Abe Control

LESSON 1: NATURE OF ELECTRICITY
Objectives:
 Describe the structure of an atom
 Tell the difference between a compound and an element
 Explain how electrical forces cause objects to attract or repel other objects
 Describe electron flow
 State the definition of a cell
 List the methods of producing potential difference
1.1. Introduction
Electricity is one of the most versatile and widely used forms of energy. It is an
important component of the country’s economy. Most agricultural operations are becoming
more dependent on electricity.
This manual is designed to assist the reader in attaining basic understanding of the
nature of electricity and in developing skills in solving the problems associated with applying
electricity to agriculture.
1.2 . Primary Methods of Producing Electrical Energy

a. Friction between moving objects
 Clouds driven by strong winds can gather huge electrostatic charges which are released
to the earth in the form of lightning.
b. Pressure (Piezoelectricity)
 Certain types of crystals produce a voltage when subjected to pressure.
c. Heat (Thermoelectricity)
 Voltage is produced when the junction of two unlike metals is heated. Thermocouples
use the principle of the thermoelectricity.
d. Chemical action
 Batteries and fuel rely on chemical reaction to produce voltage.
e. Light (Photo electricity).
 Solar or photo cells convert radiant energy to electrical energy.
f. Magnetism
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 Magnetism produces a voltage by operating on the principle of electromagnetics
induction.
1.3. Electrical and Magnetic Units

The following commonly units of electrical and magnetic quantities are used
throughout this instructional manual.
a. Electrical units.
Quantity Symbol Equation Cgs unit mks and SI Ratio of
unit magnitu
de of SI
to cgs
𝐸 𝐸 𝑞
Current I I = 𝑅; I =𝑍 ; I= 𝑡 Abampere Ampere (A) 10-1
Andre Marie
Ampere
(1775-1836)
Charge Q q = it; q = CE Abcoulom Coulomb (C) 10-1
b Charles
Augustine
Coulomb
(1736 – 1806)
𝑊
Electromotive E E = IR; E = Abvolt Volt (V) 108
𝑞
force Alessandro
Volta
(1745 -1827)
Resistance R 𝐸 𝜌𝑙 Abohm Ohm (Ω) 109
R = 𝐼; R =𝐴
George Simon
Ohm
(1787-1854)
Resistivity Ρ 𝑅𝐴 Abohm - Ohm-cm 1011
ρ = 𝑙
cm (Ω-cm)
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Conductance G 𝛾𝐴 Abmho Mho, Siemens 10-9
G = 𝑙
(S)
Werner von
Siemens
(1816-1892)
Conductivity Γ 𝑙 𝑙 Abmho Mho per cm 10-11
γ =ρ = RA
per cm
𝑞
Capacitance C C =E Abfarad Farad (F) 10-9
Micahel
Faraday
(1791 – 1867)
Self- L 𝑑𝜃 Abhenry Henry (H) 109
L = -N di
Inductance
Mutual M M = k√𝐿1 𝐿1 Abhenry Henry (H) 109
Inductance Joseph Henry
(1797-1878)
Energy W W = EIT Erg Joule (J) 107
James
Prescott Joule
(1818 – 1889)
𝑊
Wh Wh = 3600 Watthour 36 x109
(Wh)
𝑊
kWh kWh = 1000 Kilowatthour 36 x1012
(Wh)
Apparent P P = EI Abwatt Watt (W) 107
power James Watt
Active Power P 𝑑𝑤 Abwatt Watt (W) 107
P= =EI; P =
dt
EIcos𝜃
Reactive jQ Q=EIsin𝜃 Abvar Var 107
Power
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Volt-Ampere-
Reactive
𝑃
Power factor pf Pf = EI = 1
𝑃
√𝑃 2 +𝑄 2
1
Frequency F f= t Cycles per Cycles per sec, 1
sec, Hz Hz
1
Period T T= f sec Sec(S) 1
Angular ω ω =2𝜋f Radians Radians per 1

Velocity per second second
Reactance, XL XL = 2𝜋fL Abohm Ohm (Ω) 109
Inductive
1
Reactance, XC XC = 2𝜋fC Abohm Ohm (Ω) 109
Capacitive
𝐸
Impedance Z Z= I = Abohm Ohm (Ω) 109
√𝑅 2 + (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 )2
𝑅
Conductnace G G=𝑍 2 Abmho Siemens (S) 10-9
𝑋
Susceptance B B = 𝑍2 Abmho Siemens (S) 10-9
𝐸
Admittance Γ γ= = Abmho Siemens (S) 10-9
𝐼
√𝑅 2 + 𝐵 2
B. Units for magnetic properties

Quantity Symbol Equation Gaussian & Multiplier to SI and
cgs unit convert cgs rationalized
to SI mks
10
Magneto F F = 0.4πNI Gilbert (Gb) Ampere-
4π
motive force William turns (At)
(mmf) Gilbert
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(1540 –
1603)
𝐹
Magnetic flux φ Φ= Ɍ Maxwell 10-8 Weber
(Mx), G-cm2 (Wb), volt-
James Clerk second (V-
Maxwell s)
(1831- Wilhelm
1879) Eduard
Weber
(1804-
1891)
𝐹
Magnetic field H H= 𝐼 Oersted 103/4𝜋 At/m
strength (oe), Gb/cm
(intensity) Hans
Christian
Orsted
(1777-
1855)
φ
Magnetic flux B B= 𝐴 Gauss (G) 10-4 Tesla (T),
density Karl Wb/m2
Friedrich Nikola
Gauss Tesla
(1777- (1856-
1855) 1943)
Reactance Ɍ 𝑙 Gb/Mx At/Wb
Ɍ= 𝐴µ
Permeabilty µ 𝐁 G/Oe T-m/At

µ= 𝐻
1.4. Basic Concepts and Information

A. Atom
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 The smallest portion into which an element can be subdivided without losing its
physical and chemical properties
 The nucleus contains protons (+) and neutrons; electrons (-) are distributed in the
shells of the atom.
 The number of electrons and protons are equal, thereby producing overall neutrality.
Figure I.1. Atomic Structure of Atom
 Valence electrons are outermost electrons (farthest from the nucleus)

o Control the chemical and electrical properties of an atom
o Move randomly from one atom to nearby atoms
o Random movement of electrons does not produce any permanent change
(neutral)
o An outside force disturbs this balance (i.e., battery, application of heat), the
electrons will tend to move I one direction.
 Negatively charged ,- if an object contains more number of total electrons that the total
protons
 Positively charged, - if an atom contains fewer number of total electrons than the total
protons.
B. Units of Charge
Elementary charge unit (ECU) - the amount of electrical charge on a single electron
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Coulomb (C) – used to measure quantity of electric charge and approximately equal
to 6.24 x 1018 ECU
C. Current
 The result of non-random movement of electrons
 Defined as the rate at which electrical charge flows
 When a potential difference (emf) between two charges forces a third charge to move,
the resulting charge in motion is called electric current.
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 (𝑞)
Current (I) = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 (𝑠)
Where: I = current in ampere, A
q= charge in coulomb, C
t=time in seconds, s
 Measured in amperes (A)

 One ampere is equal to one coulomb per second
Example I.1. A car battery supplies a current of 50A to the starter motor, How much charge
passes through the starter in half a minute?
Solution:
Q = IT
Q = 50 (0.5 min)(60sec/min)
Q = 1500 A-s or Coulomb.
D. Electromotive force (emf) and potential difference

 Not a force, despite its name
 Causes electric charge, to flow in an electrical system having potential
difference
𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒 (𝑗)
 Measured in volts, volt (V) = 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏 (𝐶)
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 May be generated by means of mechanical, magnetic, pressure, thermal,
radiation or chemical effects.
Example I.2: Calculate the voltage required to accelerate an electron to a kinetic energy of 8
x 10-15 joules.
Solution:
𝑊
E= 𝑄
8 x 10−15 joules
E= Note: 1 electron has charge of 1.609 𝑥 10−19 coulomb
1.609 𝑥 10−19
E = 50,000 Volts
E. Electrical Resistance
 The ability of a material to resist the flow of electrical charge when subjected to a given
potential difference.
 Electrical resistance is measured in ohm, (Ω)
 Resistivity is a property of a material to oppose the flow of electric current
𝜌𝑙
R =𝐴
Where: R = resistance in ohm, Ω

L= length of wire in meter, m
A=cross-section area of wire in square meter, m2
𝜌 = resistivity in ohm-meter, Ω.m
Table 1. Electric resistivity of some metals
Material Resistivity at 200C (Ω.m) Temperature coefficient of
resistance at 200C (per 0C)
Conductor
Aluminum 2.83 x 10-8 4.03 x 10-3
Copper 1.72 x 10-8 3.93 x 10-3
Gold 2.24 x 10-8 3.4 x 10-3
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Iron 9.71 x 10-8 6.4 x 10-3
Lead 22 x 10-8 3.87 x 10-3
Mercury 98x 10-8 8.9 x 10-4
Nichrome 100 x 10-8 4 x 10-4
Platinum 10.6 x 10-8 3 x 10-3
Silver 1.63 x 10-8 3.8 x 10-3
Tungsten 5.51 x 10-8 5 x 10-3
Semiconductor
Carbon (Graphite) 1.5 X 10-5
Germanium (pure) 5 X 10-5
Silicon 3 X 10-5
Insulators
Glass 107-1010
Quartz 7.5 x 1017
 The lower the resistivity of the material, the better conductor it is.
 Conductors are materials which has low resistance to electron flow.
 Insulators are materials which has high resistance to electron flow.
 Semiconductors are materials having an intermediate resistance to electron flow,
usually used in constriction of solid state electronic devices such as diodes and
transistors.
𝟏
 Conductance is the reciprocal of resistance (G= 𝑹 ), Measured in mhos
 Conductivity is the ability of material to conduct electricity; it is the reciprocal of

resistivity
 Superconductivity is a phenomenon when conductors lose their resistance in extreme
cold.
 Most conductors increase its electrical resistance with an increase in temperature.
𝑅𝑡 = 𝑅𝑖 (1 + 𝛼𝑇)
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒:
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𝑅𝑡 = 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑜ℎ𝑚, Ω
𝑅𝑖 = resistance at reference temperature in ohm , Ω
𝛼 = 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑝𝑒𝑟 o C
Example I.3 A piece of copper wire has a cross section area of 2.0 mm2 and a length of 5
meters. What is the electrical resistance at 200C?
Solution:
Given: Type of wire - copper
For Copper wire 𝜌=1.72 x 10-8 Ω.m
Length – 5 meters
Area – 2.0 mm2
Unknown: The wire resistance R
𝝆𝒍
R =𝑨
(1.72 x 10−8 Ω.m)(5m)

R= 1𝑚
(2.0 mm2 )( )2
1000𝑚𝑚
R = 4.32 X10-12 ohms
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Problem set No. 1
Name: ___________________________ Score:___________________
Instructor: ______________________ Date: ____________________
Answer the following as required in each item. Write your answer at the space provided after
each problem.
1. Calculate the number of electrons in a copper conductor having a diameter of 0.064

inch and a length of 100 ft.
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2. Each second 1x1017 electrons flow from right to left across a cross section of a wire
attached to two terminals of a battery. Calculate the magnitude of the current in the
wire.
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3. A copper wire of area of cross – section 1mm2 is carrying a current of 10A.If the
density of the electrons is 1x 1028/m3, find the drift velocity of the conduction
electrons.
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4. How much work will be done by an electric energy source with a potential
difference of 3kV that delivers a current of 1A for 1minute.
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5. What is the power required to transfer 97,000 coulombs of charge through potential
rise of 50 volts in one hour?
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LESSON 2: DC Electric Circuits
Objectives:
At the end of this lesson the student should have
 Solve for R, E, I, and P in a simple electrical problem

 Solve for potential difference, current, and resistance in a series
 State the characteristics of an electrical conductor and an electrical insulator
 State the definition of electric current
 Explain the relationship of potential difference to the flow of electric current
 State the definition of OHM’S LAW
1.1 Fundamental Laws

