Flat plate solar collector heat loss processes

• Energy losses from the I - irradiance; I1,2 - reflection losses


absorber plate are ; Q1, 2 - thermal losses; Q - useful heat
absorbed;
associated with
radiation, convection
and conduction
• Thermal radiation
exchange occurs
between the absorber
and the adjoining cover Q
plate, between the two η=
Ac I
cover plates, and
between the top cover
plate and the
surroundings Energy flows in the collector
236
Flat plate solar collector heat loss processes
• Energy is also Forced convection losses due to wind
over the top glass cover plate of a solar
transferred by free collector
convection from the
absorber plate to the first
cover plate and between
cover plates
• It is transferred by free
or forced convection to
the atmosphere
• Energy is also
transferred by conduction
from the absorber Energy transferred to the working fluid
through the insulation
• It is desirable to minimize these losses: small emissivity
ε(λ,Τ) of the absorber plate at long wavelengths λ
237
Collector Overall Heat Loss Coefficient (UL)

Absorbed Energy = AC (τα )I

Effective Heat Loss = AC U L (T pm − Ta )
ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Steady-state conditions, (2) Uniform
surface heat fluxes and temperatures 238
Thermal network for a two-cover flat-plate collector

→ wind

UL the overall heat loss coefficient: U L = Ut +Ub

The useful energy gain per unit area (AC) of the collector:
Q
qu =
Ac
[ ]
= (τα )I − U L (T pm − Ta ) = S − qloss
239
Equivalent thermal loss for flat-plate solar collector

qloss = U L (T pm − Ta ) =
(T pm − Ta ) (T pm − Ta )
= = qloss (Top ) + qloss ( Bottom )
1 R
UL
qloss (Top ) = qc + qr
qloss ( Bottom ) = qins
• The net radiation exchange between two finite surfaces is
expressed as:
σ (T − T
4 4
)
Q r , p −c1 = −Q r ,c1− p =
pm c1
1− ε p 1 1 − ε c1
+ +
ε p Ap Ap Fp −c1 ε c1 Ac1
For flat-plate solar collector : A p = Ac1 = AC 240
• The radiation energy loss per unit area of the collector:

Q r , p −c1 σ (T − T
4
pm
4
c1 )
qr , p −c1 = =
AC 1− ε p 1 1 − ε c1
+ +
εp Fp −c1 ε c1
σ is the Stefan-Boltzmann Constant, σ = 5.6704 x 10-8
W.m-2 K-4. εp and εc1 are respectively the emissivity of the
absorber plate and the first cover plate, Tpm the average
temperature of the absorber plate and Tc1 is the
temperature of the first cover plate
• The view factor Fp-c1 is the fraction of the radiation
leaving the surface of absorber and intercepted by the
first cover surface 241
•The convective energy loss per unit area of the collector:

Q c , p −c1
q c , p −c1 = = hc , p −c1 (T pm − Tc1 )
AC
• The steady state energy loss through the top per unit area is
given by: 4
σ (T pm − Tc1 )
4

qloss (Top ) = hc , p −c1 (T pm − Tc1 ) +

1− ε p 1 1 − ε c1
+ +
εp F p −c1 ε c1
For parallel planes, Fp-c1=1
σ (T
−T 4 4
)
qloss (Top ) = hc , p −c1 (T pm − Tc1 ) +
pm c1

1 1
+ −1
εp ε c1 242
 σ (T + T )(Tpm + Tc1 )
2 2

qloss (Top ) = hc , p −c1 (T pm − Tc1 ) + (T − Tc1 )

pm c1
pm
1 1
+ −1
εp ε c1

qloss (Top ) = (hc , p −c1 + hr , p −c1 )(Tpm − Tc1 )

Where hr,p-c1 is the radiation heat transfer coefficient between
two parallel plates:

σ (T + T )(Tpm + Tc1 )
2
pm
2
c1
hr , p −c1 =
1 1
+ −1
εp ε c1
243
• The resistance R3 can then be expressed as:
1
R3 =
hc , p −c1 + hr , p −c1
• The steady state energy transfer between the
absorber plate and the first cover is the same as
between the two adjacent covers and is given by:
σ (T − T4 4
)
qloss (Top ) = hc ,c1−c 2 (Tc1 − Tc 2 ) + c1 c2
1 1
+ −1
ε c1 ε c2
qloss (Top ) = (hc ,c1−c 2 + hr ,c1−c 2 )(Tc1 − Tc 2 )
244
• The radiation heat transfer coefficient between the
covers, hr,c1-c2 is given by:

σ (T + T
2
c1
2
c2 )(T c1 + Tc 2 )
hr ,c1−c 2 =
1 1
+ −1
ε c1 ε c2
• A similar expression can be written for R2, the
resistance between the covers:
1
R2 =
hc ,c1−c 2 + hr ,c1−c 2
245
•The steady state energy transfer is also equal to the
energy lost to the surroundings from the top cover
• The radiation resistance from the top cover
accounts for radiation exchange with the sky at Ts
• The top heat loss can be written as:

(
qloss (Top ) = hw,c 2− a (Tc 2 − Ta ) + σε c 2 T − T
4
c2 s
4
)
Where hw,c2-a is the convection heat transfer coefficient,
εc2 is the emissivity of the second cover plate, TC2 the
temperature of the second cover plate
• The top heat loss can be also written as:

qloss (Top ) = (hw,c 2− a + hr ,c 2− a )(Tc 2 − Ta )

246
• By referring to the ambient Temperature Ta, the
radiation heat transfer coefficient can be written as:

σε c 2 (T − T
4
c2 s
4
)
hr ,c 2− a =
(Tc 2 − Ta )
• The resistance to the surrounding R1 is then given
by

1
R1 =
hw,c 2− a + hr ,c 2− a
247
• The top heat loss is the top loss coefficient times
the overall temperature difference

q loss (Top ) = U t (T pm − Ta )
• The temperature differences can be calculated
from: q
(T − Tc1 ) =
(h
loss (Top )

+ hr , p −c1 )
pm
c , p − c1

qloss (Top )
(Tc1 − Tc 2 ) =
(h c , c1− c 2 + hr ,c1−c 2 )
qloss (Top )
(Tc 2 − Ta ) =
(h w,c 2 − a + hr ,c 2− a )
248
  1 1 1 
(T pm − Ta ) = qloss (Top )  + + 
 hc , p −c1 + hr , p −c1 hc ,c1−c 2 + hr ,c1−c 2 hw,c 2 − a + hr ,c 2− a 

• The top loss coefficient from the collector plate to

the ambient is
1
Ut =
1 1 1
+ +
hc , p −c1 + hr , p −c1 hc ,c1−c 2 + hr ,c1−c 2 hw,c 2− a + hr ,c 2− a

• The top loss coefficient can also be expressed as:

1
Ut =
R1 + R2 + R3
249
An useful empirical equation for Ut calculations
(Klein et al. 1979) is given by:
−1
 
 

Ut = 
N 1
+  +
(
σ (T pm + Ta ) T pm
2
)
+ Ta2
 C  (T pm − Ta ) 2 N + f − 1 + 0.133ε p
e
hw 
 T  (N + f )  
(ε p + 0.00591Nhw ) +
−1
−N
εg
 pm   

Where N = number of glass covers

f = (1 + 0.089hw − 0.1166hwε p )(1 + 0.07866 N )

β 2)
C = 520(1-0.000051β for 0º<β
β<70º. For 70º<β
β<90º, use β=70º
β= collector tilt (degrees)
 100  εg = emittance of glass (0.88)
e = 0.4301 −  εp = emittance of the absorber plate
 T  Ta = ambient temperature
 pm  Tpm mean plate temperature (K)
hw = wind heat transfer coefficient (W/m2K)
250
The energy loss through the bottom
The energy loss through the bottom of the collector is represented
by two series resistances, R4 and R5. R4 is the resistance to heat
flow through the insulation and R5 is the convection and radiation
resistance to the environment. R5 is usually negligible compared to
R4
1 k ins
Thus, the back loss coefficient Ub is: Ub = =
R4 δ ins
Where kins and δins are the insulation thermal conductivity and
thickness, respectively.
• The collector overall loss coefficient UL is the sum of the top (Ut),
bottom (Ub) and edge (Ue) loss coefficients:

U L = Ut +Ub +Ue
• Edge losses for well-designed collectors are usually negligible
• The collector overall loss coefficient
UL is then:
U L = Ut + Ub
251
Natural convection between flat parallel plates (hc)
Free convection heat transfer data are usually correlated in terms
of two or three dimensionless parameters: the Nusselt (Nu),
Rayleigh (Ra), and Prandtl numbers, given by:
hc L hc = heat transfer coefficient
Nu = L = plate spacing (air gap)
k k = thermal conductivity (air)
gβ ′∆TL3 g = gravitational constant
Ra = β/ = volumetric coefficient of expansion (for an ideal gas, β/=1/T)
να ∆T = temperature difference between plates
ν ν = kinematic viscosity
Pr = α =k/(ρ
ρCp) thermal diffusivity
α
For tilt angles β from 0 to 75º, Hollands et al. (1976) give the
following convection relationship, Nu=f(Ra):
 1708(sin 1.8β )1.6  
+ +
1708   Ra cos β  
Nu = 1 + 1.44 1 −  1 −  +   − 1
 Ra cos β   Ra cos β   5830  
+ Exponent: only positive values of the terms are used (i.e., use zero if the term is negative)
• Fluid properties in the convection equation are evaluated at the mean temperature
252
Heat transfer relations for internal flow (hf)
ρVDh
For turbulent flow inside tubes Re =  2200
µ
Petukhov equation can be used for the heat transfer coefficient
calculation (For common geometries) :
f
  Re Pr n
h f Dh 8  µ 
Nu = =  
k f  3   µw 
2
1.07 + 12.7  Pr − 1
8  

Where n=0.11 for heating (and 0.25 for cooling) and the Darcy friction
factor f for smooth pipes is give by:
f = (0.79 ln Re− 1.64)
−2

For noncircular tubes the hydraulic diameter can be used

(
4 flow area )
Dh =
wetted perimeter 253
Friction factor for fully developed flow in circular pipes

The Moody Chart D = inner diameter of pipe work, e = internal roughness of the pipe
254
Wind convection coefficients (hw)
For rectangular flat plates exposed to outside winds and 2 x104 < Re < 9 x104,
Sparrow et al. (1979) give the following correlation for the wind convection heat
loss coefficient calculation: 1 1
hw Dh
Nu = = 0.86 Re 2 Pr 3
k
Where the hydrodynamic characteristic length is: Dh =
(
4 plate area )
plate perimeter
• When the wind speed is very low (<2 m/s), free convection
conditions may dominate 1
Nu = 0.76 Ra 4
for 10 4  Ra 10 7
• For hot horizontal flat
plates, Lloyd et al. (1974) give 1

the following equations Nu = 0.15 Ra 3

for 10 7  Ra3 x1010
1
Nu = 0.59 Ra 4
for 10 4  Ra 109
• For vertical plates,
McAdams (1954) gives 1
Nu = 0.13Ra 3
for 109  Ra 1012
255
Example 9:
Calculate the top loss coefficient for an absorber with a single glass cover
having the following specifications.
Plate-to-cover spacing=25 mm
Plate emittance=0.95
Ambient air and sky temperature=10°C
Wind heat transfer coefficient= 10 W/m2C
Mean plate temperature=100°C
Collector tilt=45°
Glass emittance=0.88
Solution:
For the single-glass-cover system, the equation of the top loss coefficient
becomes:
1
Ut =
1 1
+
hc , p −c + hr , p −c hw,c − a + hr ,c − a
The cover temperature Tc is assumed equal to 35°°C 256
The radiation coefficient from the absorber plate to the cover hr,p-c is:

σ (T + T )(Tpm + Tc )
2
pm c
2

hr , p −c =
1 1
+ −1
εp εc
The radiation coefficient from the cover to the air hr,c-a is given as (Ta=Ts):

hr ,c − a = σε c T + T ( c
2
s
2
)(T c + TS )
The top heat loss rate is given by:

qloss (Top ) = (hc , p −c + hr , p −c )(T pm − Tc ) = U t (T pm − Ta )

257
The equation for the cover glass temperature is based on equation of
top heat loss rate:

U t (T pm − Ta )
Tc = T pm −
(h c , p −c + hr , p −c )
The procedure is to estimate the cover temperature, from which hc,p-c, hr,p-c
and hr,c-a are calculated. With these heat transfer coefficient and hw, the
top heat loss coefficient is calculated. These results are then used to
calculate Tc from the preceding equation. If Tc is close to the initial guess,
no further calculations are necessary. Otherwise, the newly calculated Tc
is used and the process is repeated.

