PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF CO2 FLOODING

PROCESS IN OIL RESERVOIR THROUGH

NUMERICAL SIMULATION STUDIES

Department of Petroleum & Gas Engineering

Batch: Fall 2017

PROJECT SUPERVISOR
Engr.Saeed khan

GROUP MEMBERS
RIZWAN ASHRAF (Group Leader) (F17-BS P&G-42161)
SOHAIL AHMAD JAMALI (F17-BS P&G-42933)
NOOR ZADA (F17-BS P&G-41369)
AHMED JAN (F17-BS P&G-40945)

Faculty of Engineering and Architecture

Balochistan University of Information Technology,
Engineering and Management Sciences
 Thesis submitted to

BALOCHISTAN UNIVERSITY OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

ENGINEERING & MANAGEMENT SCIENCES
For the partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
BACHELOR OF SCIENCE (BS)
In
PETROLEUM AND GAS ENGINEERING
By
RIZWAN ASHRAF (Group Leader) (F17-BS P&G-42161)

SOHAIL AHMAD JAMALI (F17-BS P&G-42933)

NOOR ZADA (F17-BS P&G-41369)

AHMED JAN (F17-BS P&G-40945)

Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, BUITEMS.

18/10/2021
 DECLARATION OF THE AUTHOR
It is hereby declared by Rizwan Ashraf, Sohail Ahmad Jamali, Noor Zada and Ahmed
Jan that the topic of our BS project/thesis: “Performance Evaluation of CO2 Flooding
Process in Oil Reservoir Through Numerical Simulation Studies” is our own
spectacular work, and it has not been presented for a degree from Balochistan University of
Information Technology, Engineering & Management Sciences, Quetta, or elsewhere in the
country. Even if this claim is found to be false at any moment after my graduation, the
university does have right to rescind my BS degree.

Name of Students and signature:

Rizwan Ashraf ____________

Sohail Ahmed Jamali ____________

Noor Zada ____________

Ahmed Jan ____________

Date: 18/10/2021

I
 PLAGIARISM ASSURANCE
We hereby certify absolutely that the research presented in the thesis named “Performance
Evaluation of CO2 Flooding Process in Oil Reservoir Through Numerical Simulation
Studies” is our own study project, with no key input from anyone. Small
contributions/assists have been sincerely received, and our group members collectively
written the entire thesis.

We are familiar of the HEC's and Balochistan University of Information Technology,

Engineering & Management Sciences' zero-tolerance stance on plagiarism. As authors with
the above thesis/project, we declare that no portion of this thesis/project has been
plagiarized, and that any material used as a reference has been properly referred to/cited.

We acknowledge that if we are proven guilty of any official copyright infringement from
the above thesis after getting our BS degree, the University has the right to withdraw or
cancel our BS degree, and that HEC as well as the University do have right to publish our
names on the HEC/University website in which names of students who submitted are listed.

Name of Students and signature:

Rizwan Ashraf ____________

Sohail Ahmed Jamali ____________

Noor Zada ____________

Ahmed Jan ____________

Date: 18/10/2021

II
 CERTIFICATE OF APPROVAL
The proposed synopsis entitled “Performance Evaluation of CO2 Flooding Process in Oil
Reservoir through Numerical Simulation Studies” by;

RIZWAN ASHRAF (Group Leader) (F17-BS P&G-42161)

SOHAIL AHMAD JAMAL I (F17-BS P&G-42933)

NOOR ZADA (F17-BS P&G-41369)

AHMED JAN (F17-BS P&G-40945)

for BS (Petroleum and Gas Engineering) was evaluated and recommended by Departmental
Research Committee (DRC) in its meeting held on ______________.

DRC Convener Project Supervisor

Department of Petroleum & Gas Engineering Department of Petroleum & Gas Engineering

Chairperson
Department of Petroleum & Gas Engineering

Dean
Faculty of Engineering and Architecture

Balochistan University of Information Technology, Engineering

and Management Sciences

18/10/2021
III
 ABSTRACT

The demand of energy is increasing while the oil is production is decreasing gradually.
Most of the oil is left unproducible due to pressure depletion from the reservoir. To produce
remaining oil from the reservoir different methods of enhance oil recovery methods are
applied. Initially the natural energy of the reservoir is used to produce oil from the
reservoir. Very less amount of oil is recovered through this method. Then the reservoir is
either switch to artificial methods of production or water is injected to maintain the
reservoir pressure to produce the reservoir.
CO2 flooding is used as tertiary recovery method which is also called enhanced Oil
Recovery (EOR). By flooding the CO 2, the property of oil is changed like viscosity, and it
became feasible to be produced.
In this study we use GEM and Winprop modelers of the CMG software to indicate oil
production using CO2 flooding is enhanced. The 7-spot well pattern model is created with
injection wells in which first water is injected as a secondary recovery technique. After that
the well is switched to CO2 flooding which improved the oil recovery from the reservoir.
Different factors are there to be checked while injecting CO 2 into the reservoir. CO2
flooding is affected by different CO2 injection dates, CO2 injection ratios and CO2 injection
concentration

Keywords

Enhanced oil recovery (EOR), Reservoir Simulation, CO2 Miscible flooding, GEM,
CMG software.

