A PROJECT REPORT

ON

"Abrasive water jet machining, investigation on

Al7075 + SiC"
Project work submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the award of the degree of
BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
in
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
By

SAI MANIDEEP NARENDULA - 2451-17-736-065

J.PRAHARSHA - 2451-17-736-073
KAUSHIK SHANKAR - 2451-17-736-110

Under the Guidance of

Dr. S. GAJANANA, M.Tech, Ph.D.
Professor & Dean(Exams)

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

MATURI VENKATA SUBBA RAO (MVSR) ENGINEERING COLLEGE
Nadergul, Hyderabad -501 510.
(Affiliated to Osmania University, Hyderabad)
2020-2021
 DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
MATURI VENKATA SUBBA RAO (MVSR) ENGINEERING COLLEGE
NADERGUL, HYDERABAD - 501510

This is to certify that

"Abrasive water jet machining, investigation on Al7075 + SiC"

is the bonafide work carried out by
SAI MANIDEEP NARENDULA - 2451-17-736-065
J.PRAHARSHA - 2451-17-736-073
KAUSHIK SHANKAR - 2451-17-736-110

in the Department of Mechanical Engineering, Maturi Venkata Subba Rao (M.V.S.R.) Engineering
College, Hyderabad (Affiliated to Osmania University) in partial fulfilment of the requirements for
the award of the Bachelor of Engineering degree in Mechanical Engineering.

Dr. S. Gajanana, M.Tech, Ph.D. Dr. M. Madhavi, M.Tech, Ph.D.

Prof. & Dean(Exams) Prof. & Head

Department of M.E. Department of M.E.

MVSR Engineering College MVSR Engineering College

Hyderabad. Hyderabad.
 DECLARATION

This is to declare that the work reported in the present project entitled “ABRASIVE
WATER JET MACHINING, INVESTIGATION ON Al7075+ SiC” is a record of
work done by us in Defence Research & Development Laboratory (DRDL).

SAI MANIDEEP NARENDULA - 2451-17-736-065

J.PRAHARSHA - 2451-17-736-073

KAUSHIK SHANKAR - 2451-17-736-110

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We would like to extend our sincere gratitude to all personalities being repository of
knowledge who have been supporting and embracing research attitude in ourselves
and for their valuable contribution for successful completion of our project.
We would like to express our deep sense of gratitude to my project guide Dr. S.
Gajanana, Prof. & Dean(Exams), for his consistent encouragement, co-operation,
valuable suggestion, and constructive criticism that has helped us in completing this
project.

We are indebted to CH. Venkateewarlu, Scientist E, at DRDL for creating proper

environment and providing ample lab facilities and valuable suggestions for
completing this project.

We are extremely thankful to Dr. M. Madhavi, Prof. and Head, Department of

Mechanical Engineering for providing proper environment in our college.

Our respect and regards to Dr. G. Kanaka Durga, Principal, M.V.S.R Engineering
College, for her cooperation and encouragement.

We also express our sincere gratitude to the employees of DRDL for their
cooperation in completing this project.

Dedication is not enough to express our gratitude towards our parents who have
encouraged our career through enormous sacrifices.

We also acknowledge our profound thanks to our friends for their constant support
and encouragement.

SAI MANIDEEP NARENDULA - 2451-17-736-065

J.PRAHARSHA - 2451-17-736-073

KAUSHIK SHANKAR - 2451-17-736-110

CONTENTS

List of Figures

List of Tables

Project Flow Diagram

Chapter wise Summary

1. Introduction

1.1 Introduction to Machining

1.1.1 Machinability

1.2 Classification of Machining

1.2.1 Conventional Machining

1.2.2 Unconventional Machining

1.3 Necessity of unconventional machining

1.4 Introduction of Al7075 Alloy

1.4.1 Properties of Al Alloys

1.4.2 Advantages and Applications of Al Alloys

1.5 Abrasive Water Jet Machining(AWJM)

1.5.1 Basic Principle

1.5.2 Mechanisms of Material Removal

 1.5.3 Parameters

1.5.4 Abrasive Slurry Characteristics

1.5.6 Work Piece Properties

1.6 Advantages and Disadvantages of AWJM

1.7 Applications of AWJM

2. Literature Review

3. Objectives and Methodology

3.1 Objectives
3.1.1 Best Composition of Al7075+SiC

3.1.2 Developing a Regression model for Material

Removal Rate

3.2 Methodology

4. Casting Process
4.1 Casting for mechanical testing

4.1.1 Induction Thermal Furnace

4.1.2 Permanent Mold Casting

4.1.3 Preparation of Final Specimen

4.2 Casting process for abrasive water jet machining.

5. Experimental Investigation
 5.1 Need for mechanical testing

5.2 Tensile test

5.2.1 Experimental Setup

5.2.2 Procedure

5.2.3 Result

5.3 Abrasive water jet machining

5.3.1 Experimental Setup

5.3.2 Selection of Process Parameters and

Orthogonal Array

5.3.3 Procedure

5.3.4 Output Investigations

6. Results and conclusions

6.1 Results for AWJM

6.1.1 Material Removal Rate

6.1.1.1 Results and Graphs

6.1.1.2 Regression model for MRR

6.2 Conclusions

7. References
LIST OF FIGURES

Fig. 1.2.1.1 : Conventional machining

Fig. 1.2.2.1 : Comparison of AJM and EDM

Fig. 1.2.2.2 : Classification of unconventional machining

Fig. 1.4.1 : Relationship and derivates of Al 7075 Alloy

Fig. 1.5.1.1 : Line diagram of AWJM

Fig. 1.5.2.1 : OMAX Abrasive Water jet Machining

Fig. 1.5.4.1 : Abrasive container and Al2O3 garnet

Fig. 4.1.1.1 : Line diagram depicting principle of Induction heating.