With an assumed value of the cover temperature of 35°C, the two

radiation coefficients hr,p-c and hr,c-a are calculated:

σ (Tpm
2
+ Tc2 )(T pm + Tc ) 5.6704 x 10-8 (3732 + 3082 )(373 + 308) W
hr , p −c = = = 7.60
1
+
1
−1
1
+
1
−1 m2 K
εp εc 0.95 0.88
258
 W
( ) ( )
hr ,c − a = σε c Tc2 + Ts2 (Tc + TS ) = 5.6704 x 10-8 x0.88 3082 + 2832 (308 + 283) = 5.16
m2 K

The following equation is used to calculate the convection coefficient

between the absorber plate and the cover, hc,p-c :

 1708(sin 1.8β )  
+ +
1708   Ra cos β  
1. 6
Nu = 1 + 1.44 1 −  1 −  +   − 1
 Ra cos β   Ra cos β   5830  
The mean temperature between the plate and the cover is
(100+35)/2=67.5°°C, so the air properties are ν=1.96X10-5 m2/s,
ν
k=0.0293 W/m°°C, T=340.5K, and Pr = = 0.7
α
The Rayleigh number is:

9.81(100 − 35)(0.025) (0.7 )

3 3
′
gβ ∆TL
Ra = = = 5.33 X 10 4
να (
340.5 1.96 X 10 )
−5 2

259
The convective heat transfer coefficient is
k 0.0293 W
hc , p −c = Nu = 3.19 = 3.73 2
L 0.025 m K
The first estimate of the top loss coefficient Ut is then
−1
 1 1  W
Ut =  +  = 6.49 2
 3.73 + 7.60 5.16 + 10.0  m K
The Cover temperature is:
U t (T pm − Ta )
Tc = T pm −
(hc , p −c + hr , p −c )
6.49 X 90
TC = 100 − = 48.5°C
3.73 + 7.60 260
With this new estimate of the cover temperature, the
various heat transfer coefficients become:
W W
hr , p −c = 8.03 2 hc , p −c = 3.52 2
m K m K
W
hr ,c − a = 5.53 2
m K
And the second estimate of Ut is:
W
U t = 6.62 2
m K
When the cover glass temperature is calculated with
this new top loss coefficient, it is found to be 48.4°°C,
which is essentially equal to the estimate of 48.5°°C.
261
Example 10:
Solar collector designed to heat water operating under prescribed solar
irradiation and loss conditions. Consider a flat-plate solar collector, such as that
shown schematically and assume that it has one cover plate. The following
quantities are known:
The total solar irradiation, I= 700 W/m2
The product of the absorptance (α α) of the absorber plate and the transmittance
(ττ) of the cover plate to solar radiation, (τα
τα)=0.9
τα
The emissivity of the cover plate, εc=0.94
The convective coefficient between the cover plate and ambient air, hw=10
W/(m2.K)
Cover plate temperature, Tc=30°°C
The ambient temperature, Ta=25°°C
The effective sky temperature, TS=-10°°C
Collector surface area, Ac=3 m2
ASSUMPTIONS:
(1) Steady-state conditions, (2) the absorber plate tube assembly is perfectly
insulated from below (no heat losses from the back of collector), (3) Collector
area is small compared to sky surroundings.
FIND:
(a) Useful heat collected per unit area of the collector, qu , in W/m2
(b) Temperature rise of the water flow, (Tfo-Tfi), and
(c) Collector efficiency
PROPERTIES: Water (300K): Cp = 4179 J/(kg.K) 262
Solution:
a) The useful heat rate per unit area is
Q
qu =
Ac
[ ]
= (τα )I − U L (T pm − Ta ) = S − qloss
qloss (Top ) = hw,c − a (Tc − Ta ) + σε c (Tc4 − Ts4 )
(
qloss (Top ) = 10(30 − 25) + 5.6704 x 10 -8 x 0.94 3034 − 2634 )
W
qloss (Top ) = 244.26 2
m 263
 W
qu = 0.9 X 700 − 244.26 = 385.74 2
m
b) The useful heat collected causes an enthalpy change of
the flowing water, that is