IV
 Table of Contents
DECLARATION OF THE AUTHOR............................................................................i

PLAGIARISM ASSURANCE........................................................................................ii

CERTIFICATE OF APPROVAL.................................................................................iii

ABSTRACT.....................................................................................................................iv
LIST OF FIGURES.....................................................................................................vii

LIST OF TABLES..........................................................................................................viii

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION...................................................................................9

1.1 Introduction..................................................................................................................9

1.2 Problem Statement.....................................................................................................10

1.4 Research Objectives...................................................................................................11

1.5 Methodology..........................................................................................................11
1.6 Thesis Structure......................................................................................................11

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW.....................................................................13

2.1 Global Energy Needs and Environmental Degradation.........................................13
2.2 Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR)..............................................................................15
2.3 Methods of EOR.....................................................................................................15
2.3.1 Thermal Recovery...............................................................................................15
2.3.2 Chemical Injection..............................................................................................16
2.3.3 Carbon dioxide Injection.....................................................................................16
2.4 Types of CO2 Flooding...........................................................................................16
2.4.1 Immiscible CO2 flooding.....................................................................................16
2.4.2 CO2 Miscible EOR..............................................................................................16
2.4.2.1 First contact miscibility....................................................................................18
2.4.2.2 Multiple contact miscibility.............................................................................18
2.4.2.3 Vaporizing gas drive........................................................................................19
2.4.2.4 Condensing gas drive.......................................................................................19
2.4.2.5 Combined Vaporizing and Condensing Gas Drive..........................................20
2.4.3. Carbon dioxide immiscible enhanced oil recovery method...............................21

V
2.4.3.1. Minimum miscibility pressure........................................................................21
2.5. Factors affecting Minimum Miscibility Pressure..................................................22
2.5.1 Reservoir temperature.........................................................................................22
2.5.2 Oil composition...................................................................................................22
2.5.3 Impurities in the injected carbon dioxide............................................................23
2.5.4 Advantages of carbon dioxide flooding..............................................................23
2.5 Properties of CO2....................................................................................................23
2.6 Mechanisms of CO2 enhanced oil recovery method..............................................24
2.6.1. Oil swelling........................................................................................................24
2.6.2. Viscosity reduction in oil...................................................................................24
2.6.3. Decrease of IFT between water and oil..............................................................24
2.6.4. Mobility ratio decreasement...............................................................................24
2.6.5. Vaporization and withdrawal of light oil component.........................................24
2.6.6. Weak acid influence...........................................................................................24
2.6.7. Solution gas drive...............................................................................................24
2.7 CO2 Sources............................................................................................................25
2.8 CO2 Screening Criteria...........................................................................................25
2.9 Overview of Carbon Capture and Storage.............................................................27
2.10 Use of CO2 in Enhanced Oil Recovery................................................................28
2.11 Work Schedule:....................................................................................................30
References...................................................................................................................31

VI
 LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1 World energy consumption .............................................................................12

Figure 2.1 Global temperature history..............................................................................16

Figure 2.2 Global CO2 concentration................................................................................17

Figure 2.3 CO2 on marine surface ...................................................................................18

Figure 2.4. Miscible carbon dioxide flooding ...................................................................20

Figure 2.5. One dimensional CO2 miscible process..........................................................22

Figure 2.5.1 - Multiple contacts condensing gas drive.....................................................23

Figure 2.6. Oil Recovery versus pressure plot and its corresponding MMP value.......25

Figure 2.7 CO2 sequestration..............................................................................................30

Figure 2.8 Miscible CO2 overview ....................................................................................33

VII
 LIST OF TABLES

Table no.1.1 World annual CO2 emission .......................................................................13

Table no.2.1 CO2 screening criteria .................................................................................29

Table no.2.2 CO2-Crude Oil MMP....................................................................................29

VIII
 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction

Energy consumption around the globe is increasing day by day because the population is
increasing so the demand for oil is high. There are three main stages of oil or hydrocarbon
production from the reservoir, which are primary, secondary, and tertiary recovery (also
called the enhanced oil recovery) (EOR). Hydrocarbons that are produced by natural energy
of the reservoir or through artificial lift systems are said to be primary oil recovery. Water
and gas injection are used in secondary recovery to push it to the surface. These two
methods of production, according to the US Department of Energy, can leave up to
75percent of total oil in the well.[1] The conventional oil resources are declining due to
depletion of oil reservoirs. There is a great fall in supply to meet the demand of the world
oil market. To meet this demand industries are trying to produce oil at even higher cost and
challenges.