Fig. 4.1.1.2 : Induction Thermal Furnace

Fig. 4.1.2.2 : Molten metal in furnace

Fig. 4.1.3.1 : Raw cast specimens

Fig. 4.1.3.2 : Machined specimens

Fig. 4.2.1 :Machining of the abrasive water jet specimen

Fig. 5.2.1.1: INSTRON UTM Machine

Fig. 5.3.1.1: X-Y-Z Axis motion system

Fig. 6.1.1.1: Scatter plot MRR Vs Pressure

Fig. 6.1.1.2: Scatter plot MRR Vs Stand-off distance

Fig.6.1.1.3: Scatter plot MRR Vs Abrasive flow rate

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1.4.1 : Aluminium Alloy Series

Table 1.4.2 : Composition of Al 7075

Table 1.4.1.1 : Properties of Aluminium Alloys

Table 4.1 : Element matrix table for the casting process

Table 5.2.3.1 : Results- Tensile(UTS) test

Table 5.3.2.1 : Orthogonal array for AWJM process parameters

Table 5.3.3.1 : Process parameters for AWJM

Table 6.1.1.1 : Results- AWJM Machining for MRR

 ABSTRACT
An unconventional machining process is a special type of machining
process in which there is no direct contact between the tool and the
workpiece. With development in unconventional processes, currently
there are often the first choice and not an alternative to conventional
processes for certain technical requirements. Though these processes
can machine complex geometric shapes with high accuracy maintaining
high quality surface finish the maintenance and capital cost yet remain
high. The ease of machining is also limited to the nature of material
machined and the operating conditions. A very slight proportionate
change in the composition results in a substantial variation of the
properties of the materials. Therefore, in this project Al7075 Alloy
reinforced with SiC is chosen and the composition which results in
effective properties is determined by varying the proportion of SiC in
the alloy and performing Mechanical tests. To find out the best operating
conditions or process parameters for machining Al7075 + SiC on
Abrasive Water Jet Machine(AWJM) a Regression Model is developed
for Metal Removal Rate. Simulation of AWJM is also done using
Abaqus software.
Chapter 1. Introduction
1.1 Introduction to Machining

1.2 Classification of Machining

1.3 Necessity of unconventional machining

1.4 Al7075 Alloy

1.5 Abrasive Water Jet Machining(AWJM)

1.6 Advantages of AWJM

1.7 Disadvantages of AWJM

1.8 Applications of AWJM

1. Introduction

1.1 Introduction to Machining

The term machining is used to describe a variety of material removal processes in

which a cutting tool removes unwanted material from a work piece to produce the
desired shape. The work piece may be in any shape such as solid bar, flat sheet, beam
or even hollow tubes. This process can also perform on an existing part such as
casting or forging.
Machining is a part of the manufacture of many metal products, but it can also be
used on the materials such as wood, plastic, ceramics and composites.

1.1.1 Machinability

It refers to the ease with which a metal can cut (machined) permitting the removal
of the material with a satisfactory finish at low cost. The other important factors are
operating conditions, cutting tool material and geometry, and the machining process
parameters.
There are two types of machining process such as
Conventional or traditional machining process:
➢ Drilling
➢ Milling
➢ Grinding
➢ Turning
➢ Boring etc.
Unconventional or Non-traditional machining process:
➢ AWJM (Abrasive water jet Machining)
➢ USM (Ultrasonic Machining )
➢ LBM (Laser Beam Machining)
➢ EDM (Electric Discharge Machining).
 1.2 Classification of Machining
All machining process remove material to form shapes. As metals are still the most
widely used materials for in manufacturing, machining process are usually used for
materials. Basically, all the different forms of machining involve removing material
from a component using a rotary cutter. The differences between the various types
arise from the relative motion between cutting tool and work piece and the type of
cutting tool used.

1.2.1 Conventional Machining

Conventional machining uses tools, such as lathes, milling machines, boring

machines, drill presses, or others, with a sharp cutting tool to remove material to
achieve the desired geometry. Usually there is a direct contact between the tool and
raw material. Conventional machining is very limited in producing molding
components with contouring channels. On the basis of milling and drilling, the
channels are created with a layout as similar as possible to the conformal system, to
achieve a fast and smooth cooling and the resulting benefits of a low cycle time and
a good quality of the plastic part.