1.1.1 Ohm’s Law
The most basic laws use for analysing electrical circuits. States that, the current
flowing in any electric circuits, varies directly with the electrical pressure and inversely to
the opposition. This relationship maybe express as:
𝑬 𝑬
E = IR; I = 𝑹 or R = 𝑰
Where:
R=resistance in ohm, Ω
E = voltage in volts, V
I = current in ampere, A
Example: 2.1. A 40-W electric lamp draws a current of 0.25 ampere at 120 volts. What is the
resistance of the lamp?
Solution:
Given:
P = 40 Watts
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I = 0.25 Amperes
E = 120 volts
R = Resistance of the lamp (Required in the problem)
𝑬 𝟏𝟐𝟎
V = I R ; R = 𝑰 R = 𝟎.𝟐𝟓
R = 𝟒𝟖𝟎 𝒐𝒉𝒎𝒔
Example2.2. What is the current drawn by a 600-Ω resistor when a potential difference of
25 volts is maintained across it?
𝑬
I=𝑹
𝟐𝟓
I = 𝟔𝟎𝟎
I = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟒𝟏𝟕 𝑨𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒔
1.1.2 Kirchoff’s current law

 Because charge cannot be created but must be conserved, the sum of the current I a
node must be equal to zero.
1.1.3 Kirchoff’s voltage law
 The net voltage around a close circuit is zero.
2.2. Electrical Power
 The power dissipated by an electrical circuit is given by:
P = IE
𝐸2
P= 𝑅
P = I2R
Where:
P = power in watt, W
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R= resistance in ohm, Ω
E= voltage in volts, V
I= current in ampere, A
Manipulation of units:
𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏 𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒 𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒

Watt = (ampere)(volt) = ( )(𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏)=𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑
𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑
 The common unit of electric power is watt

 An instrument called a wattmeter measures power. The wattmeter gives a reading of
the product of the current and voltage in a circuit.
 Actual formula: P = IE x power factor
 The value of the power factor depends on the kind of opposition offered. It is never
greater than 1.
 Power factor is equal to one (1) for heaters, electric ranges and incandescent lamps
where an opposition of purely resistive (resistance) has.
 Power factor is between 0.6 to 0.8 for electric motors.
Example 2.3. A piece of wire has a resistance of 50 Ω. How much power is dissipated in the
wire if it carries a current of 0.50A?
Solution:
Given:
R = 50 ohms
I = 0.50 A
P = Power dissipated in the wire (Required in the problem)
P = I2 R
P = (0.50)2 (50)
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P = 12.5 Watts
Example 2.4. What is the current drawn by a 1000-W electric flat iron operated at 220 V?
Solution:
Given:
P = 1000 Watts
E = 220 Volts
I = Current (Required in the problem)
P = IE
I = P/E
I = 1000 watts/220 V
I = 5.54 Amperes
2.3. Electrical Energy
Energy is the capacity to do work. In electrical sense, electric energy is the product
of power and time. Mathematically,
𝐸2 𝑡
W = IEt or W = or W = I2Rt
𝑅
Where:
W =energy in watt, W
R = Resistance in ohm , Ω
E = voltage in volts, V
I = Current in ampere, A
t= time in seconds.
Note that: 1 Wh = 3600 watt-seconds = 3600 joules.
 The common unit of electric energy consumption is watt-hour (Wh)
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 A kilowatt-hour is the energy consumed when a power of one kilowatt is used
steadily for one hour.
 Total Energy use over a period is measured by a watt-hour or kilowatt-hour meter.
This type of meter is used for billing customers for electric usage.
 Kh factor is printed on the nameplate of the kilowatt-hour meter, ranging from 1.5 to
5.0.
 Mathematically written as
𝑛𝑜.𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑘 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑋 𝑘ℎ

Power usage (watthours) = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
Example 2.5. A 60 Ω lamp is left connected to a 220-V source for 3hours. How much energy
is taken from the source?
Solution:
𝑬𝟐 𝒕
W= 𝑹
(220𝑉)2 (3ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠)
W= 60 Ω
W = 2, 420 Wh or 2.42kWh or 8.712 MJ
Example 2.6. A heating element supplies 300kJ in 50 minutes. Find the potential difference
across the element when current is 2A.
Solution:
Given:
W = 300kJ
I=2A
t = 50 minutes
= 3000 seconds
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E = unknown V (required potential difference)
𝑾
𝑬=
𝑰. 𝒕
𝟑𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑬=
𝟐(𝟑𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒔)
𝑬 = 𝟓𝟎 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒔
Example 2.7. All electrical equipment is off except an electric motor. The kilowatt-hour-
meter-disk revolutions are counted for a period of 6 minutes. The disk makes 20 revolutions
and the kh factor of the meter is 2.5. Determine the energy that would be used by this motor
if it were operated for 1hour. What is the power input to the motor?
Solution:
Energy (Wh) = Kh x no. of disk revolutions = 2.5 x 50 = 50 Wh
60 𝑚𝑖𝑛/ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟
In the time of 6 minutes, the power P = 50 Wh x = 500
6 𝑚𝑖𝑛
Thus the energy consumed by the motor in an hour of operation is
E = 500Wh or 0.5 kWh
And the power input to the motor is 500W
2.4. Network Configurations and Transformations.

A. Series Connected Resistors
 The resistors are connected end to end forming a string of resistors.
 Resistors, is an electronic bilateral and non-polar devices can be connected in
series (or parallel) without any consideration of polarity, as compared to other
devices such as capacitors or diodes.
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Figure 2.1 Series Circuit
Properties:
 The total or equivalent resistance of serially-connected resistors is equal to the sum of

the individual resistances
𝑹𝒕 = 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟑 + ⋯ + 𝑹𝒏
 The current flowing through the resistors are equal
𝑰𝒕 = 𝑰𝟏 = 𝑰𝟐 = 𝑰𝟑 = ⋯ = 𝑰𝒏
 The sum of the voltage drops across each resistance is equal to the supply voltage
𝑽𝒕 = 𝑽𝟏 + 𝑽𝟐 + 𝑽𝟑 + ⋯ + 𝑽𝒏
 The total electrical power of the circuit is equal to the sum of the individual power
dissipated by each resistor.
𝑷𝒕 = 𝑷𝟏 + 𝑷𝟐 + 𝑷𝟑 + ⋯ + 𝑷𝒏
 Consequently, the total power dissipated of the circuit is,

𝑷𝒕 = 𝑬𝑰𝒕
Example 2.8: A 3 Ω resistor and 6 Ω are connected in series across a DC supply. If the voltage
drops across the 3 Ω resistor is 4V, what is the voltage of the supply?
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Solution:
𝑬𝟏 𝟒
𝑰𝟏 = =
𝑹𝟏 𝟑
𝐼1 = 1.3333 𝐴
Hence; 𝑬 𝟐 = 𝑰 𝟐 𝑹𝟐
But 𝐼1 = 𝐼2 (resistor connected in series)
Then 𝐸2 = 1.333 (6) = 8𝑉
𝐸𝑡 = 𝐸1 + 𝐸2
𝐸𝑡 = 4 + 8 = 12𝑉
B. Resistors connected in Parallel

Parallel Circuit – the resistors are connected across each other.
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Figure 2.2. Parallel Connected Resistor
Properties
 The total or equivalent resistance of parallel – connected resistors is equal to the
reciprocal of the sum of the reciprocals of the individual resistances.
𝟏
𝑹𝒕 =
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 + ⋯ + 𝑹𝒏
 The total current is equal to the sum of the currents flowing through each resistor.
Currents flowing through each resistor are also referred to as branch currents. Line
current is the sum of branch currents.
𝑰𝒕 = 𝑰𝟏 + 𝑰𝟐 + 𝑰 𝟑 + ⋯ + 𝑰𝒏
The voltage drop across each resistor is equal to the supply voltage.
𝑬𝒕 = 𝑬𝟏 = 𝑬𝟐 = 𝑬 𝟑 = ⋯ = 𝑬𝒏
 The total electrical power of the circuit is equal to the sum of the individual power
dissipated by each resistor.
𝑷𝒕 = 𝑷𝟏 + 𝑷𝟐 + 𝑷 𝟑 + ⋯ + 𝑷𝒏
 Consequently, 𝑷𝒕 = 𝑬𝑰𝒕 =𝑰𝟐 𝑹𝒕
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Example 2.9: A 5-ohm resistance is connected in parallel with a 10-ohm resistance. What is
the equivalent resistance?
Solution:
𝟏
𝑹𝒕 =
𝟏 𝟏
𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐
1
𝑅𝑡 =
1 1
+
5 10
𝑅𝑡 = 3.33 𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑠
C. Resistors connected in Series-Parallel & Parallel Series

C.1. Series – Parallel Connection
- A connection of three or more resistors which when simplified will reduce into a
series circuit.
𝟏
𝑹𝒕 = 𝑹𝟒 + 𝑹𝟓 +
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
+ +
𝑹 𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑
Figure 2.3. Parallel –Series Connection
C.2. Parallel Series Connection
- A connection of three or more resistors which when simplified will reduce into a
parallel circuit.
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𝟏
𝑹𝒕 =
𝟏 𝟏
𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹 𝟐 + 𝑹𝟑
 The total power, 𝑃𝑡 drawn by the circuit is the sum of the powers drawn by each
resistance in the circuit.
𝑷𝒕 = 𝑷𝟏 + 𝑷𝟐 + 𝑷 𝟑 + ⋯ + 𝑷𝒏
𝑷𝒕 = 𝑬𝑰𝒕 = 𝑰 𝟐 𝑹𝒕
Where: 𝑷𝒕 = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑤𝑛 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡
𝑷𝟏 , 𝑷𝟐 …, 𝑷𝒏 = power in respective resistance
Example 2.10: Two resistances of 10 and 15 ohms respectively are connected in parallel.
The two are yhen connected in series with a 5-ohm resistor. What is the equivalent
resistance?
Solution:
𝟏
𝑹𝒕 = 𝑹𝟏 +
𝟏 𝟏
𝑹 𝟐 + 𝑹𝟑
57
1
𝑅𝑡 = 5 +
1 1
10 + 15
𝑅𝑡 = 11 𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑠
Example 2.11: A 5-ohm resistance is connected in parallel with a 10-ohm resistance.

Another set, a 6-ohm and an 8-ohm resistances are also connected in parallel. The two sets
are connected in series. What is the equivalent resistance?
Solution:
𝟏
𝑹𝒕 =
𝟏 𝟏
𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟑 + 𝑹𝟒
1
𝑅𝑡 =
1 1
+
5 + 10 6 + 8
D. Voltage Division Theorem (VDT)
- The voltage drop across any resistor R in a serially- connected group of resistors is equal
to the product of the supply voltage impressed and the ratio of the resistance R to the total
resistance of the circuit.
58
𝑹𝟏
𝑽𝟏 = 𝑬 ( )
𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐
𝑹𝟐
𝑽𝟐 = 𝑬 ( )
𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐
Example 2.12: A 10, 15, and 20 ohm resistor are connected in series across a 48 volt. What
is the voltage across the 15-ohm resistor?
Solution:
𝑹𝟏𝟓
𝑽𝟏𝟓Ω = 𝑬 ( )
𝑹𝟏𝟎 + 𝑹𝟏𝟓 + 𝑹𝟐𝟎
15
𝑉15Ω = 48 ( )
10 + 15 + 20
𝑉15Ω = 16 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
E. Current Division Theorem
In a two-branch parallel connection of resistors, the current flowing through one

resistor R1 is equal to the product of the total line current IL and the resistance of the other
resistor R2 divided by the sum of the two resistances.
59
In case there are more than two resistors in parallel, reduce the circuit to two parallel
resistors first before applying the current division theorem.
𝑹𝟐
𝑰𝟏 = 𝑰𝒕 ( )
𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐
𝑹𝟏
𝑰𝟐 = 𝑰𝒕 ( )
𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐
Example 2.13: A 10 Ω and 20 Ω resistance are connected in parallel. Another resistance of 5