Q = qu AC = m C p (T fo − T fi )
qu AC 385.74 X 3
(T fo − T fi ) =  = = 27.7°C
mC p 0.01X 4179
c) The efficiency is:

Q qu 385.74
η= = = = 0.551 or 55.1%
AC I I 700
264
Example 11:
Calculate the outlet temperature and efficiency of a single-
cover solar collector at a 45°° slope when the total radiation
incident on the collector is 700 W/m2. The absorber plate-to-
cover spacing is 25 mm. the collector is 1 m wide by 4 m
long. The absorber plate is selective with an emittance of 0.1
and effective transmittance-absorbance product is 0.82. The
inlet fluid temperature is 40°°C, the ambient air temperature is
10°°C, and the mass flow rate of the working fluid is 0.056
kg/s. the wind heat transfer coefficient is 2 W/(m2°C) and the
sum of the back and edge loss coefficient is 1.0 W/(m2°C).
The emittance of the cover is εc=0.84. The average
temperature of absorber and cover plates are assumed to be
respectively 70°°C and 50°°C.
PROPERTIES: Water (313K): Cp = 4179 J/(kg.K)
Air (333K):ν ν=1.84X10-5 m2/s, α=2.62X10-5 m2/s and k=2.8X10-2
W/(m.K)
265
Solution:
The useful energy gain of the collector:

[ ]
Q = Ac (τα )I − U L (Tpm − Ta ) = m C p (T fo − T fi )
The radiation heat transfer coefficient between the two
parallel plates (absorber and cover)

σ (Tpm
2
+ Tc2 )(T pm + Tc )
hr , p −c =
1 1
+ −1
εp εc

hr , p −c =
( )
5.6704 X 10 −8 3432 + 3232 (343 + 323) W
= 0.82 2
1 1 m °C
+ −1
0.1 0.84
266
The convective heat transfer coefficient of the air in
between the two parallel plates (absorber and cover)
for tilt angle β of 45º, is calculated via the following
expression of Nu number :

 1708(sin 1.8β )1.6  

+ +
1708   Ra cos β  
Nu = 1 + 1.44 1 −  1 −  +   − 1
 Ra cos β   Ra cos β   5830  

And the Ra number is:

1
′
gβ ∆TL3 9.81X (70 − 50 )(0.025)
3

Ra = = 333 = 2 . 75 X 10 4

να 1.84 X 10 −5 X 2.62 X 10 −5

267
And the Nu number and the convective heat
transfer coefficient are :
 1708(sin 1.8β )1.6  
+ +
1708   Ra cos β  
Nu = 1 + 1.44 1 −  1 −  +   − 1
 Ra cos β   Ra cos β   5830  
+
 1708(sin 1.8 X 45)    2.75 X 10 cos 45  
1.6 + 4
1708
Nu = 1 + 1.44 1 −  1 −  +   − 1
  2.75 X 10 cos 45  
4 4
 2 .75 X 10 cos 45 5830  
hL
Nu = 4.6 = c
k
0.025 W
hc , p −c = 4.6 = 4.092
2.81X 10 − 2 m2 K