Advantages of conventional Machining:

➢ Cost of machining is low.
➢ Simple and easy to operate.
Disadvantages of conventional machining:
➢ Time required is more.
➢ There is a wear of the tool.
➢ Surface finish obtained is less Fig. 1.2.1.1 Conventional machining

1.2.2 Unconventional Machining

Unconventional machining is a manufacturing processes defined as a group of
processes that remove excess material by various techniques involving mechanical,
thermal, electrical or chemical energy or combinations of these energies. This
machining process is also called as advanced manufacturing process. In this process
there is no contact between the tool and the work piece.
 Fig. 1.2.2.1 Comparison of AJM and EDM

Classification of Unconventional Machining

These Unconventional machining/Non-Traditional Methods can be classified
according to the source of energy used to generate such a machining action namely
mechanical, thermal, chemical and electrochemical.
Mechanical: Erosion of the work material by a high velocity stream of abrasives or
fluids.
Thermal: The thermal energy is applied to a very small portion of the work surface,
causing that portion to be removed by fusion and/or vaporization of the material.
Electrochemical: These methods involve electrolytic dissolution of the work piece
material in contact with a chemical solution.
Chemical: These methods involve controlled etching of the work piece material in
contact with a chemical solution.

Fig. 1.2.2.2 Classification of unconventional machining

Advantages of Unconventional machining process:

➢ Complex internal shapes can be machined.
 ➢ No burrs are left in machined surface.
➢ No tool wear
➢ No cutting lubricants are required.
➢ Narrow Heat Affected Zone(HAZ).
➢ High accuracy parts can be machined.
Disadvantages of unconventional machining process:
➢ High maintenance cost
➢ High capital cost

1.3 Necessity of Unconventional Machining

Rapid technology in the field of new materials and alloys with ever increasing
strength, hardness, toughness, heat resistance and wear resistance, have imposed
many problems and difficulties during the machining of these materials by
conventional means.
Conventional machining sufficed the requirement of the industries over the decades.
But new exotic work materials as well as innovative geometric design of products
and components were putting lot of pressure on capabilities of conventional
machining processes to manufacture the components with desired tolerances
economically. This led to the development and establishment of unconventional
processes in the industry as efficient and economic alternatives to conventional ones.
With development in the unconventional processes, currently there are often the first
choice and not an alternative to conventional processes for certain technical
requirements.

1.4 Al 7075 Alloy

7075 Aluminium Alloy is an alloy, with zinc as the primary alloying element.
It has excellent mechanical properties, and exhibits good ductility, high strength,
toughness, and good resistance to fatigue. It is more susceptible to embrittlement
than many other aluminum alloys because of micro segregation but has significantly
better corrosion resistance than the 2000 alloys. It is one of the most commonly used
aluminum alloy for highly stressed structural applications and has been extensively
utilized in aircraft structural parts.
 Zinc, in amounts of 1 to 8%, is one of the major alloying elements in 7xxx
series alloys, and when coupled with a small percentage of magnesium results in
heat-treatable alloys of moderate to very high strength. Usually other elements, such
as copper, chromium, are added in small quantities. Copper, in combination with
zinc and magnesium in the 7xxx series alloys, increases strength but hampers
weldability.

Dilute additions of scandium also improve properties. 7xxx series alloys are
used in airframe structures, mobile equipment, and other highly stressed parts.

Higher strength 7xxx alloys exhibit reduced resistance to stress corrosion

cracking and are often utilized in a slightly overaged temper to provide better
combination o strength, corrosion resistance and fracture toughness. Figure below
shows some of the relationship between some of the more commonly used alloys in
the 7xxx series.

Apart from the 7075 alloys there are other series of alloys which have different
primary alloying elements as given below.

Alloy series Principle alloying element

1xxx Pure Aluminum
2xxx Copper
3xxx Manganese
4xxx Silicon
5xxx Magnesium
6xxx Magnesium and Silicon
7xxx Zinc
8xxx Other elements

Table 1.4.1: Aluminium Alloy series

The composition of Al7075 alloy is as follows.
Element Cu Mg Cr Zn Si Fe Mn Ti Al
1.2- 2.1- 0.18- 5.1-
Comp.(%) 0.4 0.5 0.3 0.2 R
2.0 2.9 0.28 6.1
Table 1.4.2: Composition of Al 7075
The relationship between the commonly used some of the alloys especially of Al 7075 is
shown in figure 1.4.
 Fig. 1.4.1 Relationship and derivates of Al 7075 Alloy

1.4.1 Properties of the Al Alloys

The physical properties and mechanical properties of the alloy are as follows.

Density 2.8g/cm3
Melting Point 600˚C
Fatigue Strength 160MPa
Tensile Strength 220MPa
Shear Strength 160Mpa
Table 1.4.1.1: Properties of Aluminium Alloy
1.4.2Advantages and Applications of Al Alloys

• Advantages
➢ Due to its high strength, thermal properties, and its ability to be highly polished,
7075 is widely used in mold tool manufacturing.
➢ It is corrosive resistance.
➢ High strength and toughness
➢ Aluminum structures are lighter compared to steel structures, resulting in lighter
vessels, which can increase performance or the operating economy.

 Applications
➢ Aircraft Parts
➢ Meter Shaft and Gears
➢ Worm Gear
➢ Keys, Bike frames
➢ Aerospace and Defence Applications(Missile Frames).