Ω is connected in series with the two. If the supply voltage is 48 volts, what is the current
through the 10 Ω resistor?
Solution:
Solving for 𝑅𝑡 ;
60
𝟏
𝑹𝒕 = 𝑹𝟏 +
𝟏 𝟏
𝑹 𝟐 + 𝑹𝟑
1
𝑅𝑡 = 5 +
1 1
+
10 20
Solving for 𝐼𝑡 ;
𝑬𝒕
𝑰𝒕 =
𝑹𝒕
48
𝐼𝑡 =
11.67
𝐼𝑡 = 4.113 𝐴
Solving the current at 10 ohm resistor;
𝑅20
𝐼𝑅10 = 𝐼𝑡 ( )
𝑅10 + 𝑅20
20
𝐼𝑅10 = 4.113 ( )
10 + 20
𝐼𝑅10 = 2.74 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠
F. WYE and DELTA Resistors Connections
-This is generally used to solve complicatedly connected circuits by reconstructing the

circuit using wye-delta and/or delta-wye transformation
Delta Connection:
 Closed connection such as the delta is generally referred to as mesh connections.
61
Figure 2.4 Delta Connected Resistors
WYE Connection:
 Wye connection is an open connection with a common junction and is generally

referred to as star connections.
Figure 2.5. Wye Connected Resistor
F.1. Delta to Wye Transformation
𝒁𝒀 𝑿𝒁 𝑿𝒀
𝑨= 𝑩= 𝑪=
𝑿+𝒀+𝒁 𝑿+𝒀+𝒁 𝑿+𝒀+𝒁
62
Example 2.14. A Circuit consisting of three resistors rated 10 ohms, 15 ohms, and 20 ohms
are connected in delta. What would be the resistances of the equivalent wye connected
resistors?
Solution:
Let the value of the delta connected resistors x, y, & Z are as follows;
X=10
Y= 20
Z = 15
And the value of the Wye connected resistances A, B, & C are the unknowns of the problem;
Solving for A, B, & C
𝑋𝑌
𝐴= 𝑋+𝑌+𝑍
10(20)
𝐴= = 4.44 ohms
10+15+20
𝑋𝑍
𝐵= 𝑋+𝑌+𝑍
10(15)
𝐵= = 3.33 ohms
10+15+20
𝑍𝑌
𝐵= 𝑋+𝑌+𝑍
20(15)
𝐵= = 6.66 ohms
10+15+20
63
F.2. Wye to Delta Transformation
𝑨𝑩 + 𝑩𝑪 + 𝑪𝑨
𝑿=
𝑨
𝒀=
𝑩
𝒁=
𝑪
Example 2.15: What is the equivalent wye element of 3 equal resistors each equal to R and
connected in delta.
Solution:
For identical resistor connected in delta;
𝑹⊳
𝑹𝒀 =
𝟑
But; 𝑹⊳ = 𝑹
𝑹
Then; 𝑹𝒀 = 𝟑
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Problem set No. 2
Name: ___________________________ Score:___________________
Instructor: ______________________ Date: ____________________
Answer the following as required in each item. Write your answer at the space
provided after each problem.
1. The copper field winding of an electric machine has a resistance of 46 ohms at a

temperature of 22oC. what will be its resistance at a temperature of 75oC
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2. An oven takes 15A at 220 volts. It is desired to reduce the current to 12A. Find the
resistance of a resistor of connected in series.
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3. Three resistors , 2ohms, 5 ohms, and 10 ohms respectively are joined in parallel and
a total current of 24 A, is passed through them. Find the current in 5 ohms
resistance.
65
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4. Sic equal resistors each of 4 ohms are connected to form wye inside a delta. What is
the resistance between any two corners?
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5. A pilot lamp has a hot resistance of 8 ohms at a rated voltage of 24 volts dc.
Determine the series resistance required to operate the lamp from a 60 volt dc
supply.
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66
67
LESSON 3. CIRCUIT LAWS AND THEOREMS
Objectives:
At the end of this you should have;
 Familiarized all the theories and principles involving DC Circuit

 Solve electrical circuit with the application of the theories and principles.
 Applied the principles of DC circuit in the field of agricultural engineering.
3.1. Kirchoff’s Law

 Named after German Physicist, Gustav Robert Kirchoff (1824-1887)
 Discover the two fundamental laws in electrical circuit, the KCL and KVL
3.1.1. Kirchoff’s Current Law (KCL)
 States that the algebraic sum of the currents in any junction or node of an electric
circuit is zero.
 The sum of the currents entering is equal to the sum of the currents leaving.
𝑰𝟏 + 𝑰𝟐 + 𝑰𝟑 + 𝑰𝟒 = 𝟎
3.1.2. Kirchoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)

 States that the algebraic sum of the emf and resistance voltage drops in any closed loop
of an electric circuit is zero.
 Sign Convention for EMF’s
68
o If loop enters the negative side of the source and exits the positive side, the
source takes a pus sign. If it is reversed, then the source takes a minus sign
instead.
 Sign convention for resistance voltages
o If loop direction is the same as the arbitrarily assumed current direction, the
resistance takes a minus sign.
o If loop direction is opposite the arbitrarily assumed current direction, the
resistance voltage takes a plus sign.
Example 3.1. Two 24 volts batteries having an internal resistance of 0.2 ohm and 0.4 ohm
respectively supply power to a 2-ohm speaker load as shown in the figure below. How much
current is delivered by each battery?
Given:
𝑅𝐴 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝐴, = 0.2 ohms
𝑅𝐵 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝐵, = 0.4 ohms
𝑅𝐿 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑, 2 ohms
Solution:
Let the currents 𝐼𝐴 , 𝐼𝐵 ,& 𝐼𝐿 , be the branch and line currents in the circuit and the letter
r,s,t,n,o, and p represents the nodes.
Applying KCL at junction O;
69
𝐼𝐴 +𝐼𝐵 − 𝐼𝐿 = 0 (equation 1)
Applying KVL at loop t-n-o-p-r-s-t;
𝐸𝐴 - 𝐼𝐴 𝑅𝐴 + 𝐼𝐵 𝑅𝐵 − 𝐸𝐵 = 0
24 − 0.21𝐼𝐴 + 0.4𝐼𝐵 − 24 = 0
0.21𝐼𝐴 − 0.4𝐼𝐵 = 0 (equation 2)
Applying KVL at loop t-n-o-s-t;
𝐸𝐴 - 𝐼𝐴 𝑅𝐴 − 𝐼𝐿 𝑅𝐿 = 0
24 − 0.21𝐼𝐴 + 2𝐼𝐿 = 0
0.21𝐼𝐴 − 2𝐼𝐿 = 24 (equation 3)
Solving for the unknown currents in matrix application of three equations and three
unknowns we can obtain:
𝐼𝐴 = 7.5 ,
𝐼𝐵 = 3.75 ,
𝐼𝐶 = 11.25
3.2. Maxwell’s Method
This method involves a set of independent loop currents assigned to as many meshes
that exists in the circuit. Loop equations are drawn from these arbitrarily assumed mesh
currents using Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law. Actual currents may be determined form the
magnitudes and relative directions of these mesh currents. The number of meshes required
to solve a given circuit may be known by finding the number of “break points” needed to
leave the circuit totally open.
70
Example 3.2: Two 12 –volt batteries having an internal resistance of 0.8 ohm and 2 ohms
respectively supply power to an 8ohm load. Solve for the load current 𝐼𝐿 using Maxwell’s
Method.
Solution:
Step 1: Determine the number of possible mesh currents required then

arbitrarily assigned them to their respective loops. (Shown as 𝐼1 and 𝐼2 )
STEP 2. Formulate voltage equations using the same rule as in KVL.

Applying KVL at loop t-n-o-s-t.
𝐸𝐴 − 𝐼1 𝑅𝐴 − 𝐼1 𝑅1 + 𝐼2 𝑅𝐿 =0
12 − 0.8𝐼1 − 8𝐼1 + 8𝐼2 = 0
8.8𝐼1 − 8𝐼2 = 12 (equation 1)
Applying KVL at loop s-o-p-r-s,

+𝐼1 𝑅𝐿 − 𝐼2 𝑅𝐿 − 𝐼2 𝑅𝐵 − 𝐸𝐵 = 0
8𝐼1 − 8𝐼2 − 2𝐼2 − 12 = 0
71
8𝐼1 − 10𝐼2 = 12 (equation 2)
Solving for the mesh currents;

𝐼1 = 1𝐴
𝐼2 = −0.4 A
Step 3: Finally solve for the unknown load current based on the relative
current directions of the mesh currents relative to the load current.
𝐼𝐿 = 𝐼1 − 𝐼2
𝐼𝐿 = 1 − (−0.4)
𝐼𝐿 = 1.4 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠
3.3. Nodal Method
Every junction in the network that represents a connection of three or more branches
is regarded as a node. One node is always considered as a reference node or zero-potential
point. The current equations are written for the remaining junctions using KCL, thus a
solution is possible with (n-1) equations, where n is the number of nodes.
The figure above shows the sample network with three nodes. This circuit can be
solved with only two equations which are formulated after subsequent node current
equations are establishing using KCL.
72
Example 3.3: Obtain the values for the currents 𝐼𝐴 , 𝐼𝐵 , 𝐼1 , 𝐼2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼3 in the given circuit using
nodal method
Solution:
The circuit has three nodes, one of which may be referred to as a “ground node”. Current
equations in the two “hot” nodes may now be written.
Applying KCL at node of 𝑉𝐴 ,

𝑰𝑨 + 𝑰𝟏 − 𝑰𝟐 = 𝟎
By ohm’s law;
𝑬𝑨 −𝑽𝑨 𝑽𝑩 −𝑽𝑨 𝑽𝑨
𝑰𝑨 = ; 𝑰𝟏 = ; and 𝑰𝟐 =
𝑹𝑨 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐
Thus,
𝑰𝑨 + 𝑰𝟏 − 𝑰𝟐 = 𝟎
𝑬𝑨 −𝑽𝑨 𝑽𝑩 −𝑽𝑨 𝑽𝑨
+ − =𝟎
𝑹𝑨 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐
24−𝑉𝐴 𝑉𝐵 −𝑉𝐴 𝑉𝐴
+ − =0
1 4 12
Simplifying;
𝑉𝐵 𝑉𝐴 𝑉
24−𝑉𝐴 + − − 12𝐴 = 0
4 4
1 1 1
(1 + 4 + 12) 𝑉𝐴 − 4 𝑉𝐵 = 24 (equation 1)
73
Applying KCL at node of 𝑉𝐵 ,
𝑰𝑩 − 𝑰𝟏 − 𝑰𝟑 = 𝟎
By Ohm’s Law,
𝑬𝑩 −𝑽𝑩 𝑽𝑩 −𝑽𝑨 𝑽𝑩
− − =𝟎
𝑹𝑩 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟑
𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑎;
28−𝑉𝐵 𝑉𝐵 −𝑉𝐴 𝑉𝐵
− − =0
2 4 8
𝑆𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑦𝑖𝑛𝑔;
𝑉𝐵 𝑉𝐵 𝑉𝐴 𝑉𝐵
14− − + − =0
2 4 4 8
1 1 1 1
𝑉 − (2 + 4 + 8) 𝑉𝐵 = −14 (Equation 2)
4 𝐴
𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑑𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 1 & 2;
𝑉𝐴 = 22.19
𝑉𝐵 = 22.34
Finally, solving for the currents in each branch;
𝑬𝑨 −𝑽𝑨
𝑰𝑨 = 𝑹𝑨
24−22.9
𝐼𝐴 = 1
𝐼𝐴 = 1.81𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠
𝑽𝑩 −𝑽𝑨
𝑰𝟏 = 𝑹𝟏
22.34−22.19
𝐼1 = 4
𝐼1 = 0.0375 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒
74
𝑉𝐴
𝐼2 = 𝑅2
22.19
𝐼2 = 12
𝐼2 = 1.85
𝐸𝐵 −𝑉𝐵
𝐼𝐵 = 𝑅𝐵
28−22.34
𝐼𝐵 = 2
𝐼𝐵 = 2.83 𝐴
𝑉
𝐼3 = 𝑅𝐵
3
22.34
𝐼3 = = 2.79 Ampere
8
3.4. Millman’s Theorem
When any number of voltage sources with finite (non-zero) internal resistances are
connected in parallel, the resulting voltage across the parallel combination is equal to the
ratio of the algebraic sum of the currents that each source individually delivers when short-
circuited to the algebraic sum of their internal conductance.
75
This theorem is essential appied to a case where the nodal method is used to express Vab in
terms of the source emfs and their respective branch resistances.
Mathematically we have;
𝑬 𝑬 𝑬 𝑬
(𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟑 + ⋯ + 𝑹𝒏 )
𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 𝒏
𝑽𝑨𝑩 =
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
(𝑹 + 𝑹 + 𝑹 + ⋯ + 𝑹 )
𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 𝟒
Example 3.4:
Two D-C generators G1 and G2 are used to charge a 24 V storage battery. The generated
voltage and internal resistance of G1 and G2 are 25 volts and 0.4 ohm and 26 volts and 1.2
ohms, respectively. If the battery has an internal resistance of 0.1 ohm, calculate the charging
current using Millman’s Theorem.
Solution:
𝑬 𝑬 𝑬 𝑬
(𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟑 + ⋯ + 𝑹𝒏 )
𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 𝒏
𝑽𝑨𝑩 =
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
(𝑹 + 𝑹 + 𝑹 + ⋯ + 𝑹 )
𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 𝟒
25 24 26
(0.4 + 0.1 + 1.2)
𝑉𝐴𝐵 =
1 1 1
(0.4 + 0.1 + 1.2)
𝑉𝐴𝐵 = 24.31
Finally, solving for the charging current (Ich);
𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆−𝑩𝒂𝒕𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒚 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆

𝑰𝒄𝒉 = 𝑰𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒃𝒂𝒕𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒚
24.31−24
𝐼𝑐ℎ = 0.1
76
𝐼𝑐ℎ = 3.125 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠
3.5. The Superposition Theorem
In a network of resistors, the current in any resistor is equal to the algebraic sum of
the currents delivered by each independent sources assuming that each source is acting
alone or independently with respect to the other sources.
For instance, two 9 volt batteries having internal resistance of 0.8 and 4 ohms respectively
supply to a 16-ohm load resistor. The currents 𝐼𝐴 , 𝐼𝐵 , 𝐼𝐿 in the branch can be solved using the
superposition theorem by following this procedure;
Short all voltage sources leaving one source at a time, and then solve for the currents in the
resulting circuit using this lone source. Current sources (if any) are replaced by an open circuit.
Repeat this procedure until all sources have been used.
Step 1.
First “Superposed” circuit
77
Solving for the currents using CDT
9
𝐼𝐴1 = 16(4) = 2.25 A
(0.8+ )
16+4
16
𝐼𝐵1 = 2.25(16+4) = 1.8 A
4
𝐼𝐿1 = 2.25(16+4) = 0.45 A
Step 2.
Second “Superposed” circuit
Solving for the currents using CDT
9
𝐼𝐵2 = 16(0.8) = 1.89 A
(4+ )
16+0.8
16
𝐼𝐴2 = 1.89(16+0.8) = 1.8 A
0.8
𝐼𝐿2 = 1.89 (16+0.8) = 0.09 A
3.6. Thevenin’s Theorem
If a resistor is connected across any two points of a linear and bilateral network, the
resulting steady-state current flowing through the resistor is the ratio of the voltage across
the two points prior to the connection and the equivalent resistance between these points
looking back into network with all sources nullified.
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Thevenin’s Theorem was named after the French telegraph engineer Charles Leon
Thevenin. This theorem greatly simplifies the solution of many complicated networks by
reducing the entire circuit into a simple series circuit. A linear circuit is a circuit whose
elements are constant and do not change in response to changes in voltage and current.
 The Thevenin’s equivalent circuit.
𝑬𝒕𝒉
𝑰𝑳 =
𝑹𝒕𝒉 + 𝑹𝑳
Example 3.6:
Two lead-acid storage batteries A and B are connected in parallel across a 0.5 ohm
metal resistor. Battery A has an open-circuit emf of 12. 6 volts and an internal resistance of
0.2 ohm. Battery B has an open-circuit emf of 12.2 volts and an internal resistance of 0.3
ohm. Neglecting the effects of temperature, how much current is delivered by battery B?
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Solution:
Step 1: Solving for the Thevenin’s resistance (Rth) or “ looking back “ resistance
(Ro).
0.2(0.5)
𝑅𝑡ℎ = = 0.143 ohms
0.2+0.5
Step 2: Solving for the Thevenin’s voltage (Eth)
0.2(0.5)
𝐸𝑡ℎ = 12.2 − 0.5( 0.2+0.5)= 3.2 Volts
80
Step 3: Construct the Thevenin’s Equivalent circuit then finally solve for the
current.
𝐸𝑡ℎ
𝐼𝐵 =
𝑅𝑡ℎ + 𝑅𝐵
3.2
𝐼𝐵 =
0.143 + 0.3
𝐼𝐵 = 7.2 𝐴
3.7. Norton’s Theorem
This is a somewhat modified of Thevenin’s rheorem where the original network is

converted into a simple circuit in which a parallel combination of constant current source
and looking-back resistance “feeds” the load resistor. Norton’s Theorem employs a fictitious
source which delivers a constant current whose value is equal to the current that would pass
into a short-circuit connected across the output terminals of the original circuit.
Named after the American engineer E.L. Norton, this theorem is analogous to that of
Thevenin’s except for the fact that Thevenin’s circuit is voltage-driven whereas Norton’s
Circuit is current-driven.
Norton’s Equivalent Circuit:
81
𝑰𝒏𝒐 𝑹𝒏𝒐
𝑰𝑳 =
𝑹𝒏𝒐 + 𝑹𝑳
Example 3.7:
Two lead-acid storage batteries A and B are connected in parallel across a 0.5 ohm
metal resisto. Battery A has an open-circuit emf of 12.6 volts and internal resistance of 0.2
ohm. Battery B has an open-ciruit emf of 12.2 volts and an internal resitance of 0.3 ohm.
Neglecting the effects of temperature, how much current is delivered by battery B?
Schematic Diagram
Solution:
Step1: solve for Norton’s resistance (Rno). This resistance (also called “ looking-back”
resistance, Ro) is obtained in the same way as Thevenin’s resistance.
82
𝟎. 𝟐(𝟎. 𝟓)
𝑹𝒏𝒐 =
𝟎. 𝟐 + 𝟎. 𝟓
𝑹𝒏𝒐 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟒𝟑 𝒐𝒉𝒎𝒔
Step 2: Solve for the Norton current generator (Ino). This is the current that would flow
through the load if the load had a zero-ohm resistance.
𝑰𝒏𝒐 = 𝑰𝑹 − 𝑰𝑨
𝟏𝟐. 𝟐 𝟏𝟐. 𝟔 − 𝟏𝟐. 𝟐

𝑰𝒏𝒐 = −
𝟎. 𝟐 𝟎. 𝟐
𝑰𝒏𝒐 = 𝟐𝟐. 𝟒 𝑨𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒆
Step 3: Construct the Norton’s Equivalent circuit then finally solve for the current.
83
𝑰𝒏𝒐 𝑹𝒏𝒐
𝑰𝑩 =
𝑹𝒏𝒐 + 𝑹𝑳
𝟐𝟐. 𝟒(𝟎. 𝟏𝟒𝟑)

𝑰𝑩 =
𝟎. 𝟏𝟒𝟑 + 𝟎. 𝟑
𝑰𝑩 = 𝟕. 𝟐 𝑨𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒔
84
Problem set No. 3
Name: ___________________________ Score:___________________
Instructor: ______________________ Date: ____________________
each problem.
1. Apply the theories and principles discussed in the this lesson, and obtain the currents
in each branch of the item A and B
A. Write your answer at the separate sheet of bond paper.
B. Write your answer at the separate sheet of bond paper.
85
2. Determine the potential difference at nodes a,b, and c using nodal equations. From
the results, determine in the circuit.
86
87
LESSON 4: PRINCIPLES OF ALTERNATING CURRENT
Objectives:
After studying this lesson, you should be able to:
 Discuss the characteristics of alternating current.

 Describe the generation of alternating current.
 Define the terminology related to alternating current.
Most of the elctrical energy used in the Agricultural Farms is generated as alternating
current (AC). This is not because alternating current is superior to direct current (DC) in
most applictions. In fact, there are many instances where direct current energy is necesaary
for industrial purposes. Where direct current is required, alternating current is generated at
a power plant station, transmiited some distance, and then converted to direct current at the
point where it will be used.
The reasons for generating nearly all electrical energy as alternating current are as follows.
1. Easily produced
2. Cheaper to maintain
3. Can be distributed to farther distance with low voltage drop than direct current
4. AC Voltage can easily transformed from lower to higher and then to lower and/or
desired voltage level as it passes the distribution line.
4.1 Generating Alternating Current
The volt is the unit of electromotive force (EMF). One volt is developed by
cutting 100 million magnetic lines of force in 1 second. The simplest method of
generating EMF is by turning coil of wire between two magnetic field poles.
88
Figure 4.1: The left hand rule
Figure 4.2: The cut away view of rotor with coiled with conductors.
Figure 4.1 illustrates a simple alternating-current generator. The left-hand

rule is used to determine the direction of the current in the coil and in the external
circuit created by the generated EMF.
Figure 4.2 is a more convenient form of representing the simple generator in

figure 4.1. A front view section from the slip ring side of the generator is shown.
4.2 Cycles
One cycle of alternating current is defined as current that increases from zero
to a positive maximum, returns to zero, and then increasesto a negative maximum
and returns to zero again. In other words, a cycle occurs from a point on the waveform
begins to repeat itself. The terms “positive” and “negative” are used to indicate
opposite directions as per indicated in the figure 4.4 to 4.8.
89
Figure 4.3: Graph of generator current.
Figure 4.4: 90 electrical degrees position
Figure 4.5: 180 electrical degrees position
90
Figure 4.6: 270 electrical degrees’ position
3.3. Frequency
If the coil in the figure 3.8 below turns at the rate of 3, 600 revolutions per minute
(3,600 r/min), or 60 revolutions per second, 60 electrical cycles are generated in 1 second.
The electrical frequency is 60 cycles per second, or 60 hertz (HZ). With the four-pole
generator in figure 4.7, assuming the same speed of 3,600 r/min, the number of electrical
cycles generated in 1 second is 120. This is true become elecrical cycles are generated during
each mechanical revolution. The frequency is 120 Hz.
91
Figure 4.7 : A four-pole Generator with two cycles per revolution
Formulas commonly used to find frequency, speed, and number of poles

follow:
𝑃𝑁
𝐹=
120
120𝐹
𝑁=
𝑃
120𝐹
𝑃=
𝑁
Where:
F = frequency in hertz
N = speed in r/min
P = number of poles
Example 4.1: At what speed must a four-pole generator rotate to develop a frequency of
60Hz?
Solution:
Given:
F = 60 hertz
P = 4 poles
N = Required
120𝐹
𝑁=
𝑃
120(60)
𝑁=
4
92
𝑁 = 1600 𝑟/𝑚
4.4. Effective Value of Alternating Current
A 60-Hz, 120-volt line contains current and EMF varying from zero to
maximum positive and negative values 60 times per second. Instantaneous value are
of little value. The effective values, shown in the figure 4.8, have been accepted as
practical working quantities. When values of current and voltage are specified in AC
circuits, they are understood as effective values, unless otherwise specified. The
values indicated by AC ammeters and voltmeters are effective values.
Mathemathecally written as follows:
Effective value = 0.707 x Maximum value
Figure 4.8 Effective value of alternating current
The effective value of alternating current produces the equivalent amount of heat at
a load as the same numerical value of direct current. An electric heater for instance is rated
93
at 20 Amperes AC or DC, either current produces the same amount of heat in a given amount
of time.
4.5 Phase Relations in AC Circuits
Single Phase
 When generated in a single winding of a geneartor is called single-phase voltage
In Phase
 When both the voltage wave and the current wave reach their corresponding zeros,
maxima, and intermediate values at exactly the same time, they are said to be in phase.
See figure 4.9.
Figure 4.9 The Current in Phase with Voltage
Out of Phase (LAG)
 When current is supplied to an induction motor or any circuit with inductance, it lags
the voltage. This current is out of phase with the voltage, as shown in the figure 4.10
94
Figure 4.10 The Current is out of Phase with Voltage
Out of Phase (lead)
 A sychronous motor or capacitor connected to a line causes current to lead the voltage
by as much as 90 electrical degrees. The figure 4.11 shows a current is leading with the
voltage.
Figure 4.11 The Current Leads the Voltage
95
Problem set No. 4
Name: ___________________________ Score:___________________
Instructor: ______________________ Date: ____________________
Answer the following as required in each item. Write your answer in the blank provided after
each problem.
1. A four-pole, single loop generator revolves at the rate of 3,600 r/min, and the
maximum generated value of voltage is 3volts.
a. Determine the generated voltage when the loop conductors are located in front of
the poles._________________________________________________________________
b. Determine the generated voltage when the loop conductors are located between
the loop poles ____________________________________________________________
c. How many electrical cycles are generated in one revolution? _____________________
d. Calculate the electrical frequency ___________________________
e. Calculate the effective value of voltage _________________________
2. State four adavantages of generating alternating current as compared to direct curret.
a. __________________________________
b. ___________________________________
c. ___________________________________
d. __________________________________
3. An ammeter indicates 15 amperes in an AC induction motor line.
a. What value is measured: Effective, instantaneous, or average?
______________________________________________
b. The phase of this current is: in phase, lag, or lead?
_______________________________________________
4. Define each of the following terms:
a. Cycles __________________________________________________________________________
b. Frequency _____________________________________________________________________
c. Effective value _________________________________________________________________
96
5. A ten-pole alternator revolves at 600r/min. What is the value of the electrical
frequency generated?
97
LESSON 5: INDUCTANCE AND INDUCTIVE REACTANCE
Objectives:
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to describe:
 Describe an inductive cicruit