268
The steady state energy loss through the top per unit area is given by:
qloss (Top ) = (hc , p −c + hr , p −c )(T pm − Tc )
W
qloss (Top ) = (4.092 + 0.82 )(70 − 50) = 98.24 2
m
qloss (Top ) = (hw,c − a + hr ,c − a )(Tc − Ta )
qloss (Top ) 98.24 W
hr ,c − a = − hw,c − a = − 2 = 0.456 2
(Tc − Ta ) (50 − 10) m K
1
Ut = =
1 1
+
hc , p −c + hr , p −c hw,c − a + hr ,c − a
1 W
Ut = = 1.64 2
1 1 m K
+
0.82 + 4.092 2 + 0.456 269
The collector overall loss coefficient UL is the sum of the top,
bottom and edge loss coefficients:
U L = Ut + Ub +Ue
W
U L = 1.64 + 1 = 2.64 2
m °C
The useful energy gain of the collector:
[ ]
Q = Ac (τα )I − U L (T pm − Ta ) = m C p (T fo − T fi )
Q = 4[0.82 X 700 − 2.64(70 − 10)] = 1662.4W
The fluid outlet temperature is calculated from:

Q 1662.4
T fo = T fi + = 313 + = 320.1K
m C p 0.056 X 4179
270
The collector efficiency is

Q 1662.4
η= = = 0.59 or 59%
AC I 4 X 700

271
Example 12:
Estimate the collector surface area required to
heat 400 litres/day of water from 15 to 60C in
Athens in June using a flat plate collector with
an average daily efficiency of 55% as
determined from standard collector tests
performed in month of June.
The average daily radiation on a 45˚ surface
for June in Athens is 7.5 kWh/m2/day. The heat
capacity of water, which measures how much
energy is required to heat it up, is 4200
J/litre/°°C.
272
Solution:
The daily load is the energy required to heat the water from
15 to 60˚C (neglecting the tank loss). The energy to heat the
water is:

J litre kJ
4200 x400 x (60 - 15) = 75600
litre°C day day

The daily useful heat gain by the collector is equal to the

heating load:

kJ
Q = Ac Iη = 75600
day
273
Thus, the collector area should therefore be

kJ
75600
day 2
Ac = =5 m
kJ
7.5x 3600 2 x 0.55
m day

http://www.energysavingtrust.org.uk/Generate-your-own-energy/Solar-water-heating

274
Example 12:
A flat-plate solar collector, mounted at the latitude
angle and south-facing, has an effective area of 2
m2. Water is pumped through this collector at the
rate 20x10-6 m3/s and the mean temperature
difference between the inflow and outflow is 18.4C.
The collector is used to heat indirectly the water in a
storage tank of capacity 227 litres for 5 hours
continuously. If the system operates at a typical
efficiency of 40%, and neglecting the losses in the
tank, calculate:
A- the temperature rise in the storage tank
B- the power rating of the flat-plate collector in W/m2
* The specific heat of water : Cp = 4180 J/(kg-K) 275
Solution:
The mass of water, m transferred in 5 hours is
3
-6 m 3 kg
m = 5x3600 s x20x10 x10 3 = 360 kg
s m
The collector heat (Q) transferred to the circulating water in 5 hours is

Q = mC p ∆T = 360x4180x18.4 = 27.688 MJ
A- The temperature rise in the storage tank with a capacity of 227 litres
227 xC p ∆Ts
ηs = = 0.4
Q
η s xQ 0.4 x27.688x106
∆Ts = = = 11.67°C
227 xC p 227x4180
276
B- The power rating of the flat-plate collector in W/m2

Q 27.688x106 W
P= = = 769.1 2
time x A c 5x 3600x2 m

277
Example 13:
A collector, is to be mounted on the south-facing
roof of a dwelling house, feeding a storage tank with
a capacity of 136 litres. The circulating pump is to
operate at rate of 20x10-6 m3/s. on a warm, sunny
day, the difference of water temperature between the
inflow and outflow at the collector is typically 15.5C
and this difference exists for 6 hours. What is the
operating efficiency of the system if the temperature
of the water in the storage tank is increased by
20C?
* The specific heat of water : Cp = 4180 J/(kg-K)