1.5 Abrasive Water Jet Machining

Abrasive water jet machining (AWJM) is a mechanical material removal

process used to erode holes and cavities by the impact of abrasive particles of the
slurry on hard and brittle materials. Since the process is non- thermal, non-chemical
and non-electrical it creates no change in the metallurgical and physical properties
of the work piece.

1.5.1 Basic Principle

Abrasive Water Jet Machining is a non-traditional machining process, which
makes use of the principles of Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM) and Water Jet
Machining (WJM). The Abrasive Jet Machining process involves the application of
a high-speed stream of abrasive particles assisted by the pressurized air on to the
work surface through a nozzle of small diameter. Material removal takes place by
abrading action of abrasive particles.

Water jet machining is an erosion process technique in which water under

high pressure and velocity precisely cuts through and grinds away minuscule
amounts of material. The addition of an abrasive substance greatly increases the
ability to cut through harder materials such as steel and titanium. Water jet
Machining is a cold cutting process that involves the removal of material without
heat. The water jet process is combined with CNC to precisely cut machine parts
and etch designs.

Since water jet machining is done with abrasives, it is often synonymous with
abrasive jet cutting. Abrasive water jet uses the technology of high-pressure water
typically between 2069bar and 4137bar, to create extremely concentrated force to
cut stuff. A water cutter pressurizes a stream of pure water flow (without abrasive)
to cut materials such as foam, rubber, plastic, cloth, carpet and wood.
Abrasive jet cutters mix abrasive garnet to a pressurized water stream to cut
harder materials. Examples are stainless steel, titanium, glass, ceramic tile, marble
and granite. Water jet metal cutting machine yields very little heat and therefore
there is no Heat Affected Zone (HAZ). Water jet machining is also considered as
"cold cut" process and therefore is safe for cutting flammable materials such as
plastic and polymers. With a reasonable cutting speed setting, the edges resulting
are often satisfactory.

Fig. 1.5.1.1 Line diagram of AWJM

1.5.2 Mechanisms of Material Removal

Though the process is commercially used for many years, the details of the
material removal mechanism are yet to be fully understood. However, the past works
done to understand the process parameters, have thrown light on the possible
mechanism of material removal in abrasive water jet machining. The main
mechanisms responsible for the material removal in abrasive water jet machining
are listed below.
• Impact of the free moving abrasive particles on the work piece.
 • Erosion of the work surface due to cavitation effect of the abrasive slurry.
• Chemical action associated with the fluid used.

Fig. 1.5.2.1 OMAX Abrasive Water jet machine

The mechanism of material removal is influenced by the shape of particles

impacting the material. When abrasive particle strikes a brittle material, it produces
cone shaped cracks . These cracks initiate from pre-existing flaws that lie just outside
the area of contact between the particle and the target material. As the loading
increases, plastic detonation under the impact site initiates the second set of cracks
normal to the impact surface. These cracks are known as radial cracks. Even an
impact by sharp particle results in the formation of two different types of cracks, one
perpendicular to the surface of impact, known as radial cracks. While the other
parallel to the surface of impact, known as lateral cracks.

1.5.3 Parameters
Basically, abrasive water jet machining process works under slurry systems,
besides the geometry and material properties of the product. It thus becomes difficult
to predict definite values for performance of the abrasive water jet machining. But
still the performance of abrasive water jet machining is decided by the obtainable
rate of material removal, accuracy and surface finish. The different parameters,
which influence the performance of abrasive water jet machining, are.
Machining Parameters
• The type and size of the nozzle.
• Stand-off-distance greatly influences the performance of abrasive water jet
machining.

1.5.4 Abrasive Slurry Characteristics

 The type and size of the abrasive, its hardness and fracture tendency, type of
the fluid used for forming the abrasive slurry and the concentration of the abrasive
particles in the slurry influences the material removal rate along with the accuracy
and surface finish.

Fig. 1.5.4.1 Abrasive container and Al2O3 garnet

1.5.6 Work Piece Properties

Hardness, brittle fracture characteristics, strength and fatigue properties of the
work piece material determine to a great extent, the machining rates. The other
properties such as toughness, young's modulus also play some role.

1.6 Advantages and Disadvantages of AWJM

Advantages
• In most of the cases, no secondary finish is required.
• No cutting induced distortion.
• Low cutting forces on workpiece.
• Little to no cutting burr.
• Smaller kerf size reduces material wastages.
• No heat affected zone.
• Eliminates thermal distortion.
• Typical finish 125-250 microns
• No slag or cutting dross.
Disadvantages
Abrasive water jet cutting is a very useful machining process that can be
readily substituted for many other cutting methods; however, it has some imitations
to what it can cut.
• In abrasive water jet machine cutting through a thicker specimen is a problem.
• Relatively low cutting rates when compared to laser (when HAZ is not
critical)

1.7 Applications of AWJM

Due to the uniqueness of abrasive water jet cutting, there are many applications
where it is more useful and economical than standard machining processes.
• Machining Tool Steel
• Aircraft parts
• Manufacturing Industry
Chapter 2. Review of Literature
 2. Literature Review

[1] Mohammed Imran et al., Investigated on mechanical properties,

tribological properties and corrosion behaviour of Al-7075 metal matrix
composites (AMMCs) by the addition of reinforcements like SiC, Al2O3, Gr,
TiO2, bagasse ash, etc. These particulate reinforcements were incorporated in
the stir casting method. The results revealed that there is significant
improvement in mechanical properties. Superior wear and corrosion
resistance, low coefficient of thermal expansion as compared to conventional
base alloys.