 Describe self-inductance and mutual induction
 Define inductive reactance
 Demonstrate the relationship between voltage and current in various inductive
cicruits by the use of vectors.
A coil of wire is an important part of many pieces of electrical equipment. A magnetics

field is produced when current exists in the coil. As the strength of the magnetic field
changes, an induced electromotive force (EMF) is created across the coil. The induced
voltage opposes the source voltage. As the opposition becomes greater, less current exist in
the circuit.
The coil has a property that opposes change in the current. This property is called
inductance (L). The amount of opposition to current change is called inductive reactance,
and is a function of frequency and inductance.
5.1 Lenz’s Law
According to Lenz’z law, the induced voltage in a coil always flows in the opposite
direction of the effect that produces it.
5.1.1 Self Inductance
When the varying lines of magnetic force induce an EMF in the coil itself, the
coil has self-inductance.
98
5.1.2 Mutual Induactance
When the varying lines of magnetic force from a coil induce an EMF in an
adjacent coil have mutual inductance. Figure 5.1 illustrate a transformer containing
a primary coil and a secondary coil. The primary coil contains a current that creates
a magnetic field. Part of the field links the secondary coil. Because the field is
changing, a voltage is induced in the secondary.
Figure 5.1 Coil of Transformer
5.2. Measurement of Inductance
The unit of inductance is the henry (H). A circuit or coil has an inductance of 1H when
current varrying at the rate of 1 ampere per second induces an EMF of 1 volt across the
terminals of the circuit or coil. The inductance can be varied by varying the amount of
magnetic flux or the number of turns in the coil.
5.2.1. Inductive Reactance
The opposition in coils having inductance can be measured in ohms. If the

frequency and inductance are known, the opposition, or inductive reactance (XL), can be
calculated with formula:
99
𝑿𝑳 = 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝑳
Where:
XL = inductive reactnce in ohms
Π = 3.14
f = frequency in hertz
L = inductance in henrys
Example: A coil of wire with the value of 0.1 H is connected to an AC source with 60
hertz of frequency. What is the inductive reactance cause by the said coil?
Solution:
Given: f = 60 Hz
L = 0.1 Henry
Required: 𝑋𝐿 = 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙
𝑋𝐿 = 2𝜋(60)(0.1)
𝑋𝐿 = 37.7 𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑠
5.2.2. Effect of inductance
If we connect a lamp in series with a coil having a movable iron core. Connect the
combination to an AC source and the following will occur:
a. Core out of coil – lamp will be light

b. Core in coli – lamp will be dim
When the core is out of the coil, few lines of magnetic force are produce by the
coil because air is a poor magnetic conductor. The induced EMF is weak, and little
opposition is offered to the line voltge. Therfore, a normal quantity of current exists
in the lamp.
100
When the iron core is inserted in the coil, a better magnetic path is provided.
Induced EMF is higher, and consequently, there is less current as indicated by the
lamp.
5.2.3. Current Lag Due to inductance
Test show that if a coil with negligible resistance is connected to an AC sourcline,

the current lags the voltage by 90 degrees as shown in the figure below.
Vector Representation:
The realtionship between voltage and current in an inductive circuit can be

conveniently shown using vectors. A vector is a line representing quantity or
magnitude and direction.
The vectors in the figure below represent 110 volts with a current of 10
amperes lagging by 90 degrees. These vectors may be visuallized as clock hands
rotating in a counter clockwise direction.
Figure 5.2 Vector Representaion
5.2 Measuremnt of Current in an Inductor
Ohm’s law can be used to solve current flows in inductor. Recall that the enduced
voltage in the circuit is directly proportional to the product of the current flowing the load
and the ohmic value of the load being consider. Mathematically written as;
101
𝑬
𝑬 = 𝑰𝑿𝑳 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑰=𝑿
𝑳
Where:
E – the voltage impressed to the inductor, L
I – the current, Ampere
XL- the inductive reactance of the of the inductor L
Example 5.1. With the given circuit shown below, calculate the current of the circuit.
Solution:
Given:
L = 0.3
E= 230 Volts
f = 60 Hz
Required: 𝑰
𝑬
𝑰=𝑿
𝑳
Solving first for 𝑿𝑳
𝑋𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿
𝑋𝐿 = 2(3.14)(60)(0.3)
102
𝑋𝐿 = 113.1 Ω
Solving for 𝑰
𝟐𝟑𝟎
𝑰 = 𝟏𝟏𝟑.𝟏
𝑰 = 𝟐. 𝟎𝟑 𝑨𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒔
Example 5.2. What is the value of the inductance in the circuit diagram indicated below.
Solution:
Given:
I = 0.7 A
E= 120 Volts
f = 60 Hz
Required:
L – circuit inductance.
103
𝐸
𝑋𝐿 = 𝐼
120 𝑉
𝑋𝐿 = 0.7 𝐴
𝑋𝐿 = 171 Ω
Solving for L
𝑋𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿
𝐿𝑋
𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑓
171
𝐿 = 2𝜋(60)
𝐿 = 0.45 𝐻
104
Problem set No. 5
Name: ___________________________ Score:___________________
Instructor: ______________________ Date: ____________________
each problem.
In items 1 through 10 choose the best answer to make the statement true. Place the letter of
the selected answer in the space provided.
1. Inductance is ____________________
a. the same as reactance c. magnetic field strength

b. the property of a coil d. measured in ohms
2. The amount of voltage induced in a transformer secondary coil is function of.
______________________________
a. Primary direct current c. Primary Self-inductance

b. A static field d. Secondary current
3. The unit for inductive reactance is the
a. ohm c. hertz
b. Henry d. vector
4. The inductive reactance of an air core may be increased by ________________
a. decreasing frequency c. inserting an iron core

b. increasing source voltage d. increasing current
5. In a purely inductive circuit (no resistance), __________________________
a. current lags voltage c. Current and voltage are in phase

b. voltage lags current by 900 d. voltage leads current
6. The inductive reactnce of 0.06 H coil connected to a 120V, 60 Hz source is ________________
a. 2.26 ohms c. 7.2 ohms

b. 3.6 ohms d. 22.62 ohms
105
7. A purely inductive circuit contains a voltage source of 280 volts at 40 Hz. The total
inductive reactance of the circuit is 20 ohms. The value of the total current, in amperes
is _________________________
a. 0.056 c. 2.0
b. 0.008 d. 7.0
8. A current of 5 A exists in a purely inductive circuit connected to 120 volts, 60 Hz source.
The total inductive reactance of the ciruit shown is
a. 0.064 H c. 24. 0 ohms

b. 12.0 ohms d. 14.0 ohms
9. A 0.265 H coil is connected to a 250 V, 60 Hz source. The total circuit current, in amperes
is ___________________________
a. 2.5 c. 100
b. 4.17 d. 226
10. A coil with a neglible resistance drwas 7A when connected to a 110 Volts, 25 Hz source.
The inductance of the coil, in henrys is ____________________
a. 0.064 c. 3.57
b. 0.1 d. 4.4
106
LESSON 6. CAPACITANCE AND CAPACITIVE REACTANCE
Objectives:
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
 Discuss the characteristics of capacitance

 Describe the effect of capacitance in an alternating – current citcuit
 Use vectors to show the voltage and current relationship in a capacitor
6.1 . Introduction:
Practically all electrial equipment contains a combination of resistors or coils.

Some inductrial equipment, such as capacitor motor, capacitor banks, and automotive
switch gear, use capacitors. Transmission lines have capacitance between the wires.
6.2 The Capacitor
A capacitor is an electronic device consisting two plates of electrical conducting

material separated by an insulatig material. The plates are commonly aluminum, tin, or
any other nonmagnetic substance. The insulating material, called the dielectric, may be
any of a large variety of substances, such as air, mica, glass, wax, paper, fiber, rubber or
oil as per shown in the figure below.
Figure 6.1 Oil Filled Capacitor
When electric potential is connected to the plates, an electrical charge is stored in

the capacitor. In AC ciruit, the alternating voltage causes the capacitor to charge and
discharge during every cycle. Although current cannot pass the capacitor, an ammeter
107
connected in the line will meausred in the line will measure current from the alternating
charge and discharge.
6.3 Capacitive Reactance
Capacitance is the property of a capacitor, and is defined as the amount of

electrical charge that a capacitor receives for each volt of applied potential. The unit for
capacitance is the farad (F). However, the farad is a very large unit in terms of the charges
that are normally present, so the microfarad (µF) is generally used.
𝟏 𝒇𝒂𝒓𝒂𝒅 = 𝟏, 𝟎𝟎𝟎, 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒎𝒊𝒄𝒓𝒐𝒇𝒂𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒔
6.4 Calculating Capacitance in a purely capacitive circuit
A capacitor in a circuit limits the current therein just as resistance and inductive
reactance limit current.
The opposition from a capacitor is called capacitive reactance (Xc). If the capacity
(in microfarads) and the frequency of the source voltage are known, the reactance in
ohms can be calculated using the formula:
𝟏,𝟎𝟎𝟎,𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑿𝑪 = 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝑪
Where:
𝑋𝐶 = 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑠
𝑓 = 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑖𝑛 ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑧
𝐶 = 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛 µF
Example 6.1. A capacitor of 13 µF is connected to a source with 60Hz, what is the

capacitive reactance of the circuit.
Solution:
f = 60Hz
108
C = 13 µF
𝟏,𝟎𝟎𝟎,𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝟏,𝟎𝟎𝟎,𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑿𝑪 = 𝟐𝝅(𝟔𝟎)(13 µF)
𝑿𝑪 = 𝟐𝟎𝟒 𝒐𝒉𝒎𝒔
Example 6.2. A capacitor of 26 µF is connected to a source with 60Hz, what is the

capacitive reactance of the circuit.
Solution:
f = 60Hz
C = 26 µF
𝟏,𝟎𝟎𝟎,𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝟏,𝟎𝟎𝟎,𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑿𝑪 = 𝟐𝝅(𝟔𝟎)(26 µF)
𝑿𝑪 = 𝟏𝟎𝟐 𝒐𝒉𝒎𝒔
NOTE: Capacitor holds a charge for a long period of time following use in a circuit. Discharge a
capacitor before hadling. The proper method for dischraging is shown in the figure below.
109
Figure 6.2 Discharging Capacitance
6.5 The current in purley capacitive circuit
Current cannot pass the capacitor, an ammeter can be connected in the line to
meausre the line current from charging and discharging it alternately.
6.5.1 Current leads the voltage
A capacitor connected to an AC line causes the current to lead the voltage by 900
as per indicated in the figure 5.2 below. The leading of current by 900 of the supply
voltage of a purely capacitive circuit can also be more conveniently shown using vector
representation. See Figure 6.3.
110
Vector Diagram of Current Lading by
Current Leads the voltage
90 degrees
Figure 6.3 The Current Leads the voltage Waveform and Vector Diagram
6.5.2 Caculating the Equivalent Capacitance and Current
When the capacitors are connected in parallel, their combined capacitance