278
Solution:
The amount of heat collected in 6 hours (Q)

Q = mC p ∆T = 20x10-6 x103 x6x3600x4180x15.5 = 27.989 MJ

The energy efficiency of the system is

energy transferred to storage tan k 136 x4180x∆Ts

ηs = =
Q Q
136 x4180x 20
ηs = 6
= 40.6 or 40.6%
27.989x10

279
Example 14:
It is proposed to use a roof-mounted solar water heating
system to supplement the energy input of a certain industrial
process. the south-facing solar collector is to be used to heat
indirectly the water in a storage tank of capacity 22700 litres.
Water can be pumped through the collector by a range of
available water pumps. On a typical summer day, there are
5.6 hours of sunshine which causes an average temperature
difference of 16.5C between the inflow and outflow of the
collector.
A- If the anticipated efficiency of the system is 42.6%, what
rate of water pump flow in m3/s is needed to cause a
temperature rise of 12C in the storage tank?
B- If this pump is used and the temperature of the storage
tank becomes 14.5C, what is the efficiency of the collector
system?
* The specific heat of water : Cp = 4180 J/(kg-K) 280
List of Symbols
Ac: the collector total area (m2)
b: is the average thickness of the bond (m)
Cb: the bond conductance [W/(mK)]
Cp: is the specific heat [J/(kg.K)]
Di: is the inside tube diameter (m)
D: is the tube diameter (m)
Dh: is the hydraulic diameter (m)
F: is the standard fin efficiency
FR: is the collector heat removal factor
F/: is the collector efficiency factor
f: is the Darcy friction factor
g: is the gravitational constant (=9.81 m2/s)
Isc: is the solar radiation constant (=1367 W/m2)
I: is the total solar irradiance, (W/m2)
hfi: is the convective heat transfer coefficient between the working fluid and tube
wall (W/(m2°C)
hc: is the free convective heat transfer coefficient [W/(m2°C)]
hw: is the wind convective heat transfer coefficient [W/(m2°C)]
hr: is the radiation heat transfer coefficient [W/(m2°C)]
k: is thermal conductivity of the absorber [W/(m°°C)]
kb: is the thermal conductivity of the bond [W/(m°°C)]
kins: is the insulator thermal conductivity [W/(m°°C)]
L: is the collector length (m) 281
: is the mass flow rate of the working fluid (kg/s)
Nu: is the Nusselt number
Q : is the useful energy rate output of a collector (W)
Pr: is the Prandtl number
qu: is the useful energy gain per unit area (AC) of the collector(W/m2)
q/u: is the useful energy gain transferred to the fluid per unit flow length (W/m)
qloss: is the heat loss rate per unit area (AC) of the collector(W/m2)
Ra: is the Rayleigh number
Re: is the Reynolds Number
S=(ατατ is the absorbed solar energy (W/m2)
ατ)I:
Ta the ambient temperature (°°C)
Tb: is the local temperature of the sheet above the bond (°°C)
Ts: is the sky temperature (°°C)
Tf: is the temperatures of the working fluid (°°C)
Tfi: is the temperatures of the fluid entering the collector (°°C)
Tfo: is the temperatures of the fluid exiting the collector (°°C)
Tpm: is the mean absorber plate temperature
Tfm: is the mean fluid temperature in the collector (°°C)
UL: is the overall heat loss coefficient, (W/(m2°C)
Ut: is the top overall heat loss coefficient, (W/(m2°C)
Ub: is the bottom overall heat loss coefficient, (W/(m2°C)
Ue: is the edge overall heat loss coefficient, (W/(m2°C)
W: is the distance between the tube (m)
282
β: is the solar collector tilt angle (°°)
β/: is volumetric coefficient of expansion (K-1)
εp: is the emittance of the absorber plate
εc: is the emittance of the cover plate
γ: is the width of the bond (m)
δ: is the absorber sheet thickness (m)
δins: is the insulation thickness (m)
ν: is the kinematic viscosity (m2/s)
τ: is the transmittance of the cover system
α: is the absorptance of the absorber plate
η: is the collector efficiency
σ: is the Stefan-Boltzmann Constant (= 5.6704 x 10-8 W.m-2 K-4)
θ: is the incidence angle of light (°°)
θz: is the zenith angle (°°)
λ: is the wavelength (µ µm)
γs: is the altitude angle (°°)
φ: is the latitude angle (°°)
ω: is the hour angle (°°)
ωs: is the hour angle of sunrise or sunset (°°)
γp: is the vertical shadow angle (profile angle) (°°)
αs: is the azimuth angle (°°)
ρ: is the density (kg/m3) or the reflectance
µ: is the dynamic viscosity [kg/(ms)] 283