• A Prasad Reddy et al., Observed that the addition of nano sized SiC particles
with aluminium alloy matrix yields superior mechanical and physical
properties and interfacial characteristics of nanocomposites. The Scanning
electron micrographs of the Al-MMNCs indicated that the nano SiC
reinforcing particles are uniformly distributed in the matrix alloy.

• Md. Habibur Rahmana et al., studied the microstructures, mechanical

properties and wear characteristics of as cast silicon carbide (SiC) reinforced
aluminium matrix composites (AMCs). AMCs of varying SiC content (0, 5,
10 and 20 wt. %) were prepared by stir casting process. Microstructural
observation revealed clustering and non-homogeneous distribution of SiC
particles in the Al matrix. Porosities were observed in microstructures and
increased with increasing wt. % of SiC reinforcements in AMCs. Pin-on disc
wear test indicated that reinforcing Al matrix with SiC particles increased
wear resistance.

• Jiuan-Hung Kea et al., presented a novel hybrid method that self-made

magnetic abrasive with elasticity was utilized to investigate machining
characteristics in abrasive jet machining. According to Taguchi method and
experimental results, flexible magnetic abrasive adopted in abrasive jet
machining not only restrains the abrasive jet direction to enhance more
uniform main processing area and material removal rate but also has slip
scratch effect to obtain better surface roughness than traditional machining.

• Baradeswaran et al., Investigated the influence of B4C on the mechanical

and Tribological behavior of Al 7075 composites. Al 7075 particle
reinforced composites were produced through casting . The test results
showed increasing hardness of composites compared with the base alloy
because of the presence of the increased ceramic phase. The wear resistance
of the composites increased with increasing content of B4C particles, and the
 wear rate was significantly less for the composite material compared to the
matrix alloy.

• Cui Y Geng et.al (1995): Investigated that, an aluminium matrix composite

was successfully obtained using the self-propagating high temperature SiC
particulates as reinforcement material. The composite was found to be
superior in mechanical performances to those of the composite reinforced
with the conventional abrasive grade Sic particulates. High interfacial bond
strength was observed between SiC and aluminium matrix. The interfacial
bond strength was attributed the effective mechanical keying role and the
atom match bonding with a crystallographic orientation relationship.

• Dinesh Patidara , R. S. Ranab et al., Investigated the effect of B4C addition

as reinforcement in aluminium alloy highlighting their merits and demerits.
Major issues like, fiber-matrix bonding, agglomerating phenomenon and
the problems related to distribution of particles is discussed in this paper.
Effect of B4C reinforcement on AMCs mechanical properties like tensile
strength, strain, hardness, wear and fatigue is also discussed in detail.

• Rongrong Li (2015) et al. Studied the impact of varying pressure, feed rates
and abrasive flow rates in AWJM by elaborating the efficiency of the
abrasive particles. For this study bamboo samples of various diameters and
thickness varying from 5mm to 15mm were machined under AWJ.
Mathematical methods were developed to identify the relations between the
input parameters and efficiency.

• Nihat Tisun (2013) et al. experimented on 6061-T6 and 7075-T6 by

machining under AWJ with varying water jet pressures and traverse speeds.
Four zones have been defined for different surface finishes namely –
initiation, smooth, transition and rough zones. These are the zones formed
for different materials based on the thickness and water pressures and
standoff distance.

• V.S. Aigbodion (2007) et al., Investigated the effects of SiC particles on as

cast microstructure and properties of Al-Si-Fe alloy composites produced by
double stir casting method. The microstructure of the alloy particulate were
examined and physical and mechanical properties were observed with the
increasing wt% of SiC. The physical and mechanical properties measured
include ultimate tensile strength, yield strength, density, porosity, hardness
value and impact energy.
Chapter 3. Objective and Methodology
3.1 Objectives

3.2 Methodology
3. Objectives and Methodology

3.1 Objectives:
The objectives are classified under three categories and are as follows.
● Preparation of optimum composition of Al7075+ SiC metal matrix by dye
casting
● Experimental investigation of prepared composition on AWJM.
● Development of regression model for MRR on AWJM for Al7075+ SiC.

3.1.1 Best composition of Al7075+ SiC

Al 7075 alloy consists of eight alloying elements. After testing, the
composition of Al7075 alloy selected is as follows: Cu- 0.4%, Mg- 0.58%, Cr-
0.036%, Zn- 0.02%, Si- 0.08%, Fe- 0.1%, Mn 0.06%, Ti- 0.04%. Silicon Carbide is
varied between 2%,4% and 8%, and the remaining material is Aluminium. By
varying the composition of SiC in three levels, the best composition is to be
determined.

3.1.2 Developing a Regression model for Metal Removal Rate

Regression analysis is used to describe the relationships between a set
of independent variables and the dependent variable. Regression analysis produces
a regression equation where the coefficients represent the relationship between
each independent variable and the dependent variable. Therefore the regression
model developed will give the relation between the input or process parameters for
AWJM with respect to Metal removal rate and this regression model is developed
using the MINITAB software.