may be found usng the method by which the resistance of series-connected
resistors.
Mathematically written and found as:
𝑪𝒕 = 𝑪𝟏 + 𝑪𝟐 + ⋯ 𝑪𝒏
When the capacitors are connected in series, their combined capacitance

may be found usng the method by which the resistance of paralell-connected
resistors.
Mathematically written and found as:
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + +⋯
𝑪𝒕 𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐 𝑪𝒏
111
Where:
𝐶𝑡 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑜𝑟 in

microdfarad
𝐶𝑛 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑢𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑛
𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑓𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑑
Example 6.3:Find the current in the capacitor with 88.5 microfarad connected to a AC source
at 120Volts and 60Hz frequency.
Solution:
Given:
C = 88.5 microfarad
f = 60Hz
Vac = 120 V
Solving for 𝑿𝑪 ;
𝟏,𝟎𝟎𝟎,𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝟏,𝟎𝟎𝟎,𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑿𝑪 = 𝟐𝝅(𝟔𝟎)(𝟖𝟖.𝟓µ𝒇)
112
𝑿𝑪 = 𝟑𝟎Ω
Solving for curent 𝑰c;
 The current in capacitive circuit also obey to Ohm’s Law, thus the cuurent in 𝟑𝟎Ω
inductance is
𝑬
𝑰𝑪 =
𝑿𝑪
𝟏𝟐𝟎
𝑰𝑪 =
𝟑𝟎Ω
𝑰𝑪 = 𝟒𝑨𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒔
Example 6.4: In the figure below, the capacitance of the circuit must be found to determine
the total circuit current. Find the combined capacitance and solve for the current It.
Solving for equivalent parallel connected capacitors 𝑪𝟐,𝟑;
𝑪𝟐,𝟑 = 𝑪𝟐 + 𝑪𝟑
𝑪𝟐,𝟑 = 𝟐𝟓µ𝑭 + 𝟑𝟓µ𝑭
𝑪𝟐,𝟑 = 𝟔𝟎µ𝑭
𝑪𝟐,𝟑 is the series equivalent of two parallel capacitors. Therefore, the circuit becomes a series
circuit as shown in the figure below.
The total capacitance is found using the formula:
113
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= +
𝑪𝒕 𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐,𝟑
Thus;
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= 𝟒𝟎µ𝑭 + 𝟔𝟎µ𝑭
𝑪𝒕
𝟏 𝟏
= 𝟐𝟒µ𝑭
𝑪𝒕
hence; Ct = 24µ𝐹
Solving for Xct ;
𝟏,𝟎𝟎𝟎,𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑿𝑪𝒕 = 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝑪𝒕
Where:
𝑋𝐶𝑡 = 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
1,000,000
𝑋𝐶𝑡 = 2𝜋(60)(24µ𝐹)
𝑋𝐶𝑡 = 110.6 𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑠
Solving for It by using Ohm’s Law;
𝑬
𝑰𝒕 =
𝑿𝑪𝒕
120
𝐼𝑡 =
110.6
𝐼𝑡 = 1.08 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠
114
Problem set No. 6
Name: ___________________________ Score:___________________
Instructor: ______________________ Date: ____________________
each problem.
In items 1 through 10 find the best answer to make the statement true. Place the letter of
1. The most generally used unit of capacitive reactance is the __________________________
a. Farad c. ohm
b. microfarad d. Henry
2. Before a capacitor is handled, be sure it ______________________
a. is large enough to do job c. is charged

b. has clean plates d. is discharged
3. The capacitor’s opposition to alternating current is called _________________________
a. capacitance c. resistance
b. capacitive reactance d. the farad
4. Capacitive reactance of a circuit may be increased by ________________________
a. decreasing total capacitance c. increasing the number of farads

b. increasing total capacitance d. increasing the source
5. In a capacitive AC circuit
a. current leads voltage c. Current and voltage are in phase

b. voltage leads current d. voltage leads current
6. The total capacitance of two 10µF capacitors connected in parallel is
a. 5µF c. 15µF
b. 10µF d. 20µF
115
7. The total capacitive reactance of an AC cicruit that draws 4A from a 120-V, 60 Hz source
is ___________________________
a. 2Ω c. 30Ω
b. 15Ω d. 88.5µF
8. The total capacitance of a 40- µF capacitor connected in series with an 80 µF capacitor
is _________________________
a. 26.7 µF c. 60.6 µF
b. 40 µF d. 120µF
9. The total capacitance, in µF,of an AC circuit that draws 0.632 A from a 120-V, 60Hz
source is
a. 0.003 c. 43.5
b. 8 d. 166
10. The total current in amperes, of an AC circuit that has a total capacitance of 638 µF
connected to a 120-V, 25Hz source is. ______________________
a. 4.8 c. 8.0
b. 5.32 d. 12
II. Solve the following items as requied in each statement. Write your answer at the space
provided after each problem.
1. Find the current in the circuit shown
2. Change the C to 40 µF in the problem 1, and calcualte the current.
116
3. Determine the total capacitive reactance in the circuit shown in the figure below and
the value of C2 in microfarads if the total current equals to 3 amperes.
4. Find the total current in the circuit shown in the circuit below.
5. Find the Xct for the cicruit in problem 4 if C3 and C3 are interchanged.
117
118
LESSON 7 R-L-C SERIES CIRCUIT
Objectives:
After studying this lesson, you should be able to:
 Explain the current-voltage relationship in an AC series ciruit

containing resistance and inductance,
containing resistance and capacitance,
containing capacitance and inductance,
 Apply vectors to analyisis of an RL, RC, and LC AC series circuit.
7.1. Resistance and Inductance in Series
Resistors, coils, and capacitors may be connected in series in several combinations

for specialized purposes. One such puposes is the electrical wiring to the farm tractor or any
automobile production. The combination of two or all these three circuit parameters is called
impedance.
Resistors and coils offer opposition to alternating current. The voltage and current in
a resistor are in phase (see figure 7.1), while in inductor or coil the curent lags the voltage
drop across the coil by 900 (see figure 7.2).
119
Figure 7.1 Analysis of a series circuit containing two resistors
Figure
7.2 Analysis of a series circuit containing a resistor and coil
In figure 7.1, the current in a series resistors are the same throughout. The total
resistance is the sum of all resistances in the circuit. The total voltage is the sum of the voltage
across each resistor.
A 5 ohm resistor in figure 7.2, the current is in phase with the voltage. The current in
the coil lags the coil voltage by 90 electrical degrees. The line current lags the total or line
voltag by less than 900 depending on the values of R and 𝑋𝐿 .
120
The value of the impedance or total opposition, Z, can be calculated by substituting
the values given in the Impedance triangle as shown in the figure 7.3 below:
Z XL
Figure 7.3. The Impedance Triangle
Thus;
𝑍 = √52 + 102
𝑍 = √25 + 100
𝑍 = 11.2 𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑠
The voltages 𝐸𝑅 and 𝐸𝐿 can be added vectorially as shown in figure 6.4 to obtain a
total voltage 𝐸𝑡 and it can be calculated the same way as the impedance;
𝐸𝑅 = √502 + 1002
𝐸𝑅 = √2500 + 10,000
𝐸𝑅 = 112 𝑉
We notice that the curent vector is included in figure 6.6. It shows that the current is
in phase with 𝐸𝑅 as expected. In an inductive circuit, the current always lags th voltage as
shows in the figure 6.6, the current lags the total voltage by 63.40.
Ohm’s Law. As with all types of circuits, Ohm’s Law is applicable.
121
𝑬𝒕
For the current in the circuit I; 𝑰= , 𝑨𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒔
𝒁
𝑬𝒕
For the impedance of the cicruit; 𝒁= , 𝑶𝒉𝒎𝒔
𝑰
For the voltage source or drop in the circuit; 𝑬𝒕 = 𝑰𝒁 , 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒔
Example 7.1. Find the current in the circuit shown in the figure below. Also solve for the
voltage across R and L.
Solution:
Given:
R = 50 ohms
L = 0.5 H
E = 120 V
f = 60 Hz
122
Required :
1. Current It, amperes

2. 𝐸𝑅 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐸𝐿 across R and L
𝑋𝐿 = 2𝜋(60)(0.05)
Solving for the impedance Z;
𝒁 = √𝑹𝟐 + 𝑿𝟐
𝑍 = √502 + 18.852
𝑍 = 53.4 𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑠
By Ohm’s Law;
𝑬
𝑰= 𝒁
120
𝐼= 53.4
𝐼 = 2.24 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒
Solving the voltage across R and L;
𝐸𝑅 = 𝐼𝑅
𝐸𝑅 = (2.24)(50) = 112 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
𝐸𝐿 = 𝐼𝑋
𝐸𝐿 = 𝐼𝑋 = 2.24(18.85) = 42volts
123
Problem set No. 7.1
Name: ___________________________ Score:___________________
Instructor: ______________________ Date: ____________________
each problem.
I. In items 1 through 7, select the best answer to make the statement true. Place the letter of
1. The total opposition, in ohms, of a 3-ohm resitor inseries with a 4 ohm coil is ___________
a. 3 c. 7
b. 4 d. 12
2. In an RL AC series circuit, the phase realtionship of current through the coil to the
voltage across the coil is that ______________________
a. a 900 relationship exist c. there is always a 63.4o relationship

b. the voltage lags the current d. a 450 relationship exist
3. An AC series cicruit contains a 4-ohm resistor and an inductance coil. The voltage across
the resistor is 80volts, and the voltage across the coil is 60 volts. The total number of
volts applied to the circuit is _______________________
a. 20 c. 100
b. 60 d. 140
4. For the circuit described in problem 3, the total circuit current, in amperes, is __________
a. 1.5 c. 15
b. 2 d. 20
5. For the circuit described in problem 3, state the angle between the voltage across the
resistor and the total current without the use of formula ___________________
a. 00 c. 63.40
b. 300 d. 900
124
6. The total imPedance, in ohms, of the circuit with R = 5 , L = 5mH and C = 13 micro farad
connected in series across a 220, 60Hz AC power source is_____
a. 202.22 c. 222.02
b. 220.22 d. 222.20
7. A 40 ohm resistor is connected in series with a 0.08 hertz coil. The combination is
connected to a 150 volt, 40 hertz source. The magnitude of total current, in ampere is
___________
a. 2.14 c. 5.0
b. 3.36 d. 30
8. If an R-L circuit with total impedance of 220 ohms has voltage drops across R of 𝐸𝑅 =
21 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝐿 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝐿 = 28 volts, perform the following:
a. Find the value of 𝐸𝑇
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_________________________________________________________________________________________________
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b. Find the value of 𝑅
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________
c. Find the value of 𝑋𝐿
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
125
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________
d. Draw the voltage vector diagram showing 𝐸𝑅 , 𝐸𝐿 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐸𝑇 . Draw to scale.
126
7.2. Resistance and Inductance in Series
A combination frequently used in electrical circuits is a resistor in series with a

capacitor. The total effect of this combination is similar to an inductive series circuit with the
exception that the current leads the total voltage. The total opposition to current in RC
circuits is called impedance (just as in RL circuits).
Let us consider a 5 ohm resistor connected in series to a 10 ohms capacitive