World Energy Consumption

Hydro Elec- ElectricityGeothermal,wind and Biomass
Nuclear
tricity

Petroleum
Dry Natural
Gas

Coal

Petroleum Coal
Dry Natural Gas Hydro Electricity
Nuclear Electricity Geothermal,wind and Biomass

Figure 1.1 World energy consumption

Oil is recovered through water flooding after the natural energy is not effective. Water
flooding in reservoir may cause the water break through and then enhanced oil recovery
methods are applied likes CO2 flooding. For flooding of CO2 into the reservoir large
amount of CO2 is required. This CO2 can be obtained from different resources to enhance
the oil recovery. By using CO2 available in the environment, the hazards caused by CO2 in
IX
the atmosphere or greenhouse gases is minimized.
Carbon dioxide is obtained from multiple resources. It is a two-way process because the
increased amount of carbon dioxide is a red Signal to the environment. By using carbon
dioxide as flooding material as 5-6MSCF/bbl. is the rate of carbon dioxide consumption
will clean the environment. Industries are recovering these oils with intension to meet
demands hydrocarbons.
The table shows world annual CO2 emission if different countries.
Table no.1.1 World annual CO2 emission

1900 2019
S. No Region
(In Million Tons) (In Million Tons)

1 World 9.35 36440

2 Indonesia 0.08 40.93

3 India 1.88 25.13

4 China 1.87 218.11

5 Pakistan 0.7 248.84

Scientists have tried all the different techniques to produce oil but the most efficient one is
the miscible or near miscible carbon dioxide flooding due to its properties it sweeps the oil
up to maximum amount. Due to this advancement most of the oil reservoirs are switched to
miscible carbon dioxide flooding. Carbon dioxide flooding technique is applied when the
reservoir is screened through the screening criteria in which different parameters are
evaluated and then it is decided whether the reservoir could be further produced by CO 2
flooding or not.

1.2 Problem Statement

In our environment there are so many gases which are polluting the environment constantly
especially the carbon dioxide which is polluting our environment and is risk for the global
warming and by collecting this carbon dioxide from different sources of emission we can
use this carbon dioxide effectively in carbon dioxide flooding. In this way we can produce
potentially oil from the reservoir using enhanced oil recovery methods that is carbon
dioxide and can be injected into the reservoir through miscible, immiscible, or through
continuous flooding. In this method we can save environment from the different risk of

X
carbon dioxide emission, and we can produce economically and optimized production of oil
from the reservoirs.
While doing water flooding in a reservoir to increase the production of oil from the
reservoir. The water breaks through into the oil zone and due to it huge amount of oil is left
behind. To recover remaining oil CO2 is flooded to enhance the recovery.
1.3 Significance of the study

The demand for the energy in the world is increasing day by day at the same time the
production of hydrocarbon is declining and hardly meeting the demand along with some
renewable sources of energy. This research will trace a footprint for the future researchers
to dig out effective method for the enhanced production of hydrocarbons like CO2 flooding.
1.4 Research Objectives

 To save our environment from the hazards of CO2 emission. CO2 is released in the
environment from different sources which hazardous for the greenhouse gases so by
using CO2 in the CO2 flooding the amount could be minimized and effectively used
in the production of oil from reservoir.
 To increase hydrocarbon production by CO2 flooding into the reservoir. By flooding
CO2, the viscosity of oil is decreased so the relative permeability and movability of
oil is increase in this way the oil is produced from the reservoir.
 To optimize the flooding by decreasing the well flowing pressure and increase the
reservoir pressure so that effective draw down can be created. In this study different
parameters are optimized during CO2 flooding.
1.5 Methodology
The methodology of this work is based on CMG software in which Winprop Module is
used to find out PVT properties and GEM module is used for the simulation of water
injection and carbon dioxide flooding. The flooding process is evaluated and optimized.
1.6 Thesis Structure
Chapter one focuses on the scope of study in which background, problem statement and
objectives are defined that could be achieved after the said research work.
In chapter two illustrates literature review, which includes various conducted work for
different flooding techniques generally and carbon dioxide specially.
In chapter three PVT properties are studies which includes different tests and the Winprop
model.
In the 4th chapter the flooding techniques i.e., water flooding and carbon dioxide flooding
XI
using GEM module of CMG software and different parameters are specified.
Chapter five describes the conclusion of the work.

XII
 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Global Energy Needs and Environmental Degradation

Rising energy necessity is a factor of higher populace thickness and consistent worldwide
monetary development. Worldwide energy utilization is relied upon to ascend by 28%
somewhere in the range of 2015 and 2040, from 575 quadrillion British warm unit (Btu) to
737 British Thermal units (btu, as per the US Energy Information Association (EIA).
Expanded utilization of petroleum products is unavoidable to fulfill energy needs:
Transportation of vehicles use oil and for power generation or heating require coal and gas.
Increasing petroleum product utilization is projected to expand an Earth-wide temperature
boost impact brought about by ozone depleting substance discharges. Surface temperatures
have expanded at a disturbing pace of 0.13°F (0.07°C) consistently since 1880, adding to a
net warming of 1.69°F (0.94°C) from 1880 to 2016, as displayed in Figure 1. According to
the official report by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), the year
of 2016 marks the fifth time in 21st century that a new record high annual temperature has
been created.