3.2 Methodology:
The methodology chosen can be elaborated as :
• Obtaining the best composition of Al7075 reinforced with SiC.
• Using the Taguchi design for the selection of an orthogonal array for AWJM
process.
• Selection of process parameters for AWJM.
• Developing a regression model for metal removal rate using MINITAB
software.
• Simulation of AWJM process in Abaqus.
Chapter 4. Casting Process
4.1 Casting for mechanical testing

4.2 Casting process for abrasive water jet machining

 4. Casting Process
The composition of AL7075 consists of eight alloying elements and
Aluminium as the major element. After testing, the composition of Al7075
alloy selected is as follows: Cu- 0.4%, Mg- 0.58%, Cr- 0.036%, Zn- 0.02%,
Si- 0.08%, Fe- 0.1%, Mn 0.06%, Ti- 0.04%. Silicon Carbide is varied between
2%,4% and 8%, and the remaining material is Aluminium.

Element matrix table for the casting process is as shown below:

Sno Cu Mg Cr Zn Si Fe Mn Ti SiC Al
. (gm) (gm (gm (gm) (gm (gm) (gm) (gm) (gm) (gm)
) ) )
1 67.8 98.3 6.10 173.0 13.5 16.9 10.1 6.78 75.92 300
5 9 7 3 7 6 7 5 0
2 67.8 98.3 6.10 173.0 13.5 16.9 10.1 6.78 153.6 300
5 9 7 3 7 6 7 5 3 0
3 67.8 98.3 6.10 173.0 13.5 16.9 10.1 6.78 270.6 300
5 9 7 3 7 6 7 5 1 0
Table 4.1 Element matrix table for the casting process.

4.1 Casting process for mechanical testing

There are many factors that affect selection of a casting process for producing a
specific aluminum alloy part. The most important factors for all casting
processes are:
● Feasibility and cost factors
● Quality factors

4.1.1 Induction Thermal Furnace

Discovered by Michael Faraday, Induction starts with a coil of
conductive material (for example, copper). As current flows through the
coil, a magnetic field in and around the coil is produced.
 Fig. 4.1.1.1 Line diagram depicting principle of Induction heating.
The direction of the magnetic field depends on the direction of current
flow, so an alternating current through the coil will result in a magnetic
field changing in direction at the same rate as the frequency of the
alternating current.
When a conductive material, a work piece, is placed in a changing
magnetic field, voltage will be induced in the work piece. The induced
voltage will result in the flow of electrons. The current flowing through
the workpiece will go in the opposite direction as the current in the
coil.

Fig. 4.1.1.2 Induction thermal furnace

As current flows through a medium, there will be some resistance to the

movement of the electrons. This resistance shows up as heat (The Joule
Heating Effect). Materials that are more resistant to the flow of electrons
will give off more heat as current flows through them, but it is certainly
possible to heat highly conductive materials using an induced current.
This phenomenon is critical for inductive heating.
4.1.2 Permanent Mold Casting
Permanent mold casting is a metal casting process that shares similarities
to both sand casting and die casting. As in sand casting, molten metal is
poured into a mold which is clamped shut until the material cools and
solidifies into the desired part shape. However, sand casting uses an
expendable mold which is destroyed after each cycle. Permanent mold
casting, like die casting, uses a metal mold (die) that is typically made
from steel or cast iron and can be reused for several thousand cycles.
Because the molten metal is poured into the die and not forcibly injected,
permanent mold casting is often referred to as gravity die casting.

Fig. 4.1.2.1 Molten metal in furnace

The permanent mold casting process consists of the following steps: 1.

Mold preparation - First, the mold is pre-heated to around 300-500°F
(150- 260°C) to allow better metal flow and reduce defects. Then, a
ceramic coating is applied to the mold cavity surfaces to facilitate part
removal and increase the mold lifetime.
2. Mold assembly - The mold consists of at least two parts - the two
mold halves and any cores used to form complex features. Such
cores are typically made from iron or steel, but expendable sand
cores are sometimes used. In this step, the cores are inserted, and
the mold halves are clamped together.

3. Pouring - The molten metal is poured at a slow rate from a ladle into
the mold through a sprue at the top of the mold. The metal flows
 through a runner system and enters the mold cavity.
4. Cooling - The molten metal is allowed to cool and solidify in the mold.
5. Mold opening - After the metal has solidified, the two mold halves
are opened, and the casting is removed.
6. Trimming - During cooling, the metal in the runner system and sprue
solidifies attached to the casting. This excess material is now cut
away.

4.1.3 Preparation of Final Specimen

After removing the excess material during the trimming of the mold the specimens
obtained are machined for the respective mechanical testing.

Fig. 4.1.3.1 Raw cast specimen

The machining process includes turning, facing, knurling, milling etc. The
specimens are machined as per the dimensions prescribed in the American Society
for Testing Materials (ASTM) codes.
 Fig. 4.1.3.2: Machined specimen

4.2 Casting process for abrasive water jet machining

The casting process chosen for the specimen to be machined on abrasive water
jet machining is also Permanent mold casting and the furnace used is Induction
Thermal furnace. Since the objective is to find out the Metal removal rate and
the surface finish of the parts machined and the optimal parameters for the
machining process the specimen required is a rectangular bar with approximate
dimensions of 250x50x25(mm). After casting the specimen is machined for a
good quality of surface finish.

Fig. 4.2.1 Machining of the abrasive water jet specimen

Chapter-5: Experimental Investigation
5.1 Need for Mechanical Testing

5.2 Tensile Test

5.3 Abrasive water jet machining

5. Experimental Investigation

5.1 Need for Mechanical Testing

Mechanical testing is a standard and essential part of any design and
manufacturing process. Whether it is characterizing the properties of materials
or providing validation for final products, ensuring safety is the primary mission
of all mechanical testing. Testing also plays a crucial role in ensuring a cost-
effective design as well as technological evolution and superiority. ASTM and
ISO standards are usually referenced for testing the materials.

5.2 Tensile Test

Tensile testing is performed as per ASTM E8 standard. The amount of force (F)
applied to the sample and the elongation (∆L) of the sample are measured
throughout the test. Material properties are often expressed in terms
of stress (force per unit area, σ) and strain (percent change in length, ε). To
obtain stress, the force measurements are divided by the sample’s cross sectional
area (σ = F/A). Strain measurements are obtained by dividing the change in
length by the initial length of the sample (ε = ∆L/L).

5.2.1 Experimental Setup

The equipment used for tensile testing is INSTRON High Force Universal
Testing Systems 5980 Series. The specifications of the setup are as follows.
● Force Capacity: 100- 600 kN
● Testing Speed Accuracy: 0.0001-508 mm/min
● Maximum Force at full speed: 400 kN
 Fig. 5.2.1.1 INSTRON UTM Machine

5.2.2 Procedure
The test sample is securely held by top and bottom grips attached to the tensile
or universal testing machine. During the tension test, the grips are moved apart
at a constant rate to pull and stretch the specimen. The force on the specimen and
its displacement is continuously monitored until failure.

● Tensile strength, also known as Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS), is the

maximum tensile stress carried by the specimen, defined as the maximum load
divided by the original cross-sectional area of the test sample.
● Yield strength is the stress at which time permanent (plastic) deformation or
yielding is observed to begin.
The measurement, tensile strength is calculated after the specimen has broken.
For better and accurate results three specimens under each composition have
been chosen for the tensile test.
5.2.3 Results
S.No. Sample ID UTS(MPa) Max. Load(kN)
1 2A 132.68 16.33
2 2B - -
3 2C 150.09 18.18
4 3A 195.82 23.99
5 3B 205.92 24.95
6 3C 222.74 27.03
7 4A 152.42 18.65
8 4B 165.70 19.37
9 4C 103.88 11.98
Table 5.2.3.1: Results- Tensile (UTS) test
(For S.No.2- 2B, the UTS and Load could not be reported due to the sample having
failed at the grip) The Maximum ultimate tensile strength was obtained for the
sample with 2nd composition, that is, with 4% Silicon Carbide.

5.3 AWJM Machining

5.3.1 Experimental Setup

The machining process was performed on OMAX Abrasive Water Jet Machine. The
specifications of the setup are as follows.
● X,Y,Z Axis travel
● Speed: 180in/min
● Linear positional accuracy: ±0.025mm
● Maximum Supported size: 1950kg/sq mm
● Supports Multi-nozzle handling
 Fig. 5.3.1.1: X-Y-Z Axis motion system

5.3.2 Selection of Process parameters and orthogonal array

The process parameters chosen for the machining operation are Pressure(bar),
Stand of Distance(mm), Abrasive flow rate(kg/min). The quality of surface
machined depends mainly on these input parameters. The effect of these
parameters on the quality of the surface machined will be discussed in the
succeeding chapter.
L9 orthogonal array is selected with three process parameters as the independent
variables and so a total of 9 trials has to be performed on the abrasive water jet
machine.

Fig. 5.3.2.1: Orthogonal array for AWJM process parameters

In the above figure C1, C2, C3 corresponds to Pressure(bar), Stand of
Distance(mm), and abrasive flow rate(kg/min).

5.3.3 Procedure
The machining operation is done on a rectangular solid bar with dimensions
265x24x46(mm) based on the nine trials obtained from the orthogonal array. For
 every trial the input data is fed into the system and the jet is allowed to move
along the width of the rectangular bar specimen with a cutting length of 46mm.
Since the array is of three levels out of five cutting qualities available three
intermediate levels of quality have been chosen for the experimentation. In this
way all the nine trials are performed on the rectangular bar and are listed below.

S.No. Pressure Stand-off Abrasive flow

(bar) Distance (mm) rate (kg/min)
1 1800 1 0.3
2 1800 1.5 0.5
3 1800 2 0.7
4 2800 1 0.7
5 2800 1.5 0.3
6 2800 2 0.5
7 3800 1 0.5
8 3800 1.5 0.7
9 3800 2 0.3
Table 5.3.3.1: Process parameters for AWJM

5.3.4 Output Investigations

The output investigation chosen for the process is Metal Removal Rate.
Metal Removal Rate is defined as the amount of material removed per unit time
during the operation. MRR can be expressed either in terms of the mass or
volume per unit time. The metal removal rate depends on various factors like
the cutting forces, time taken for machining, nature of the material and tool used.
Here, for abrasive water jet machining, the MRR depends on the Pressure of the
water jet and also on the flow rate of the abrasive.
Chapter -6: Results and Discussions
6.1 Results of AWJM

6.2 Conclusions
6. Results and Discussions

6.1 Results of AWJM

The output investigation for the experimentation carried out under AWJM is
MRR.

6.1.1 Metal Removal Rate

The results of the Metal removal rate is given in table 6.1.

Tri Pressu Stand Abrasi Travers Reducti Time Abrasi MRR

al re off ve e speed on in (min) ve (mm3/
No. (bar) Distanc flow (mm/mi material needed kg)
e (mm) rate n) weight (kg)
(kg/mi (g)
n)
1 1800 1 0.3 101.05 2.553 0.717 0.2151 1180.5
8
2 1800 1.5 0.5 93.04 2.77 0.722 0.361 1272.0
6
3 1800 2 0.7 58.15 2.522 0.917 0.6419 911.88
4 2800 1 0.7 180.42 3.000 0.539 0.3773 1845.4
3
5 2800 1.5 0.3 97.63 2.306 0.652 0.1956 1172.6
68
6 2800 2 0.5 209.18 2.425 0.535 0.2675 1502.8
7
7 3800 1 0.5 180.54 2.498 0.467 0.2335 1773.5
3
8 3800 1.5 0.7 333.58 2.612 0.432 0.3024 2004.7
2
9 3800 2 0.3 244.08 2.604 0.462 0.1386 1868.8
09
Table 6.1.1.1Results- AWJ Machining for MRR
6.1.1.1 Results and Graphs
The effect of Pressure, Stand of Distance and Abrasive flow rate on the Metal
removal rate is as follows.-
Case 1:
It is observed that as the pressure increases from 1800MPa to 3800MPa, the metal
removal rate also increases.

Fig. 6.1.1.1: Scatter plot of MRR Vs Pressure

Case 2 :
The change in Stand of Distance(SoD) affects the quality of the surface
machined. As the SoD is increased the mean distance between the specimen and
the nozzle increases resulting in the divergence of the jet.
The basic purpose of the use of abrasives is minimized because of this
divergence. This divergence creates the spill of the abrasives over the surface
without concentrating on the direct impingement of the jet. This spill of abrasives
erodes the material resulting in a high Metal removal rate.
This phenomenon can also be observed from the graph as the Stand of distance
is increasing the Metal removal rate decreases. Therefore, a Stand of Distance of
1mm is desirable for machining under AWJM.
 Fig.6.1.1.2: Scatter plot of MRR Vs Stand-off distance.

Case 3:
For an increase in the abrasive flow rate, there is a slight increase in the metal
removal rate. The abrasive flow rate determines the number of abrasive
particles being used during the machining process. If the abrasive flow rate is
high, a greater number of abrasive particles flow through the nozzle.

Fig. 6.1.1.3: Scatter plot of MRR Vs Abrasive flow rate

 6.1.1.2 Regression model for MRR
The regression model for MRR is developed using MINITAB software.

Regression Analysis: MRR versus P, SOD, A

Regression Equation:

MRR = 471 + 0.3804 P - 172 SOD + 450 A

where,
MRR - metal removal rate(mm3/min),
P- Pressure(bar)
SOD- Stand of Distance(mm)
A- Abrasive flow rate(kg/min)

Coefficients:
Term Coef SE 95% CI T-Value P-Value VIF
Coef

Constant 471 427 (-627,1570) 1.10 0.320

P 0.3804 0.0877 (0.1551, 4.34 0.007 1.00

0.6058)

SOD -172 175 (-623, 279) -0.98 0.372 1.00

A 450 438 (-677, 1577) 1.03 0.352 1.00

Model Summary:
S R-sq R- PRESS R- AICc BIC
sq(adj) sq(pred)

214.715 80.66% 69.05% 887323 25.55% 146.90 127.88

 Analysis of Variance:
Source DF Seq Contributi Adj Adj F- P-
SS on SS MS Value Value
Regressi 3 961299 80.66% 96129 320433 6.95 0.031
on 9

P 1 868331 72.86% 86833 868331 18.83 0.007

1

SOD 1 44373 3.72% 44373 44373 0.96 0.372

A 1 48595 4.08% 48595 48595 1.05 0.352

Error 5 230512 19.34% 23051 46102

2

Total 8 119181 100.00%

1

6.2 Conclusions
The following conclusions are drafted from the above results.
1. From the tensile test results, we can conclude that the composition of alloy
with 4% SiC is maximum.
2. From the results of regression analysis, it is observed that the metal removal
rate increases as the value of pressure increases.
3. The increase in the stand-off distance leads to a decrease in the metal
removal rate.
4. As the abrasive flow rate increases, the metal removal rate also increases.
5. The developed regression model for metal removal rate is given by:
MRR = 471 + 0.3804 P - 172 SOD + 450 A where,
MRR - metal removal rate(mm3/min),
P- Pressure(bar)
SOD- Stand of Distance(mm)
A- Abrasive flow rate(kg/min)
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