reactance. The current is in phase with the voltage in the resistor while it leads the the
capacitor voltage by 90o as shown in the figure 7.4.
Figure 7.4 Analysis of a series circuit containing a resistor and a capacitance.
The line current leads the total or line voltage by less than 900 depending on the
va;ues of R and Xc. As indicated in the figure 7.5 and 7.6, the resistance and reactnace must
therfore, be added vectorially to arrive at the value of impedance.
The following calculation gives the same value of impedance, Z as was obtained for
the inductive series cicruit in section 7.1 above.
𝒁 = √𝑹𝟐 + 𝑿𝒄 𝟐
𝒁 = √𝟓𝟐 + 𝟏𝟎𝟐
127
𝒁 = √𝟐𝟓 + 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝒁 = 𝟏𝟏. 𝟐 𝒐𝒉𝒎𝒔
In this case, however the current leads the voltage by 63.4 degrees instead of lagging by the
same amount. Note that the triangle in figure 7.5 and 7.6 below is invertedly drawn as in the
previous R-L circuit. It is due to the fact that 𝑋𝐿 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑥𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑜 𝑋𝐶 .
Figure 7.5 Inductive series circuit with XL=10, R = 5 and Z = 11.2 ohms
128
Figure 7.6 Capacitive series circuit with XL=10, R = 5 and Z = 11.2 ohms
7.2.1 Vector Sum of Voltages
As shown in the figure 7.7, the voltages of each device in the circuit may be added
vectorially as in the inductive series circuit. However the vector diagram will be in the same
position as the triangle in figure 7.6.
129
Figure 7.7 Vector Analysis equivalent of Capacitive circuit
And can be written in the mathematical form;
𝑬𝒕 = √𝑬𝑹 𝟐 + 𝑬𝑪 𝟐
Where:
𝐸𝑡 = 𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
𝐸𝑅 = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐴𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝐸𝐶 = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐴𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑜r
63.4 0 = is the phase relationship between the current and the

voltage as shown in the figure 7.5.
130
Figure 7.8. The Phase Relationship of an Inductive Circuit
Example 7.2: Determine the current in the circuit and the voltages across R and C in the figure
below.
Given:
R = 40 ohms
C = 80 microfarads
f = 60Hz
E= 120 volts
131
Solving first for Xc;
𝟏,𝟎𝟎𝟎,𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝟏,𝟎𝟎𝟎,𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑿𝑪 = 𝟐𝝅(𝟔𝟎)(𝟖𝟎)
𝑋𝐶 = 33 𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑠
Using the impedance formula and solve for Z;
𝒁 = √𝑹𝟐 + 𝑿𝒄 𝟐
𝑍 = √402 + 332
𝑍 = 52 𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑠
Using Ohm’s Law to solve the current I;
𝑬
𝑰=
𝒁
120
𝐼=
52
𝐼 = 2.3 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠
Solving for the voltages across the resistor and capacitor we have;
𝑬𝑹 = 𝑰𝑹 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑬𝑪 = 𝑰𝑿𝑪
𝐸𝑅 = (2.3)(40)
𝐸𝑅 = 92 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
𝐸𝐶 = 𝐼𝑋𝐶
𝐸𝐶 = (2.3)(33)
𝐸𝐶 = 76 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
132
Problem set No. 7.2
Name: ___________________________ Score:___________________
Instructor: ______________________ Date: ____________________
each problem.
1. The current of an RC series AC circuit can be found with the expression _____________
𝐸𝑅 𝐸𝐶
a. 𝐼 = c. . 𝐼 =
𝑅 𝑅
𝐸𝑇 𝐸𝑅
b. 𝐼 = 𝑋𝐶 d. . 𝐼 = 𝑍
2. In an AC sereies RC ciruit, ________________
a. current lags the voltage c. the angle between total voltage is 900
b. resistor voltage leads current d. the circuit phase angle is greater than 00 but less than 900
3. The total impedance, in ohms, of a series circuit containing two 30-ohm capacitive
reactance is __________________________
a. 60 c. 100
b. 80 d. 140
4. In a series circuit, 𝐸𝑅 = 300 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐸𝐶 = 90 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠, and I = 3 amperes. The total source
voltage is ____________________________
a. 120 V c. 480 V
b. 150 V d. 240 V
5. If 𝐸𝑇 = 300 volts, and 𝐸𝐶 = 180 volts, the value of 𝐸𝑅 in the RC series AC circuit is _______________
a. 0 V c. 180 V
b. 120 V d. 240 V
133
6. The value of the current in the circuit containing R = 10 ohms connected in series to a
10 ohms capacitive reactance all across to the ac poer source of 220VAC and 60 Hz is.
_______________
a. 1.71 A c. 3.0 A
b. 2.4 A d. 4.0 A
7. In problem No. 6 above, across R2 is 60 volts, the value of voltage across the capacitor
is.
a. 40V c. 90 V
b. 60V d. 130 V
8. A 40 ohm resistor is connected in series with an 88.4µF capacitor. The combination is
across a 220-V, 60-Hz source. Find the magnitude of circuit current.
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134
7.3 Series Resistance, Inductance, and Capacitance
An AC circuit may be inductive or capacitive. It may include a series combinaton of

resistance, inductance, and capacitance. When the inductive reactance equals the capacitive
reactance, a condition called resonance exists. Because capacitive reactance opposes
inductive reactance, they cancel each other and thus, the resistance of the circuit is the only
opposition. The applied voltage V across the series combination R-L-C is the phasor sum of
𝑉𝑅 , 𝑉𝐿 ,and 𝑉𝐶 are anti Phase, i.e. displaced by 180 o and there are three phasor diagrams
possible – each depending on the relative values of 𝑉𝐿 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉𝐶 .
Figure 7.9. 𝑋𝐿 is Greater than 𝑋𝐶
With the quantities drwan to scale, 𝑿𝑳 is twice as long as R, as shown in figure 7.10
below. The difference between a purely capacitive circuit as compared to a purely inductive
circuit is that the capacitive effect leads by 90o, whereas the inductive effect lags by 90o.
Therefore, 𝑿𝑪 is shown opposite to 𝑿𝑳 in the figure 7.11.
In the series R-L-C circuit, the resistor is common to both the capacitor and the
inductor. The two diagrams shown in 7.11 can be combined as shown in figure 7.11. With
𝑋𝐿 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑋𝐶 located directly opposite each other, the total reactance is equal to the difference
of the two.
Because inductive reactance is greater than capacitive reactance, the net effect is that
of an inductive circuit containing 5-ohm resistance and 5 ohm inductive reactance. The phase
relationship between current and voltage is 45o. In the circuit shown in figure 7.10, the
135
inductive reactance is greater than the capacitive reactance, and the net reactane is
inductive.
Figure 7.10 Inductive Reactance in Series with Capacitive Reactance
Figure 7.11 The Vector Analysis on Series RLC circuit
Thus applying the vector analyis to obtain total voltage across reactances we have found:
𝑬𝑿 = 𝑬𝑳 − 𝑬𝑪
136
And 𝑬𝑻 = √𝑬𝑹 𝟐 + 𝑬𝑿 𝟐
Where the total voltage is the vector sum of all voltages in the series circuit.
7.3.2. 𝑿𝑪 is Greater than 𝑿𝑳
In the case where the series RLC circuit has 𝑿𝑪 which greater than 𝑿𝑳 such as
shown in the figure 7.12 below the process discussed in section 7.3.1is quite similar.
The major difference between thw two is that the current through this ciruit is leading
to the total applied voltage by 450
Figure 7.12 𝑿𝑪 which greater than 𝑿𝑳
Figure 7.13 Vector Analysis on Determining Circuit Impedance
De termining Impedance:
Total Reactance- X = 𝑿𝑪 − 𝑿𝑳
Circuit Impedance- 𝒁 = √𝑹𝟐 + 𝑿𝟐
Vector Analysis:
137
The vector diagram of this circuit is the same to the vector diagram of the circuit in
section 7.3.1, except that corresponding voltage vectors represent ER , EL , EC , and ET.
EX= EC-EL
Etotal =√𝑽𝑹 𝟐 + 𝑽𝑿 𝟐
7.3.3. 𝑿𝑪 is equal to 𝑿𝑳
In figure 7.14 below, the reactances cancel each other, and the total impedance is
equal to the circuit resistance.
Figure 7.14 𝑋𝐶 is equal to 𝑋𝐿
7.3.3.1 Determining Impedance
Total opposition or impedance in a resonant circuit is equal to or limited to the

resistance. As shown in figure 7.13, the angle between the total voltage and the current is
zero. In other words, the current of the circuit is in phase with the total or line voltage.
Total Reactance: X = 𝑿𝑪 − 𝑿𝑳 = 0
Circuit Impedance: 𝒁 = √𝑹𝟐 + 𝟎
Z=R
Similarly in voltage:
𝑬𝑿 = 𝑬𝑳 − 𝑬 𝑪 = 𝟎
𝑬𝑻 = √𝑬𝑹 𝟐 + 𝟎
𝑬𝑻 = 𝑬𝑹
138
Example: Find the voltages across R, L, and C in the circuit shown in the figure below.
Solution:
Determine 𝑿𝑪 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑿𝑳
𝑋𝐿 = 2𝜋(60)(0.1)
𝟏,𝟎𝟎𝟎,𝟎𝟎𝟎
1,000,000
𝑋𝐶 = 2𝜋(60)(90)
𝑋𝐶 = 29.4 𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑠
Solving for total reactance X;
𝑿 = 𝑿𝑳 − 𝑿𝒄
𝑋 = 37.7 − 29.4 = 8.3 ohms
Solving for impedance, Z:
Z = √𝑹𝟐 + 𝑿𝟐
Z = √4.52 + 8.32
139
Z = 9.45 𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑠
Solving for the current I;
𝐸 120
𝐼= = = 12.7 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠
𝑍 9.45
Solving for the component voltage drop:
𝐸𝑅 = 𝐼𝑅 = 12.7(4.5) = 57.2 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
𝐸𝐿 = 𝐼 𝑋𝐿 = 12.7(37.7) = 478.8 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
𝐸𝐶 = 𝐼 𝑋𝐶 = 12.7(29.4) = 373.4 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
140
Problem set No. 7.3
Name: ___________________________ Score:___________________
Instructor: ______________________ Date: ____________________
each problem.
1. If 𝑋𝐶 is greater than 𝑋𝐿 in a series RLC circuit, the ________________________
a. total current will lag the total voltage c. current is in phase with Ec
b. total voltage is in phase with the current d. current leads the total voltage
2. A series AC circuit consists of R = 9 ohms, 𝑋𝐿 = 20 𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑠 and 𝑋𝐶 = 8 𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑠. The total
reactance, in ohms, is _________________________
a. 12 c. 21
b. 15 d. 28
3. An AC RLC series circuit has the following quantities: R = 40 ohms, 𝑋𝐶 = 50 𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑠, 𝑋𝐿 =
20 𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑠 the total impedance,in ohms is ____________________
a. 30 c. 70
b.50 d. 110
4. A series circuit has a resistor, a capacitor, and an inductor. A voltmeter is used to find
the voltages of 𝐸𝑅 =50 volts, 𝐸𝐶 =70 volts, and 𝐸𝐶 =20 volts, _________________
a.20 V c.70.7 V
b. 50 V d. 100 V
5. A source voltage of an AC series RLC circuit is 120 volts. The circuit consists of the
following quantities: R = 20 ohms, 𝑋𝐶 = 40 𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑠, 𝑋𝐿 = 40 𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑠 the circuit current,in
amere, is _________________
a. 1.2 C. 2.0
141
b. 1.5 d. 3.0
6. In the circuit shown in figure below is in resonant condition. If the current is 10 amperes,
the load voltage is equal to. _______________
a. I x Z volts c. 20 volts
b. 10 x Z volts d. 200 volts
7. In the circuit shown in the figure below , the current, in ampere, is _______
a. 1.91 c. 3
b. 1.67 d. 3.33
8. In the circuit shown in figure below, find the value of voltage across Xc.
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
142
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________________
9. For the circuit in problem 8, change R to 40 ohms and calculate the circuit current.
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________________
143
LESSON 8: PARALLEL AC CIRCUITS
Objectives:
After studying this lesson, the student should be able to;
 Determine the current and voltage realationship in an alternating-current circuit

