate, and tank
level.

The technique is widely used in today's manufacturing industry to achieve

accurate process control under different process conditions.
Temperature of the furnace is controlled by adjusting the gas valve.
Operator sets the desired temperature as the set point.
The furnace’s temperature is measured, and this information is sent back
to the controller.
The feedback is compared to the set point, and an error value is
calculated.
The PID equations then determine the suitable valve position to correct
the error.
There are three parameters for the PID: P, I and D.
Designing a PID system involves two steps:

 First, the engineer must choose the structure of the PID controller, for
example P only, P and I, or all three terms P, I, and D.

Second, to tune the controller, the engineer must choose numerical

values for the PID parameters.

To design a control system and achieve the desired results, we need to
have the knowledge of PID controller in details.
 Proportional Control
The proportional controller produces an output, which is proportional to
error signal.

Apply Laplace transform on both the sides -

 transfer function of the proportional controller is KP

Proportional Control

 The proportional controller is used to change the transient response as per

the requirement.
The figure shows the behavior of the process output and the control.
The upper diagram shows setpoint = 1 and process output y for different
values of controller gain K.
The lower diagram shows control signal u for different controller gains.
 Proportional Controllers
They are simple to use and understand but are not always accurate and can overshoot
the desired output.

For example, if a proportional controller is used to maintain the temperature in a

room, and the desired temperature is 25°C, the controller will adjust the output signal.
If the actual temperature is 24°C, the output signal will be adjusted to increase the
temperature. However, if the actual temperature is 26°C, the output signal will be
adjusted to decrease the temperature. This process continues until the actual
temperature reaches the desired temperature.

Proportional controllers are commonly used in simple control systems, such as home
heating and cooling systems.
Integral Control
With proportional control, there is normally a control error in steady state.

The role is to reduce the error between the actual output and the desired output

The main function of the integral action is to make sure that the process output
agrees with the setpoint in steady state.

How an Integral Controller Works??

Function of the Integral Term
The proportional term considers the current size of e(t) only at the time of the
controller calculation.
The integral term considers the history of the error, or how long and how far
the measured process variable has been from the set point over time.

Integration is a continual summing:

 Integration of error over time means that we sum up the complete controller error
history up to the present time, starting from when the controller was first switched to
automatic.

Controller error is e(t) = SP - PV. In the plot below (click for a large view), the
integral sum of error is computed as the shaded areas between the SP and PV
traces.
Function of the Integral Term
 Integral Control
The integral controller produces an output, which is integral of the error
signal.

 Apply Laplace transform on both the sides -

Adding poles will decrease stability but improve steady state

error
 the transfer function of the integral controller

 KI is a tuning parameter that determines the strength of the integral action.

 Derivative Controllers
Derivative controllers adjust the output signal based on the rate of change of the
error signal.

They are effective in reducing overshoot but can cause oscillations in the output
signal.
For example, if a derivative controller is used to maintain the speed of a motor, and
the desired speed is 1000 RPM, the controller will adjust the output signal based on
how fast the motor is accelerating or decelerating. If the motor is accelerating too
quickly, the output signal will be adjusted to slow it down. If the motor is
decelerating too quickly, the output signal will be adjusted to speed it up. This
process continues until the motor reaches the desired speed.

Derivative controllers are commonly used in control systems where quick

responses are required, such as in robotics and manufacturing.
Derivative Controllers
• The derivative controller produces an output, which is derivative of
the error signal.

 Apply Laplace transform on both sides.

 Adding zeros will increase the stability but
increase steady state error.

 transfer function of the derivative controller is KDs

Where, KD is the derivative constant.

Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) Controllers
PID controllers combine proportional, integral, and derivative elements to create a
more effective control system.

PID controllers are more accurate and effective than single-element controllers but
are more complex to use and understand.

For example, if a PID controller is used to maintain the temperature in a room, it

will adjust the output signal based on the error signal (the difference between the
actual temperature and the desired temperature), the integral of the error signal
(the accumulated error over time), and the rate of change of the error signal (how
quickly the temperature is changing). This allows the controller to quickly and
accurately maintain the desired temperature.

PID controllers are commonly used in complex control systems, such as in

industrial processes and aerospace applications.
 Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) Controllers
 The proportional integral derivative controller produces an output, which is the
combination of the outputs of proportional, integral and derivative controllers.

Apply Laplace transform on both sides -

 transfer function of the proportional integral derivative

controller is KP + KI/s + KDs
Proportional Derivative (PD) Controller
The PD controller produces an output, which is the combination of the
outputs of proportional and derivative controllers.

 transfer function of the PD controller

Proportional Derivative (PI) Controller
The PI controller produces an output, which is the combination of the
outputs of proportional and integralcontrollers.

 transfer function of the PI controller

Applications of Different Controllers.
self