Figure 2.1 Global temperature history

13
Global warming can have terrible consequences, according to scientists. Climate change
has been linked to human health issues and economic losses. According to a paper issued
by DARA in the Climate Vulnerable Forum 2012, global warming results in annual
economic losses of 1.2 trillion dollars, or around 1.6 percent of world GDP. In 2030, this
figure is predicted to rise up to 3.2 percent of global GDP [3].
Since the 1800s, the greenhouse effect has been acknowledged. Svante Arrhenius, a
Swedish physicist, hypothesized that carbon dioxide generated by coal burning would warm
the globe in 1896. Carbon emissions are the primary cause of global warming, according to
the majority of climate scientists. CO2 levels in the atmosphere are rising, and causing
climate change. The global carbon chain has been traced by a NASA satellite.
Carbon dioxide concentrations from 1st October to 11th November 2014 is shown in
Figure2.2

Figure 2.2 Global CO2 concentration

from Oct. 1 to Nov. 1 as recorded by NASA’s Orbiting Carbon Observatory-2.
CO2 swirls caused by human activity are clearly visible. Because of human population and
increase in industries, CO2 concentrations in 2016 is above the 400 parts per million
thresholds, according to NOAA statistics (see Figure 2.2). Greenhouse gas emissions

14
should be curtailed because global warming is real and dangerous. To control CO 2
emissions, mitigation program should be introduced.

410
Average Atmospheric CO2, ppm

400
390
380
370
360
350
340
330
1980 1990 2000 2010 2020
Time, year

Figure 2.3 CO2 on marine surface

2.2 Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR)

The extraction of crude oil from a reservoir goes through several stages, the first is primary
recovery, in which reservoir pressure and temperature are employed to extract hydrocarbon
especially oil. Water is injected into the reservoir for pressure maintenance program or gas
in the secondary recovery step. After these methods, most of the oil remains in the
reservoir. To recover this amount, the enhanced recovery method is used, in which CO 2 is
flooded into the reservoir which sweep the oil by decreasing the oil viscosity as it is
miscible with oil hence increase the reservoir flowing pressure and produce maximum
amount of oil from the reservoir.

2.3 Methods of EOR

Different methods of EOR are used to recover oil from the reservoir. Some common
methods are there:
 Thermal recovery
 Chemical injection
 Gas injection
15
  Microbial enhanced oil recovery
2.3.1 Thermal Recovery
This method includes injecting hot steam into the pressure vessel to reduce the viscosity of
thick or heavy oil. Because the volatile component is absent in this sort of oil due to its
heaviness, it is unable to produce to the surface. Major portion of the oil which is difficult
to produce is heavy oil, which is usually produced through hot steam injection, High
Pressure air injection or in-situ combustion thus making it possible to produce through
these methods.
2.3.2 Chemical Injection
In Chemical injection polymers are used to aid efficiency to the water flooding by
decreasing its mobility ratio to improve sweep efficiency and early water breakthrough.
Surfactants and alkali are used to reduce interfacial tension and promote emulsification.
Chemical flooding includes various chemicals depending on the composition and
characteristics of the reservoir. Chemical flooding is used 1 of 100 part in US. The
limitation of this flooding is due to its expense and less survival efficiency.[4]
2.3.3 Carbon dioxide Injection
CO2 flooding is a technique for expanding an oil reservoir by lowering its viscosity,
allowing oil to flow to the wellbore. CO 2 reacts with the immovable oil in the
reservoir, allowing it to produce at the surface.CO 2 is miscible with oil in the
reservoir, reduces interfacial tension due to which there is no boundary between oil
and injected fluid like CO2. These are the reasons due to which CO 2 is considered as
more effective in recovering oil from the reservoir.
2.3.4 Microbial Enhanced Oil Recovery
Microbial enhanced oil recovery is a different way to oil recovery. The introduction
of live microorganisms with vital nutrients into an injection well is commonly
referred as Microbial enhanced oil recovery. When the reservoir's environmental
conditions are favorable, the injected microbes multiply exponentially and their
metabolic products mobilize the remaining oil.[5]
2.4 Types of CO2 Flooding
 Immiscible CO2 flooding
 Miscible CO2 flooding
2.4.1 Immiscible CO2 flooding
If the injection pressure is less than the minimum miscibility pressure (P inj<Pmmp), the

16
carbon dioxide gas remains immiscible with oil. In this way it is just used for pressure
maintenance.
2.4.2 CO2 Miscible EOR
The physical state which is formed by mixing of two or more than two fluids without any
interface. In carbon dioxide flooding miscibility is attained when reservoir pressure is
greater than the minimum miscibility pressure. Minimum miscibility pressure depends on
oil composition and reservoir temperature. A miscible CO2 flooding process is shown
below in the figure 2.4.

Figure 2.4. Miscible carbon dioxide flooding

CO2 will not instantly dissolve into the oil. After establishing multi contact interface, CO2
will dissolve into the oil and oil will dissolve into the CO2 and CO2 then will be completely
miscible with the oil and will create a miscible region among the injected carbon dioxide
and oil. After miscibility between CO2 and oil is achieved the viscosity and interfacial force
of the miscible zone will be low and will improve the production [25, 26].
Miscibility is achieved by the two processes, they are multi contact miscibility and first
contact miscibility process. First contact miscibility is attained when the injected and
displaced fluids are miscible with each other in all extents without any interface. All
solvents are not miscible with crude oil. In such cases miscibility between fluids is achieved

17
by multi contact process. Large amount of CO2 when introduced in the reservoir, mass
transfer between carbon dioxide and reservoir fluid takes place. Carbon dioxide multi
contact miscibility is divided into vaporizing and condensing gas drive. Both these methods
work on component transfer. The components which they can transfer are divided into:

 Pure components like nitrogen, natural gas and carbon dioxide gas
 Light weight components like C1
 Intermediate weight components from C2-C6
 Heavy weight components
2.4.2.1 First contact miscibility
Because all solvent-oil mixtures beyond minimum miscibility pressure are separate phases,
the pressure must be above the two phase envelop to achieve first contact miscibilty. If the
solvent is liquid at reservoir pressure and temperature, such as a propane-butane mixture,
the saturation pressure for the mixture of oil and solvent will range between the oil's and the
solvent's bubble-point pressures. The cricondenbar is higher than the two bubble-point
pressures in this situation. The phase distribution is more complicated when the solvent is a
gas at reservoir pressure and temperature. In this case, the cricondenbar is higher than the
two bubble-point pressures. When the solvent is a gas at reservoir pressure and temperature,
the phase distribution becomes more difficult. To achieve a miscible displacement
procedure, a miscible slug must be formed ahead of the injected gas
if natural gas or CO2 is chosen as the solvent to sweep the reservoir. The slug can be
propane or liquefied petroleum gas, and it must be totally miscible with the reservoir oil at
one end and completely miscible with the injected gas at the other.

2.4.2.2 Multiple contact miscibility

The degree of miscibility between a reservoir oil and injection gas is often expressed in
terms of the minimum miscibility pressure (MMP). The multiple contact miscibility
pressure (MMP) is the lowest pressure at which the oil and gas phases resulting from a
multi-contact process, vaporizing or condensing, between reservoir oil and an injection gas
are miscible in all rations.

Multiple contact miscibility is normally achieved between oil and solvents like natural gas,
CO2, flue gases or nitrogen These fluids are not first-contact miscible and forms two-phase
regions when they mix directly with the reservoir fluids. The miscibility is achieved by
mass transfer of components which results from multiple and repeated contact between the
18
oil and the injected fluid through the reservoir. There are two main processes where
dynamic miscible displacement can be achieved. Those are the vaporizing and the
condensing gas drive.

The following descriptions explain the mechanisms for gas drives in general, but the
difference between CO2 and natural gas is that the dynamic miscibility with CO 2 does not
require the presence of intermediate molecular weight hydrocarbons in the reservoir fluid.
The extraction of a broad range of hydrocarbons from the reservoir oil often causes
dynamic miscibility to occur at attainable pressures, which are lower than the miscibility
pressure for a dry hydrocarbon gas.

2.4.2.3 Vaporizing gas drive

Oil is vaporized or extracted when CO2 comes in contact with the crude oil which is one of
important purpose of injecting CO2 enhanced oil recovery. In this method lean gas is
introduced in the reservoir which contains crude oil, and this lean gas will extract
intermediate components from the oil and emphasis on the sweep efficiency where
miscibility is achieved. Carbon dioxide enhanced oil recovery vaporizing and condensing
process is shown below in Figure 2.5.

Figure 2.5. One dimensional CO2 miscible process [27]

2.4.2.4 Condensing gas drive
When a rich gas is injected into oil, oil and gas are initially immiscible. Multiple
contacts condensing drive will occur when the reservoir oil in a particular cell meets
new portions of fresh solvents. A miscible bank forms through condensation of the
intermediate components from gas into oil. Then a process similar to the vaporizing
drive will be developed, and the oil behind the front becomes progressively lighter.
The successive oil compositions formed behind the front will occupy a greater volume
in the pores than the original oil because of swelling. This will then lead to form a
19
mobile oil bank behind the zone of gas stripped of intermediate components. The
process continues unless developed miscibility conditions are met.

The process is shown schematically in figure 4.3 where the first mixing cell splits into
liquid L1 and gas G1. Gas G1 moves on to the next mixing cell and liquid L 1 mixes with
fresh solvent to form the next mixture. Liquid L 2 mixes with fresh solvent, and so on.
The mixing process will ultimately result in a single-phase mixture. Since the gas
phase has already passed through the first cell, the miscibility now develops at the rare
of the solvent-crude mixing zone as a consequence of the enrichment of the liquid
phase from the intermediate components. The front of the mixing zone is a region of
immiscible flow owing to the continual contacting to the gas phases G 1, G2, and so on.
Since the intermediate component condenses into the liquid phase, the process is called
a condensing gas drive.
CO2 cannot form miscibility alone, but through a vaporizing drive where injected CO 2
vaporizes some of the light components in the oil. These are subsequently re-
condensed at the displacement front creating an enriched zone with favorable mobility
characteristics, referred to as a combined vaporizing and condensing drive.

2.4.2.5 Combined Vaporizing and Condensing Gas Drive

Figure 2.5.1 - Multiple contacts condensing gas drive

Experimental observations and calculations with equation of state have shown that
miscible displacement by rich gas injection seems to be due to a combined vaporizing
20
and condensing mechanism.[31]. The main conclusions from these articles are:
 A combined vaporizing and condensing gas drive mechanism is more
likely than a pure condensing gas drive when rich gas is injected into
reservoir oil.
 A pseudo miscible zone develops quite similar to that in a condensing gas drive.
 Some residual oil remains trapped behind the displacement as in a
vaporizing gas drive.
For the CO2 case, a combined drive can be developed under the right circumstances. MMP
calculations done with PVT-Sim results in consequently lower MMP for the combined
drive than for the vaporizing drive for a wide range of fluid compositions.
Near miscible carbon dioxide displacement is used when miscibility pressure is not attained
it may be because of economic or technical issues. Near miscible displacement is in
between miscible and immiscible displacement process. The recovery from near miscible
displacement is also due to viscosity reduction, removal of light components from the oil
and swelling of oil. The crude oil recovery obtained from near miscible displacement is less
than that of miscible carbon dioxide displacement but from the economical point of view
carbon dioxide amount required is less than miscible process [28].

2.4.3. Carbon dioxide immiscible enhanced oil recovery method

The pressure of reservoir when it is smaller than the minimum miscibility pressure, some
CO2 will dissolve in the crude oil and remaining CO2 will remain as a gas phase. During this
method the carbon dioxide is able to swell the oil and decrease its viscosity and improve oil
recovery. During this process carbon dioxide can extract the lighter components, at the
same instant carbon dioxide will cause reduction in viscosity and density of oil.
If the reservoir fluid density is large CO2 immiscible enhanced oil recovery can be a
potential process to recover heavy oil [29]. Usually, the project life of immiscible carbon
dioxide is large as compared to miscible CO 2 EOR method. Similarly, miscible carbon
dioxide enhanced oil recovery cannot sequester that much carbon dioxide as immiscible
method can do [29, 30].

2.4.3.1. Minimum miscibility pressure

Minimum miscibility pressure defined usually as ‘‘the pressure value at which crude oil
recovery touches 80% at carbon dioxide break-through time or the last recovery reaches
90%-95% with 1.2 PV carbon dioxide injection [31]. For determining minimum miscibility
pressure for carbon dioxide and reservoir fluid mixture it is more accurate to find the
21
pressure on the arc of oil recovery with flooding pressure at the point of inflexion rather
than getting a special recovery point. At the point of inflexion, pressure value is minimum
miscibility pressure as shown in figure 2.5. Minimum miscibility pressure value can also be
determined from the empirical correlations or mathematical models it can also be
determined by slim tube apparatus and by simulation.

Figure 2.6. Oil Recovery versus pressure plot and its corresponding MMP value [32]
The MMP value is pressure on which CO2 and oil becomes miscible and forms a
homogenous one phase. In petroleum reservoirs the movement of oil by means of gas is
mainly at the mercy of pressure. Miscible displacement is attained on a pressure value
greater than the minimum miscibility pressure. MMP is defined as minimum pressure at
which the miscibility can be attained by the flooding gas with the reservoir crude oil at
reservoir temperature [33]. For miscibility of carbon dioxide and crude oil minimum
miscibility pressure is necessary. For reliable implementation of carbon dioxide miscible
process minimum miscibility pressure is very important. Minimum miscibility pressure is
affected by many factors.

2.5. Factors affecting Minimum Miscibility Pressure

Oil composition, reservoir temperature and impurities in the injected carbon dioxide are the
factors on which minimum miscibility pressure depends.

2.5.1 Reservoir temperature

22
Reservoir temperature has a great effect on minimum miscibility pressure determination.
Generally minimum miscibility pressure increases with increase in reservoir temperature.

2.5.2 Oil composition

With the increase of volatile components in crude oil like C 1 the minimum miscibility
pressure increases. Minimum miscibility pressure decreases with the increases of
intermediate components C2-C4 and MMP also increases with the increase of greater
molecular weight components like C5+ or C7+ in the crude oil.

2.5.3 Impurities in the injected carbon dioxide

As the CO2 is attained from the natural sources or from the industries it may contain
hydrocarbons, hydrogen sulfide and nitrogen. To purify carbon dioxide, it is costly process,
the presence of the impurities in the carbon dioxide greatly affects the pressure required for
miscibility. Usually, the gas injected is obtained with the oil after separation, it is re-
injected and also contains some impurities. To fully purify it is costly process.

2.5.4 Advantages of carbon dioxide flooding

By using CO2 as a miscible flooding process for enhanced oil recovery has some
advantages. Carbon dioxide can dissolve heavier constituents of crude oil up to C 30. When
CO2 is dissolved in crude oil it will cause oil swelling and will expand the crude oil [34].
Carbon dioxide has the following advantages:
 Swelling of the oil is increased
 Oil density is increased
 Oil viscosity is decreased
 Soluble in water
 Carbon dioxide injection will decrease interfacial tension among water and oil
and will reduce the capillary force and will increase oil displacement.
 The density difference among oil and water is minimized and therefore it will
decrease the gravity segregation.
 Carbon dioxide will remove and vaporize the oil
 Carbon dioxide can attain miscibility at pressures of only 100-300 bar.

2.5 Properties of CO2

CO2 is an inert, colorless, odorless, and non-flammable gas. [6]. At standard temperature
and pressure, the molar mass of CO2 is 44g/mol. At temperature very much lower than
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room temperature CO2 is solid whilst high pressure. CO 2 at triple point it can be in
equilibrium with solid, vapors and liquid at high temperature and pressure. [7] CO 2 occurs
in both liquid and vapor phases from the triple point to the critical point on the curve. CO 2
can exist as a liquid or a gas at pressures below the critical temperature. At higher
supercritical pressures, however, the vapors become and behaves more like a liquid. [8]
2.6 Mechanisms of CO2 enhanced oil recovery method
Through CO2 enhanced oil recovery method, oil production is increased by different
mechanisms. These mechanisms are summarized below [25, 26, 30, 35, 36].
2.6.1. Oil swelling
When the CO2 is introduced in the reservoir the crude oil will dissolve the CO 2 and
consequently the crude oil will expand. Due to the expansion in volume crude oil mobility
is improved and makes easier for the oil to be produced.
2.6.2. Viscosity reduction in oil
When the carbon dioxide dissolves in crude oil it will decrease its viscosity. Due to
viscosity reduction, it will be easy for the oil to flow and enhance production. Considering
the reservoir conditions, more carbon dioxide is dissolved if the temperature is high and
more decrease in viscosity can be achieved.
2.6.3. Decrease of IFT between water and oil
The IFT among water and oil is decreased due to which capillary forces are minimized and
will help oil to flow easily and production of oil is increased.
2.6.4. Mobility ratio decreasement
The water mobility increases when carbon dioxide is dissolved in water due to this water
viscosity is improved. At the same instant oil mobility ratio reduction occurs and the
mobility ratio among water and oil is reduced. The macroscopic or volumetric sweep
efficiency increases because the stability of fluid flow improves.
2.6.5. Vaporization and withdrawal of light oil component
Light crude oil component is more soluble with carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide can
dissolve more light oil component when pressure is above a certain value and will improve
hydrocarbon recovery.
2.6.6. Weak acid influence
When carbon dioxide mixes with water it will form carbonic acid which can react with
carbonate rocks of the formation. Due to which erosion of reservoir rock will occur and will
increase the reservoir permeability. In addition to this water and carbon dioxide mixture up

24
to some amount can remove the inorganic scales and due to this oil recovery is improved.
2.6.7. Solution gas drive
More volume of carbon dioxide will dissolve in crude oil with increase of flooding pressure
while carbon dioxide flooding. The pressure within the reservoir will decrease after some
time while production, when carbon dioxide flooding is stopped. During this stage the
dissolved carbon dioxide will separate from the oil and will form a gas cap and will drive
the oil towards the production well.

2.7 CO2 Sources

There are three major sources of CO2 found in the surrounding.
 Natural Hydrocarbon Gas Reservoirs containing CO 2 as an impurity.
 Natural CO2 Reservoirs
 Emission of CO2 from different sources as a waste or byproduct
2.8 CO2 Screening Criteria

Reservoir depth, pressure, and temperature, minimum miscibility pressure (MMP), residual
oil saturation, net pay thickness, crude oil gravity, and viscosity, as well as permeability,
porosity, and reservoir heterogeneity, are all used as screening parameters for miscible CO 2
flooding.
At depths of about 800 meters, CO2 is suitable for miscibility. Others have considered
various depths for which EOR is appropriate (Table No.2), which range from 600 m to
3,000 m. (2,000 and 9,800 ft.). However, depending on the geothermal and hydrodynamic
systems in a bowl, supercritical CO2 conditions can be attained at various depths, ranging
from extremely shallow (two or three hundred meters) to extremely deep (> 1,200 meters).
Because CO2 is subcritical at the repository conditions, the topographical space can be
changed into the CO2 P-T space instead of applying a sweeping profundity restriction (i.e.,
800 m, or the profundities recommended in Table No. 2) for screening oil supplies
unacceptable for CO2 flooding.
In a carbon-controlled climate, more supplies might be considered reasonable for CO2-flood
EOR. A screening technique can be utilized for the choice of likely poles for CO 2 flooding
that meet certain specialized models for accomplishing miscibility. Table no 2.2 presents a
progression of models suggested by different creators for the use of CO2-flooding EOR.

25
 Table no.2.1 CO2 screening criteria 1
Reservoir Geffen(16) Lewin et al.(17) NPC(18) McRee(19) Iyoho(20) OTA(21) Carcoana(22) Taber &
Martin(23) Taber et al.(24)
Parameter (1973) (1976) (1976) (1977) (1978) (1978) (1982) (1983)
(1997a)
Depth (ft.)> 3,000 > 2,300 > 2,000 > 2,500 i) > 7,200 < 9,800 > 2,000 i) > 4,000
ii) > 5,500
ii) > 3,3
iii) > 2,500
iii) > 2,800

iv) > 2,500

Temperature NC < 250 < 195 NC
(˚ F)
Original > 1,100 > 1,500 > 1200
Pressure
(psia)
Permeability NC >5 > 10 >1 NC
(mD)
Oil gravity> 30 > 30 > 27 > 35 30-45 i) < 27 > 40 > 26
i) 22 – 27.9
(˚ API) ii) 27 – 30
ii) 28 – 31.9
iii) > 30
iii) 32 – 39.9

iv) > 40
Viscosity (cP) <3 < 12 < 10 <5 < 10 < 12 <2 < 15
< 10

Fraction of> 0.25 > 0.25 > 0.25 > 0.25 > 0.30 > 0.30
> 0.20
oil remaining

Table no.2.2 CO2-Crude Oil MMP 1

Oil Gravity MMP Temperature Additional
(˚ API) (psia) (˚ F) Pressure (psia)

< 27 4,000 120 None

27 – 30 3,000 120 – 150 200

> 30 1,200 150 – 200 350

200 – 250 500

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(Table no 2.3). The minimal reservoir pressure requirement states that the ratio of reservoir
pressure to minimum miscible pressure (P/MMP) should be larger than one in most cases.
For P/MMP = 0.95, CO2-flood EOR is still viable. As a result, another screening parameter
for reservoir suitability for CO2 flooding is P/MMP > 0.95.
Based on general reservoir and oil features, these criteria can be used to quickly filter and
evaluate oil reservoirs in a sedimentary basin that are appropriate for CO2 EOR.[27]

2.9 Overview of Carbon Capture and Storage

Carbon catch and capacity is an innovation that permits up to 90% of the carbon dioxide
emanations to be caught from the consuming of petroleum derivatives in creating power,
for example, hydrocarbon-energized power plants or industry cycles like industrial
facilities. The CCS cycle can be partitioned into three fundamental parts, in particular
catch, transportation, and capacity. To begin with, catch innovations license the partition of
CO2 from pipe gas by the method for three general strategies, which incorporate pre-
ignition catch, post-burning catch and oxyfuel burning. The caught CO 2 is then moved to a
capacity site for sequestration. Capacity destinations should be assessed to guarantee their
wellbeing, attainability, and security. There are a few normal stockpiling destinations:
drained oil and gas supplies, profound un-mineable coal creases or profound saline springs,
among others (Figure 2.4).

Figure 2.7 CO2 sequestration

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There are a few issues related with CCS: CO 2 catch cost, arrangement stockpiling limit and
vulnerability of the objective development properties. CO 2 catch innovations can be
exorbitant. There are four significant innovations utilized for CO 2 catch: retention,
adsorption, cryogenic refining, and layer detachment. This load of innovations means to
catch and think CO2 proficiently with lower costs.
Furthermore, restricted got capacity site have challenge to CCS projects. Drained oil and
gas repositories are ordinarily all around described. Be that as it may, the capacity limit is
restricted because of the size of the repositories. Then again, profound saline spring offers a
lot more prominent stockpiling limit whenever contrasted with exhausted oil and gas
supply. However, the developments are typically not all around portrayed and CO 2
stockpiling densities are low. Analysts have been zeroing in on elective stockpiling
destinations, for example, profound sea ocean depths. Nonetheless, since sea ocean bottoms
are not encased and gotten, there is a danger that infused and put away CO2 may disappear
to the air.
The speed of modern advancement of CCS is slow whenever contrasted with the objective
advancement laid out by IEA to arrive at the targets of the 450 Scenario. This is essentially
because of the absence of financial motivating force and rigid guideline to foster CCS
projects.

2.10 Use of CO2 in Enhanced Oil Recovery

Oil relocation by CO2 flooding can be classified as immiscible or miscible. Into some
extent miscible uprooting (normally alluded as immiscible), recuperation components
include decrease in oil thickness, oil expanding, and disintegrated gas drive. CO 2
miscibility with supply oils, in any case, isn't accomplished upon first contact in the
repository. Least miscibility pressure (MMP) is for some time perceived as the vital
boundary in the removal by gas infusion. CO 2 MMP is a significant boundary for screening
and choosing supplies for CO2 infusion projects and to reenact repository execution because
of CO2 infusion. A great oil recuperation might happen beneath MMP on the grounds that
CO2 is exceptionally solvent in raw petroleum at repository pressure, coming about oil
enlarging and oil thickness decrease. As miscibility is accomplished through disintegrating
gas drive component that CO2 remove light and moderate hydrocarbons from the oil,
coming about low interfacial pressure, the oil-and CO 2-stage stream together more without
any problem. Accomplishing miscibility, by keeping up with the supply liquids miscible
with CO2 so it could deliver.
28
Pressing factor over the base miscibility pressure (MMP) be that as it may, gives higher oil
recuperation. The course of miscible CO2-EOR is portrayed in Figure 6.

carbon capture from power plants. Figure 7 displays the projected sources of CO2 for
EOR
Carbon dioxide improved oil recovery (CO2-EOR) is one of the most popular miscible

29
 recovery option for using anthropogenic CO2 to boost oil production without burying
CO2. In general, the methods for recovering more oil and storing more CO 2 underground
varies drastically. More research should be conducted in this direction to identify the
best improved methods for recovering hydrocarbon while also storing a significant
amount of CO2.

2.11 Work Schedule:

2017.09~2018.01 Writing research Proposal and preparation of the opening

report.
2018.02~2018.03 Prepare Data
2018.04~2018.07 laboratory experiments.
2018.08~2019.01 Simulation study to obtain the results by using CO2 flooding
2019.02~2019.05 Thesis writing and final defense.

30
31
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