containing a resistor, inductor, and capacitor connected in parallel.
 Make a vector analysis for RLC parallel circuit
 Discuss what is meant by antiresonance when applied to an alternating-current
circuit containing resistance, inductive reactance, and capacitance in parallel.
When analyzing a parallel a.c. circuit, two important points must be kept in mind. First
a parallel circuit consists of two or more series circuit connected in parallel. Therefore each
branch can be analyzed separately as a series circuit and the effect of the separate branches
can be combined. Secondly alternating voltages and current are vector quantities so both
magnitude and phase angles must be taken into account.
Parallel AC circuits can be simplified by using phasor algebra which eliminates the
need of phasor diagram. Branch currents may be solved using the impedance method and
formulated as follows:
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + +⋯
𝒁𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒁𝟏 𝒁𝟐 𝒁𝒏
Where:
𝒁𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 = 𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒊𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒅𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝑨𝑪 𝒄𝒊𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒊𝒕
𝒁𝟏 = 𝒊𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒅𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒃𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒉 𝒄𝒊𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒊𝒕 𝟏
𝒁𝟐 = 𝒊𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒅𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒃𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒉 𝒄𝒊𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒊𝒕 𝟐
𝒁𝒏 = 𝒊𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒅𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒃𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒉 𝒄𝒊𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒊𝒕 𝒏
144
8.1 Inductance in Parallel to Resistor
Parallel circuits are more common than series circuits because of the parallel or
multiple system of energy transmission and distribution. It is not difficult to calculate the
total current of multiple circuits connected in parallel. Remember that the current is the
same in all parts of a series circuit. When the components of a series circuit are fixed values
of resistance or reactance, the current is regarded as the reference point.
In a parallel circuit, each individual branch is connected directly across the line wires.
Therefore, the voltage is the same across each branch of the circuit and because of this, it is
reagarded as a fixed value or refernce point in parallel circuit calculations.
The current in the resistive branch of the parallel circuit in figure 8.1 is in phase with
the line voltage, and the current in the inductive branch lags the line voltage by 900.
Figure 8.1 Resistance connected in parallel with Inductor
The two currents are out of phase with each other. Therfore, the total current is the
vector sum of the two quantities formulated as follows:
𝑰𝑻 = √𝑰𝑹 𝟐 + 𝑰𝑳 𝟐
Where:
145
𝐼𝑇 = 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑅 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐿
𝐼𝑅 = 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐ℎ 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝐼𝐿 = 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐ℎ 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
Example 8.1: Determine the branch currents, the total current, and circuit impedance for the
circuit as shown below.
Solution:
Given:
Branch no. 1 the load resistor R with 100 ohms
Branch no. 2 the load is inductor L with 0.2 henry
E = 240 Volts
f = 60 Hz
Required:
𝐼𝑇 = 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑅 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐿
𝐼𝑅 = 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐ℎ 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝐼𝐿 = 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐ℎ 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝑍𝑇 = 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
Solving first for, L and XL in inductor branch
𝑋𝐿 = 2𝜋(60)(0.2)
Solving for IL and IR ;
146
𝑬
𝑰𝑳 =
𝑿𝑳
240
𝐼𝐿 =
75.4
𝑬
𝑰𝑳 =
𝑿𝑳
240
𝐼𝐿 =
75.4
𝑬
𝑰𝑹 =
𝑹
240
𝐼𝑅 =
100
𝐼𝑅 = 2.4 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠
Solving for the total current;
𝑰𝑻 = √𝑰𝑹 𝟐 + 𝑰𝑳 𝟐
𝐼𝑇 = √(2.4)2 + (3.18)2
𝐼𝑇 = 3.98 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠
Solving for the circuit impedance;
𝑬
𝒁=
𝑰𝑻
240
𝑍=
3.98
147
𝑍 = 60.3 𝑂ℎ𝑚𝑠
8.2. Resistance and Capacitive Reactance in Parallel
When a resistive load, such as a heating or lighting load, is connected in parallel with
a capacitive reactance, certain voltage and current relationships result.
The current in the resistive branch in 8.2 is in phase with the line voltag. The current
in the capacitive branch in figure 8.3 is equal to the vector sum of the currents are out of
phase with each other, they must added vectorially.
Figure 8.2 Resistive Branch in Phase with Line Voltage
Figure 8.3 The Current Leads With the line Voltage by 90 degrees
Example 8.2. Consider the circuit below consiting resistance, inductance, capacitance
connected in parallel as shown in the circuit below, the current in each branch and obtain
the total or line current in the circuit.
148
The current in the resistance branch is
𝐸
𝐼𝑅 =
𝑅
120
𝐼𝑅 =
30
𝐼𝑅 = 4 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠
The current in the inductive branch is
𝑬
𝑰𝑳 =
𝑿𝑳
120
𝐼𝐿 =
20
𝐼𝐿 = 3 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠
The current in the inductive branch is
𝑬
𝑰𝑪 =
𝑿𝒄
120
𝐼𝐿 =
30
𝐼𝐿 = 4 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠
The net reactive current is
149
𝑰𝑿 = 𝑰𝑳 − 𝑰𝑪
𝐼𝑋 = 6 − 4= 2 Amperes
The total current is equal to:
𝑰𝑻 = √𝑰𝑹 𝟐 + 𝑰𝑿 𝟐
Where:
𝐼𝑅 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐ℎ
𝐼𝑋 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑟 𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐿 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡
𝐼𝑇 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡
𝐼𝑇 = √42 + 22
𝐼𝑇 = √20
𝐼𝑇 = 4.47 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠
For parallel circuits having unequal reactances, when the inductive current is greater
than the capacitive current the total current lags the line voltage. See figure 8. 4 below.
Otherwise, if the inductive current is less than the capacitive current the total current will
lead the line voltage as per figure 8.3.
Figure 8.4 Vector on the Current Lags the Voltage
150
Figure 8.5 Vector on the Current Leads the Voltage
151
Problem set No. 8
Name: ___________________________ Score:___________________
Instructor: ______________________ Date: ____________________
each problem.
I. In items 1 through 15, select the best answer to make the statement true. Place the letter
of the selected answer in the space provided.
1. A circuit consists of a capacitor in parallel with a 0.1 henry unductor. The combination
is across a 230-volt source. The capacitive current is 16 amperes and the inductive
current is 12 amperes. The total line current, in amperes, is _____________________
a.1.2 c. 20
b. 4 d. current leads the total voltage
2. A 10 ohm resistor is in parallel with a 6 ohm inductive reactance. What value of
capacitive reactance must be placed in parallel with the RL combination so that the total
impedance is equal to 10 ohms? ________________________
a. 3.75 ohms c. 10 ohms

b. 6 ohms d. 16 ohms
3. A 15 ohm capacitor is in parallel with a 20 –ohm inductive reactance and a 150 volt, 60
hertz source. The value of the total current, in amperes, is __________________
a. 2.5 c. 7.5
b. 25 d. 10
4. An RLC parallel circuit has the following currents : IR = 6A, IL = 10 A, Ic= 2A. The value of
total current, in amperes, is _______________________
a. 4 c. 8
b. 6 d. 10
5. In an RLC parallel circuit, if XL is greater than XC _____________________
152
a. Z = R c. total current leads total voltage
b. total current lags total voltage d. total current and total voltage are in phase
6. Which one of the listed answers is not a characteristics of parallel resonance? __________
a. line current is equal to the current of the c. line current is at maximum value
resistance in the resistive branch
b. total current is at a maximum value d. the line current is in phase with the line voltage
7. In RL parallel circuit, the opposistion to total current is called ____________________
a. reactance c. phase relationship

b. resistance d. impedance
8. A 30-ohm resistor and 40 –ohm inductive reactance are connected in parallel to a 120
volt, 60 hertz source. The current through the reactance, in amperes, is _____________
a. 1.5 c. 2.4
b. 1.71 D. 3.0
9. An RL parallel circuit connected to a 120 V source has the following currents: IR = 12A,
IL = 16 A, IT = 20A. the total circuit impedance, in ohms is ____________________
a. 3.75 c. 6.0
b. 4.28 D. 7.5
10. A circuit consists of a resistor in parallel with an inductor. The resistor and inductor are
connected across a 120 V, 60 Hz source. The current through the resistor has a value of
8 A, and the current through the resistor has a value of 8A, and the current through the
inductor has a value of 6A. the value of the total current in amperes, is ________________
a. 8 c. 12
b. 10 D. 14
11. In an RL parallel circuit, the _________________
a. total voltage and current are in phase c. inductive current is in phase with the resistive
current.
b. total voltage is in phase with the inductive D. total current is 90 degrees out of phase with the
current. total voltage.
12. If a circuit contains a resistor in parallel with an inductive reactance, the ____________
153
b. Voltage across the capacitor is in phase c. total voltage current lags the total current
with the voltage across the inductive
reactance.
b. total current lags the total voltage by 56.3 D. inductive current is in phase with the total voltage
degrees.
13. In a parallel RL circuit, the total voltage. ___________________
a. In phase with the resistor current. C, in phase with the total current
b. in phase with the inductor current D. out of phase with the total by 56.3 degrees
14. A 6-ohm resistor is connected in parallel to an 8 ohm inductive reactance and a 120 volt
source. The value of the total current, in amperes, is
a. 8.57 C. 20
b. 15 D. 20
15. A 6 ohm resistance is in parallel with a 4 ohm inductive reactance. If the resistive curent
is 18 amperes, the value of the total voltage is _______________
a. 36 b. 180
c. 72 d. 108
154

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LESSON 1: NATURE OF ELECTRICITY

1.2 . Primary Methods of Producing Electrical Energy

1.3. Electrical and Magnetic Units

Angular ω ω =2𝜋f Radians Radians per 1

B. Units for magnetic properties

Permeabilty µ 𝐁 G/Oe T-m/At

1.4. Basic Concepts and Information

Figure I.1. Atomic Structure of Atom

 Valence electrons are outermost electrons (farthest from the nucleus)

Where: I = current in ampere, A

 Measured in amperes (A)

Q = 1500 A-s or Coulomb.

D. Electromotive force (emf) and potential difference

Where: R = resistance in ohm, Ω

 Conductivity is the ability of material to conduct electricity; it is the reciprocal of

𝑅𝑖 = resistance at reference temperature in ohm , Ω

𝛼 = 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑝𝑒𝑟 o C

(1.72 x 10−8 Ω.m)(5m)

R = 4.32 X10-12 ohms

Name: ___________________________ Score:___________________

Instructor: ______________________ Date: ____________________

1. Calculate the number of electrons in a copper conductor having a diameter of 0.064

At the end of this lesson the student should have

 Solve for R, E, I, and P in a simple electrical problem

1.1 Fundamental Laws

R = Resistance of the lamp (Required in the problem)

1.1.2 Kirchoff’s current law

𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏 𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒 𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒

 The common unit of electric power is watt

P = Power dissipated in the wire (Required in the problem)

I = Current (Required in the problem)

2.3. Electrical Energy

𝑛𝑜.𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑘 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑋 𝑘ℎ

W = 2, 420 Wh or 2.42kWh or 8.712 MJ

Thus the energy consumed by the motor in an hour of operation is

E = 500Wh or 0.5 kWh

And the power input to the motor is 500W

2.4. Network Configurations and Transformations.

 The total or equivalent resistance of serially-connected resistors is equal to the sum of

 The current flowing through the resistors are equal

 Consequently, the total power dissipated of the circuit is,

But 𝐼1 = 𝐼2 (resistor connected in series)

Then 𝐸2 = 1.333 (6) = 8𝑉

B. Resistors connected in Parallel

 Consequently, 𝑷𝒕 = 𝑬𝑰𝒕 =𝑰𝟐 𝑹𝒕

C. Resistors connected in Series-Parallel & Parallel Series

Figure 2.3. Parallel –Series Connection

C.2. Parallel Series Connection

Where: 𝑷𝒕 = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑤𝑛 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡

𝑷𝟏 , 𝑷𝟐 …, 𝑷𝒏 = power in respective resistance

Example 2.11: A 5-ohm resistance is connected in parallel with a 10-ohm resistance.

D. Voltage Division Theorem (VDT)

E. Current Division Theorem

In a two-branch parallel connection of resistors, the current flowing through one

Example 2.13: A 10 Ω and 20 Ω resistance are connected in parallel. Another resistance of 5

Solving the current at 10 ohm resistor;

𝐼𝑅10 = 2.74 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠

F. WYE and DELTA Resistors Connections

-This is generally used to solve complicatedly connected circuits by reconstructing the

 Closed connection such as the delta is generally referred to as mesh connections.

 Wye connection is an open connection with a common junction and is generally

Figure 2.5. Wye Connected Resistor

F.1. Delta to Wye Transformation

Name: _________ Score:_

Instructor: __ Date:

Name: _________ Score:_

Instructor: __ Date:

Name: _________ Score:_

Instructor: __ Date: